Crop yield response to water - Cra
Crop yield response to water - Cra Crop yield response to water - Cra
Apples tend to have a biennial bearing pattern where the degree of biennial bearing varieswith varieties (Lauri et al., 1996) and potential crop yield is highly affected by the timing offruit thinning and the crop load in the previous season.Stages of development in relation to yield determinationBloom date varies with varieties and climatic regions. Most varieties flower in April (NorthernHemisphere), whereas early (low chilling requirement) varieties can bloom at the end ofFebruary and early March. Apple fruit has an expo-linear growth pattern where much of thedry mass accumulation occurs in the linear phase that starts ~30 days after full bloom in somevarieties while in others the linear phase starts ~60 days after full bloom (Goffinet et al., 1995)Figure 2 shows the patterns of fruit growth as affected by different irrigation treatments.The reproductive cell division phase lasts 40-50 days post bloom (Westwood, 1993).Fruit size is a major determinant of fresh fruit quality and is highly dependent on tree waterstatus and irrigation. However, there are many other factors that will affect the response of fruitsize to irrigation including the number of cells in the fruit pericarp, crop load, the number ofseeds per fruit, factors that interact with each other.Temperatures lower than 25 °C during the reproductive cell division phase reduce apple fruitsize (Tromp, 1997 and Warrington et al., 1999); on the other hand, it has been found that thenumber of cells in apples decreased when the trees were grown at 35/15 °C (day/night) ratherthan at 25/15 °C. This suggests that there is an optimum temperature for reproductive cellFigure 2Seasonal patterns of apple fruit growth in response to various irrigation treatments: Dark andlight blue, grey and red – 100 percent of estimated ET c for various drip irrigation arrangements;Dark and light green – 100 percent of estimated ET c applied after two years of severe waterrestrictions (between 50 to 70 percent of estimated ET c ); Light and dark orange, black andviolet - Different water restriction levels (50 - 70 percent of estimated ET c ) (Girona et al., 2011and unpublished data).300250200Fruit volume (ml)150100500100300 500 700 900 1 100 1 300 1 500 1 700Acumulated degree days334crop yield response to water
division, and that limitation of potential fruit size should be expected in both cold and hotclimates. The previous-year crop yield (Bergh, 1985), the current-year crop level, and the timingof fruit thinning affect the number of cells and therefore potential fruit size (Goffinet, 1995 andQuinlan and Preston, 1968). The number of seeds per fruit has a dramatic effect on final fruitsize as shown in Figure 3 where, for the cv. Golden Delicious, the fruit diameter when no seedswere apparent was ~52 mm, while it reached ~73 mm when ten seeds per fruit were apparent.There is the perception that water stress affects cell division, however, studies of other fruit trees(olives and pears) showed no effect of water stress on fruit cell numbers even where predawnleaf water potential (LWP) reached -4.0 MPa in olive (Rapoport et al., 2004).Crop load in the current season affects the fulfillment of potential fruit size and it interactswith irrigation and fruit water status, which is discussed later. Information about the positiveor negative effects of postharvest water deficits on the yield and quality responses of applein the following growing season is limited, but it appears that severe stress can have negativeeffects on return bloom.Responses to Water DeficitsIrrigation is a major horticultural activity and is the most intensively practiced operationthroughout the season. Its importance depends on the climate, and increases as one moves fromtemperate to drier and to arid zones. Rainfed apple orchards can survive and be productive intemperate zones without irrigation, whereas the survival of apple orchards in arid and semi-aridzones depends on the availability of water for irrigation throughout most of the growing season.The performance of apple in terms of crop yield, fruit size, fruit quality, storability, and longtermproductivity are highly dependent on irrigation and irrigation management. Irrigationlevel and water status are known to affect yield and yield components: crop yield, fruit size andquality, growth habit, precocity, and long-term productivity. Apple fruit size is very sensitive toFigure 3The effect of the number of seeds per fruit on fruit size at harvest for Golden Delicious applesin Israel (Naor, unpublished).8075Fruit diameter (mm)70656055500246 8 101214Seeds per fruitAPPLE 335
- Page 296 and 297: ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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- Page 307 and 308: FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
- Page 309 and 310: season. Thus the risks of salinity
- Page 312: 4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
- Page 315 and 316: Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
- Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
- Page 320 and 321: The use of displacement sensors to
- Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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- Page 326 and 327: clayey soils. If supply is very lim
- Page 329: Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
- Page 332 and 333: Fruit growth during this stage is t
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- Page 336 and 337: Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
- Page 339 and 340: Four crop-water-production function
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- Page 344 and 345: Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
- Page 348 and 349: water stress and thus highly respon
- Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
- Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
- Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
- Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
- Page 360 and 361: Figure 1 Production trends for plum
- Page 362 and 363: soil water. In young orchards, post
- Page 364 and 365: Figure 3 Relationships between rela
- Page 366: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
- Page 369 and 370: Figure 1 Production trends for almo
- Page 371 and 372: FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
- Page 373 and 374: Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
- Page 375 and 376: Indicators of tree water statusTo p
- Page 377 and 378: nuts are rapidly expanding and late
- Page 379 and 380: ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
- Page 381 and 382: Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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- Page 386 and 387: Figure 1 Production trends for pear
- Page 388 and 389: (Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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division, and that limitation of potential fruit size should be expected in both cold and hotclimates. The previous-year crop <strong>yield</strong> (Bergh, 1985), the current-year crop level, and the timingof fruit thinning affect the number of cells and therefore potential fruit size (Goffinet, 1995 andQuinlan and Pres<strong>to</strong>n, 1968). The number of seeds per fruit has a dramatic effect on final fruitsize as shown in Figure 3 where, for the cv. Golden Delicious, the fruit diameter when no seedswere apparent was ~52 mm, while it reached ~73 mm when ten seeds per fruit were apparent.There is the perception that <strong>water</strong> stress affects cell division, however, studies of other fruit trees(olives and pears) showed no effect of <strong>water</strong> stress on fruit cell numbers even where predawnleaf <strong>water</strong> potential (LWP) reached -4.0 MPa in olive (Rapoport et al., 2004).<strong>Crop</strong> load in the current season affects the fulfillment of potential fruit size and it interactswith irrigation and fruit <strong>water</strong> status, which is discussed later. Information about the positiveor negative effects of postharvest <strong>water</strong> deficits on the <strong>yield</strong> and quality <strong>response</strong>s of applein the following growing season is limited, but it appears that severe stress can have negativeeffects on return bloom.Responses <strong>to</strong> Water DeficitsIrrigation is a major horticultural activity and is the most intensively practiced operationthroughout the season. Its importance depends on the climate, and increases as one moves fromtemperate <strong>to</strong> drier and <strong>to</strong> arid zones. Rainfed apple orchards can survive and be productive intemperate zones without irrigation, whereas the survival of apple orchards in arid and semi-aridzones depends on the availability of <strong>water</strong> for irrigation throughout most of the growing season.The performance of apple in terms of crop <strong>yield</strong>, fruit size, fruit quality, s<strong>to</strong>rability, and longtermproductivity are highly dependent on irrigation and irrigation management. Irrigationlevel and <strong>water</strong> status are known <strong>to</strong> affect <strong>yield</strong> and <strong>yield</strong> components: crop <strong>yield</strong>, fruit size andquality, growth habit, precocity, and long-term productivity. Apple fruit size is very sensitive <strong>to</strong>Figure 3The effect of the number of seeds per fruit on fruit size at harvest for Golden Delicious applesin Israel (Naor, unpublished).8075Fruit diameter (mm)70656055500246 8 101214Seeds per fruitAPPLE 335
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