Crop yield response to water - Cra

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figure 14Response of an almond orchard to three DI regimes: pre- and postharvest DI, and SDI over fouryears. Note that the yield decline is highest for the postharvest DI and that in this case, the SDIis the most advantageous DI strategy (after Goldhamer et al., 2006).A preharvest deficitsB postharvest deficitsC sustained DI2 200Kernel yield (kg ha -1 )2 0001 800CACABCBA(control)1 600B1 400500 600 700 800 900 1 000Applied water (mm)be avoided by adjusting the fertilizer application scheme to ensure that the recommendedamounts are added. There is little evidence that RDI results in lower levels of nutrients inthe plant, at least based on leaf tissue analysis. This may be because RDI reduces leaf growthand thus, tissue concentrations are the same even though there is less nutrient uptake fromthe soil. There are positive and negative interactions between DI and the incidence of pestand diseases. In the specific crop sections, stress-related pest management and plant diseaseconsiderations are presented where appropriate.Salinity management under deficit irrigationAll irrigation water contains salts but only pure water evaporates from plants and from thesoil and the salts are left behind. Therefore, the process of irrigation concentrates salts in thesoil profile to the point that they can reach harmful levels unless they are leached out of theroot zone. The rate at which salts are concentrated as a result of irrigation depends on thequality of the irrigation water, the amount of annual rainfall, the irrigation amounts and theET c . If the seasonal water balance is such that there is a certain amount of drainage, salts willbe displaced from the root zone and will move with the drainage waters below the root zone.In many cases, artificial drainage networks are needed to evacuate the excess water and thesalts outside irrigated areas to ensure the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. The FAO I&DNo. 25 publication provides water quality guidelines and procedures to assess the leachingrequirements, and on how to quantify the impact of salinity on crop yields.When DI is practised, the amount of applied irrigation water is less than the ET c and the waterbalance of the root zone is such that little or no leaching would occur during the irrigationYield Response to Water of Fruit Trees and Vines 293
season. Thus the risks of salinity buildup are higher under DI than under full irrigation. Whenreductions in water supply last only a year or two, it is possible to use mild to moderate DIwith limited impact on yield and net income and with little salt accumulation. This is becausenormally, there is sufficient stored soil water to contribute to ET from the previous, normalyear, and the salinity risks are limited if full irrigation resumes one or two years after theimposition of DI.If DI is practised over the long term, a strategy for salinity management under DI must bedevised to make DI sustainable. In areas where annual rainfall is significant (average, above300 mm) and drainage is feasible, salinity buildup is controlled by the annual rainfall forwaters of good to medium quality. Poor quality water may require some additional leachingin dry years, depending on the rainfall patterns. When annual rainfall is insufficient to leachthe salts and microirrigation is practised, salts will accumulate and remain at the boundariesof the wetted zones by the emitters, and they may be harmful to the crop. Light rainfall maymove these salts into the active root zones, and this is why in some dry areas drip irrigationsystems are turned on when light rainfall is predicted. Sometimes, full coverage irrigationsystems are used to leach the salts after leaf fall in deciduous tree plantations. Monitoringsalinity is essential to anticipate possible problems, more so in dry areas and poor qualityirrigation waters.An important consideration in the case of salinity is that it is a gradual problem that in mostcases takes time to build up. The limited experience with DI is that salts may be periodicallycontrolled, even in dry areas, in the high-rainfall years or when irrigation supply conditionspermit the return to full irrigation once every several years. Nevertheless, to sustain theplantations throughout their normal life cycle under DI, salinity monitoring and a soundmanagement strategy for salinity control will be critical.ReferencesBerni, J.A.J., Zarco-Tejada, P.J., Suárez, L., & Fereres, E. 2009. Thermal and narrowband multispectral remote sensingfor vegetation monitoring from an unmanned aerial vehicle. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing47: 722 – 738.Bonachela, S., Orgaz, F., Villalobos, F.J. & Fereres, E. 2001. Soil evaporation from drip-irrigated olive orchards.Irrigation Science 20:65-71.FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database, available at link http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed on December 2011.Fereres, E., Martinich, D.A., Aldrich, T.M., Castel, J.R., Holzapfel, E. & Schulbach, H.1982. Drip irrigation saves moneyin young almond orchards. California Agriculture 36:12–13.Goldhamer, D.A., Viveros, M. & Salinas, M. 2006. Regulated deficit irrigation in almonds: effects of variations inapplied water and stress timing on yield and yield components. Irrigation Science 24(2):101-114.Orgaz, F., Testi, L., Villalobos, F.J. & Fereres, E. 2006. Water requirements of olive orchards II: determination of cropcoefficients for irrigation scheduling. Irrigation Science 24:77-84.Sadras, V.O. 2009. Does partial root-zone drying improve irrigation water productivity in the field? A meta-analysis.Irrigation Science 27: 183-190.Testi, L., Villalobos, F.J., Orgaz, F. & Fereres, E. 2006. Water requirements of olive orchards: I simulation of dailyevapotranspiration for scenario analysis. Irrigation Science 24:69-76.Testi, L., Goldhamer, D.A., Iniesta, F. & Salinas, M. 2008. Crop Water Stress Index Is a Sensitive Water Stress Indicatorin Pistachio Trees. Irrigation Science, 26: 395-405.294crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
Page 264: equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
Page 270 and 271: ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
Page 272: Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 276 and 277: ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
Page 282 and 283: For training systems on a vertical
Page 284 and 285: ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
Page 286 and 287: are seeking more precision in their
Page 288 and 289: ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
Page 290 and 291: ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
Page 292 and 293: ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
Page 294 and 295: The water budget methodWith this me
Page 296 and 297: ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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Page 300 and 301: that occur during the periods of fr
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Page 304: Modify horticultural practicesPruni
Page 307: FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
Page 312: 4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
Page 315 and 316: Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
Page 320 and 321: The use of displacement sensors to
Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
Page 324 and 325: Table 3 Sample calculation of month
Page 326 and 327: clayey soils. If supply is very lim
Page 329: Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
Page 332 and 333: Fruit growth during this stage is t
Page 334 and 335: Season-long stressSeveral studies h
Page 336 and 337: Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
Page 339 and 340: Four crop-water-production function
Page 341 and 342: size distribution toward more favou
Page 344 and 345: Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
Page 346 and 347: Apples tend to have a biennial bear
Page 348 and 349: water stress and thus highly respon
Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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