Crop yield response to water - Cra

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The use of displacement sensors to monitor olive trunk growth and trunk diameter fluctuationshas yielded information that confirms the high sensitivity of expansive growth to waterdeficits. These highly sensitive sensors could be used in young, intensive plantations wherethe objective is to maximize canopy growth and reach full production as early as possible. Sapflow sensors have also been used to determine changes in sap velocity, which are indicative oftranspiration rate and of its changes in response to water deficits. All these instruments arestill in the research and development stages and are not yet used commercially for irrigationscheduling.Water RequirementsOlive trees withstand long periods of drought and can survive in very sparse plantings even inclimates with only 150-200 mm annual rainfall. However, economic production requires muchhigher annual precipitation or irrigation. Table 1a summarizes the crop coefficient (K c ) valuesproposed by various authors that have been developed in different environments. The rangeof K c values is quite wide, varying from less than 0.5 to about 0.75, average values varyingTable 1a Monthly crop coefficients (K c ) used for olive orchards in different olive-growing regions andrecommended average values.Site, region Latitude ET o Rainfall Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.(mm)(mm)Bibbona,Tuscany43° 16 N 1 000772(30-yearmean)- - - 0.60 0.55 0.65 0.65 - -Metaponto,Basilicata40° 22 N 1 270 492 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.65 -Sassari,Sardinia40° 42 N - - - 0.55 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.55 -Cordoba,Andalusia37° 50 N1 420(mean of3 years)639(mean of3 years)0.65 0.6 0.55 0.55 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65Fresno,California36° 44 - - 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 -Benevento,Campania41° 06 N1 240(20-yearmean)714(20-yearmean)- - - 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 - -Recommendedvalues, cleancultivated- -0.45 *to0.750.45to0.750.5 *to0.650.55 0.550.5to0.550.5to0.550.55to0.60.6to0.650.6to0.65* In winter and spring only, the low K c applies to dry, cold climates, while the high K c applies to areas frequently wetted by rainfall.306crop yield response to water
Table 1b Summary of recommended olive K c values.Climate* Semi-arid AridSpring 0.65-0.75 0.45-0.55Summer 0.50-0.55 0.50-0.55Fall 0.60-0.70 0.55-0.65Winter 0.65-0.75 0.40-0.55* Mediterranean-type climates; the one labelled semi-arid has seasonal rainfall values around 500 mm or more, mostly betweenautumn and spring, while the arid climate would have less than 400 mm rainfall and is more continental, with relatively coldwinters. The higher K c values of the range should be used for high rainfall situations. K c values to be used with ET o calculatedfollowing FAO I&D Paper No. 56.from 0.55 to 0.65, depending on the season. A synthesis of current estimates of K c developedrecently (Fereres et al., 2011) is given at the end of Table 1b.Despite the evergreen nature of the olive, the K c is not constant throughout the year, becauseof tree transpiration responses to environmental and endogenous factors. Measurements haveshown that relative transpiration is lowest in spring and highest in early autumn. However, theK c also must reflect the rate of evaporation from the soil surface, which is quite high in springin many Mediterranean environments. Thus, K c values reflecting olive orchard water use do notdiffer as much between spring and autumn (see Table 1). In midsummer relatively low valuesof K c are found because of partial stomatal closure in response to high vapour pressure deficit.If more precise estimates of water use are needed, an alternative method has been proposedto calculate transpiration and evaporation independently (Orgaz et al., 2006) (See Chapter 4,Box 5). For table or canning fruit production, the higher range of K c values is recommended.Crop coefficients should be further increased (up to about 0.8 to 1.0 in winter and early spring,depending on the type of the cover crop and its density) if the orchard floor has a permanentgrass cover.Water Production FunctionOlive fruit yield decreases as ET c decreases below its maximum. However, it has been foundthat the decline in production is hardly detectable with small reductions in ET c (Figure 4). AsET c is further reduced, however, yields decline more. Thus, the response curve of yield (fruitor oil) to ET c is almost linear at low levels of consumptive water use, but levels off whenwater consumption is high. As a result, the overall response curves are parabolic and can bedescribed by second order equations, such as the one presented in Figure 4. The shape ofthe curve implies that the water productivity (WP) increases as ET decreases and, therefore,one can find an economic optimum, in terms of ET and therefore of irrigation amount, if theprice of oil and the irrigation water costs are taken into consideration. The curve shown inFigure 4 is the best fit line to a dataset obtained for the cv. Picual at Cordoba, Spain (Morianaet al., 2003). Additional data published for the cvs. Arbequina, Morisca, Mulhasan, Frantoio,Leccino, and also for the cv. Picual collected at another location, are also plotted in Figure 4.It appears that the data from other varieties/locations fall within the margins of error, on thecurve originally obtained at Cordoba, with perhaps the cv. Morisca showing higher sensitivityOlive 307
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
Page 270 and 271: ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
Page 272: Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 276 and 277: ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
Page 282 and 283: For training systems on a vertical
Page 284 and 285: ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
Page 286 and 287: are seeking more precision in their
Page 288 and 289: ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
Page 290 and 291: ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
Page 292 and 293: ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
Page 294 and 295: The water budget methodWith this me
Page 296 and 297: ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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Page 300 and 301: that occur during the periods of fr
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Page 304: Modify horticultural practicesPruni
Page 307 and 308: FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
Page 309 and 310: season. Thus the risks of salinity
Page 312: 4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
Page 315 and 316: Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
Page 324 and 325: Table 3 Sample calculation of month
Page 326 and 327: clayey soils. If supply is very lim
Page 329: Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
Page 332 and 333: Fruit growth during this stage is t
Page 334 and 335: Season-long stressSeveral studies h
Page 336 and 337: Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
Page 339 and 340: Four crop-water-production function
Page 341 and 342: size distribution toward more favou
Page 344 and 345: Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
Page 346 and 347: Apples tend to have a biennial bear
Page 348 and 349: water stress and thus highly respon
Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
Page 360 and 361: Figure 1 Production trends for plum
Page 362 and 363: soil water. In young orchards, post
Page 364 and 365: Figure 3 Relationships between rela
Page 366: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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