Crop yield response to water - Cra

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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E wz , and Tr cc .Assume an olive orchard with a tree ground cover, G, of 0.33; the average monthly ET o inApril is 3.5 mm/day; the emitters wet 7 percent of the ground (wz=0.07), and there are 7rainy days per month (F=7/30 = 0.23).a) Calculation of E from soil not wetted by emitters, E dz ,Using Equation 5 and 6, the average E dz for the month of April is:K s,e = 0.31 x (1-0.07) = 0.29E dz = 0. 29 x 3.5 = 1.01 mm/day or 30.4 mm/monthb) Calculation of E from wet spots E wzEquation 8 yields:E wz = 0.6 x 3.5 x 0.07 = 0.147 mm/day or 4.4 mm/monthc) Calculation of cover crop Tr cc ,If the olive orchard with 8 x 6 m tree spacing, has a cover crop that covers a strip 4 m wideevery tree row (f cc = 4/8), and is fairly dense and kept cut about 5-8 cm height, the wateruse of the cover crop would be estimated as:Tr cc = 0.45 x 3.5 mm/day x 0.5 = 0.79 mm/day or 23.6 mm for the month of AprilCalculation of E wzHere, as a first approximation, E wz is calculated as(7) E wz = 0.6 ET o wzWhere 0.6 is an empirical factor described above and wz is the fraction of the soil surface thatis kept wet by the emitters.Calculation of transpiration from the cover crop, Tr ccOrchards with cover crops have higher ET rates than orchards that are clean cultivated. Thewater-use rate of cover crops in orchards is difficult to measure and has not been thoroughlyinvestigated. Either cover crops are planted in strips of variable width between tree rowsor, sometimes, weeds are allowed to grow in these areas and are controlled periodically bycutting or with herbicides. Cover crops are shaded at least part of the day, and it is difficultto measure their ET independently of the other ET c components. The Tr cc will vary widely,depending on the cutting frequency, plant density, degree of shading by the tree canopies,and whether it has sufficient water available, i.e. whether the cover crop is fully wetted by theirrigation applications. Thus, the estimation of Tr cc is site specific. The approach to calculate ituses a coefficient, K cc and the ET o as follows:Yield Response to Water of Fruit Trees and Vines 261
(8) Tr cc = K cc ET o f ccWhere, f cc is the fraction of the orchard ground surface occupied by the cover crop, and K cc isa cover crop coefficient that varies from 0.25-0.35 for sparse vegetation, to 0.4-0.5 for fairlydense, short (less than 10 cm) cover crops, up to 0.6-0.8 for dense cover crops.Calculation of tree transpiration TrThe approach here is to use a transpiration coefficient (K c,Tr ) which multiplied by the ET o wouldyield the Tr.Tr = K c,Tr ET oThe different crop sections offer information that could be used to derive the K c,Tr values;although for many species the information that exists is not sufficiently accurate to generalizethe values. There are several factors that affect the seasonal K c,Tr values of mature orchards orvineyards well supplied with water. In addition to the level of intercepted radiation, whetherthe species is deciduous or evergreen, the stomatal responses to the environment, the presenceor absence of fruit, are factors that influence the K c,Tr , and even some cultivar differenceswithin a species have been described.The K c,Tr values of mature deciduous orchards vary from nearly zero at bud break to a maximumvalue after leaf growth is sufficient to intercept all incoming radiation. The maximum value(which varies between 0.75 and 1.0) is maintained throughout the rest of the season until leafsenescence starts, provided the tree is supplied with sufficient water. Fruit harvest decreasestemporarily the value of the maximum transpiration coefficient (K c,Trx ), down to a level that isspecies dependent, but the K c,Tr usually recovers two to three weeks after harvest. Figure 10shows a typical seasonal pattern of the crop coefficient for apple (obtained in a drip-irrigatedlysimeter, thus including the E component of ET c ), and similar information for other crops maybe found in the various specific sections.In the case of evergreen fruit trees, the two major evergreen tree crop species are citrusand olive. Citrus trees have K c,Trx values that depend on air humidity levels; in dry climatesmature orchard K c,Tr values vary within the season between 0.6 and 0.7, while in humid areasit oscillates between 0.7-0.85. Olive K c,Tr values also vary within the season and are affected byclimatic conditions. In temperate, semi-arid climates, it has a minimum of about 0.4 in spring,about 0.5 in the summer and may reach 0.6-0.65 in the autumn. A model to compute K c,Tr andTr for olive trees has been developed (Testi et al., 2006 and Orgaz et al., 2006), and is brieflydescribed in Box 5. Similar models are now being developed for other fruit tree species andwill be available soon.262crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
Page 256 and 257: soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
Page 258: tef 243
Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
Page 264: equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
Page 270 and 271: ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
Page 272: Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
Page 282 and 283: For training systems on a vertical
Page 284 and 285: ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
Page 286 and 287: are seeking more precision in their
Page 288 and 289: ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
Page 290 and 291: ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
Page 292 and 293: ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
Page 294 and 295: The water budget methodWith this me
Page 296 and 297: ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
Page 298 and 299: opening and photosynthesis relative
Page 300 and 301: that occur during the periods of fr
Page 302 and 303: The crop, where price can vary more
Page 304: Modify horticultural practicesPruni
Page 307 and 308: FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
Page 309 and 310: season. Thus the risks of salinity
Page 312: 4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
Page 315 and 316: Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
Page 320 and 321: The use of displacement sensors to
Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
Page 324 and 325: Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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