Crop yield response to water - Cra

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clayey soils. If supply is very limited, and a new irrigation system is going to be installed, oneoption would be to use subsurface drip as E losses would then be negligible.The goals of water saving using RDI in olive orchards appear particularly interesting. Mostdocumented evidence indicates that RDI strategies supply only 30 to 70 percent of the volumeneeded for fully-irrigated trees. Seasonal water volumes of as little as 50 mm are sufficient toincrease yields significantly in subhumid climates, whereas about 100 mm are needed in drierclimates. These amounts are definitely much less than that used in most other crops.Today, an important issue is the use of RDI to optimize oil quality. Recent evidence shows thatthe concentration of phenolic compounds and volatile compounds with sensory impact can beoptimized using RDI strategies rather than by applying full irrigation or under rainfed (Gomez-Rico et al., 2007; Motilva et al., 2000 and Servili et al., 2007). The beneficial effects of moderatewater deficits that are imposed by RDI on olive oil composition stemmed the term ‘qualitativeirrigation’, an aspect which will probably be more important. There are some reports thatrecommend restricting irrigation before harvest to limit or avoid trunk damage during mechanicalharvesting by trunk shakers and/or problems of oil extractability during processing in the mill.Deficit irrigation appears to be beneficial for optimizing the pulp-to-pit ratio in of table olives(Gucci et al., 2009).Additional considerationsIntroducing irrigation to rainfed olive growing involves a number of potential side effects.Increasing incidence of Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae) disease has been reported,especially for young orchards. There is documented evidence that inoculum density of thepathogen is higher in wet areas than in dry. Although the cause of greater incidence ofVerticillium wilt in irrigated orchards is unclear, it is likely that susceptible secondary oliveroots increase close to the drippers where the soil may be quite wet favouring infection, weedssurvive longer and temporarily host the pathogen, and infected leaves decompose quickerunder high humidity conditions (Lopez-Escudero and Blanco-Lopez, 2005). The Verticilliumwilt disease is a limiting factor for irrigated orchards in some areas where localized, lowfrequencyirrigation is recommended as a management technique.Further, reportedly here is an increasing damage by the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae Gmel.)in irrigated orchards, but supporting evidence is not strong. The olive fruit fly preferablydamages large fruit (cultivars of large fruit size and olive fruit with high water content aremore susceptible than small), so its effect may be indirect because irrigation increases fruit size.However, it is likely that the fruit fly also enjoys more favourable conditions when humidity ishigher because of irrigation in the olive orchard.Problems of the low oil yield of fruit from fully-irrigated, very high density orchards of somecultivars have been reported, but they appear to be related to technological problems in oilextraction when fruit is highly hydrated rather than to less oil in the fruit itself. Because of therelatively high resistance to salinity, olive trees yield well when irrigated with saline waters(Gucci and Tattini, 1997).312crop yield response to water
ReferencesAngelopulos, K., Dichio, B., & Xiloyannis, C. 1996. Inhibition of photosynthesis in olive trees during water stressand rewatering. Journal of Experimental Botany 47: 1093-1100.Caruso, G., Rapoport, H.F. & Gucci, R. 2011. Long-term evaluation of yield components of young olive trees duringthe onset of fruit production under different irrigation regimes. Irrigation Science (DOI: 10.1007/s00271-011-0286-0)Connor, D.J. & Fereres, E. 2005. The physiology of adaptation and yield expression in olive. In: Darnell, R.,Ferguson, I.B. & Hokanson, S.C., eds. Horticultural Reviews (31). USA, Canada, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 155-229.FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database, available at link http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed on December 2011.Fereres, E. 1984. Variability in adaptive mechanisms to water deficits in annual and perennial crop plants. Bulletinde la Société Botanique de France. Actualités Botaniques 131: 17 32.Fereres, E., Villalobos, FJ, Orgaz, F. & Testi, L. 2011. Water requirements and irrigation scheduling in olive. ActaHorticulturae, (ISHS), 888:31-40.Gimenez, C., Fereres E., Ruz, C. & Orgaz. O. 1997. Water relations and gas exchange of olive trees: diurnal andseasonal patterns of leaf water potential, photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. Acta Horticulturae,449(2):411-415.Goldhamer, D., Dunai, & Ferguson, L. 1994. Irrigation requirements of olive trees and responses to sustaineddeficit irrigation. Acta Horticulturae 356: 172-176.Gomez-Rico, A., Salvador, M.D., La Greca, M. & Fregapane, G. 2006. Phenolic and volatile compounds of extravirgin olive oil (Olea europaea L. Cv. Cornicabra) with regard to fruit ripening and irrigation management.Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54: 7130-7136.Gomez-Rico, A., Salvador, M.D., Moriana, A., Perez D., Olmedilla, N., Ribas, F. & Fregapane, G. 2007. Influenceof different irrigation strategies in a traditional Cornicabra cv. olive orchard on virgin olive oil composition andquality. Food Chemistry 100: 568-578.Gucci, R. & Tattini, M. 1997. Salinity tolerance in olive. Horticultural Reviews 21: 177-214.Gucci, R., Lodolini, E.M. & Rapoport, H.F. 2007. Productivity of olive trees with different water status and cropload. Journal Horticultural Science Biotechnology, 82(4): 648-656.Gucci, R., Lodolini, E.M. & Rapoport, H.F. 2009. Water deficit-induced changes in mesocarp cellular processes andthe relationship between mesocarp and endocarp during olive fruit development. Tree Physiology 29: 1575-1585Iniesta, F., Testi L., Orgaz. F., & Villalobos, F.J. 2009. The effects of regulated and continuous deficit irrigation onthe water use, growth and yield of olive trees. European Journal of Agronomy 30: 258-265.Lavee, S., Hanoch, E., Wodner, M., & Abramowitch, H. 2007. The effect of predetermined deficit irrigation on theperformance of cv. Muhasan olives (Olea europaea L.) in the eastern coastal plain of Israel. Scientia Horticulturae112: 156-163.Lopez-Escudero, F.J. & Blanco-Lopez, M.A. 2005. Effects of drip irrigation on population of Verticillium dahliae inolive orchards. Journal of Phytopathology 153: 238-9.Martin-Vertedor, A., Pérez Rodríguez, J., Prieto Losada, H., & Fereres, E. 2011. Interactive responses to waterdeficits and crop load in olive (olea europaea L., cv. Morisca) II. – Water use, fruit and oil yield. AgriculturalWater Management 98: 950-958.Moriana, A., Orgaz, F., Pastor, M. & Fereres, E. 2003. Yield responses of a mature olive orchard to water deficits.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 128: 425-431.Motilva, M.J., Tovar, M.J., Romero, M.P., Alegre, S. & Girona, J. 2000. Influence of regulated deficit irrigationstrategies applied to olive trees (Arbequina cultivar) on oil yield and oil composition during the fruit ripeningperiod. Journal of Food Science and Agriculture 80: 2037-2043.Orgaz, F., Testi, L., Villalobos, FJ & Fereres, E. 2006. Water requirements of olive orchards II: determination of cropcoefficients for irrigation scheduling. Irrigation Science 24: 77-84.Rapoport, H.F., 2008. Botanica y morfologia. In: Barranco, D., Fernàndez-Escobar, R., Rallo L., eds. El Cultivo delOlivo. Ed. Mundi-Prensa, Madrid, pp. 37-62.Sanz-Cortés, F., Martínez-Calvo, J., Badenes, M.L., Bleiholder, H., Hack, H., Llacer, G. & Meier, U. 2002. Phenologicalgrowth stages of olive trees (Olea europaea). Annals Applied Biology 140: 151-157.Servili, M., Esposto, S., Lodolini, E., Selvaggini, R., Taticchi, A., Urbani, S. Montedoro, G.F., Serravalle, M. & Gucci,R. 2007. Irrigation effects on quality, phenolic composition and selected volatiles of virgin olive oil cv. Leccino.Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55: 6609-6618.Olive 313
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 276 and 277: ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
Page 282 and 283: For training systems on a vertical
Page 284 and 285: ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
Page 286 and 287: are seeking more precision in their
Page 288 and 289: ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
Page 290 and 291: ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
Page 292 and 293: ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
Page 294 and 295: The water budget methodWith this me
Page 296 and 297: ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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Page 300 and 301: that occur during the periods of fr
Page 302 and 303: The crop, where price can vary more
Page 304: Modify horticultural practicesPruni
Page 307 and 308: FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
Page 309 and 310: season. Thus the risks of salinity
Page 312: 4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
Page 315 and 316: Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
Page 320 and 321: The use of displacement sensors to
Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
Page 324 and 325: Table 3 Sample calculation of month
Page 329: Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
Page 332 and 333: Fruit growth during this stage is t
Page 334 and 335: Season-long stressSeveral studies h
Page 336 and 337: Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
Page 339 and 340: Four crop-water-production function
Page 341 and 342: size distribution toward more favou
Page 344 and 345: Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
Page 346 and 347: Apples tend to have a biennial bear
Page 348 and 349: water stress and thus highly respon
Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
Page 360 and 361: Figure 1 Production trends for plum
Page 362 and 363: soil water. In young orchards, post
Page 364 and 365: Figure 3 Relationships between rela
Page 366: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 369 and 370: Figure 1 Production trends for almo
Page 371 and 372: FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
Page 373 and 374: Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
Page 375 and 376: Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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