Crop yield response to water - Cra

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ox 2 Understanding the transpiration process.Water loss from plant leaves takes place primarily through pores called stomata thatare opened during daylight hours and close at night. Stomata are also the path forthe entrance of carbon dioxide into the leaves, the necessary input for photosynthesis.Transpiration losses from leaves trigger a sequence of events in the soil tree system;water moves from the shoots into the leaves to compensate for leaf losses, drawingwater from the trunk into the shoots; this in turn, draws water from the roots to thetrunk, and finally, from the soil to the roots. Thus, liquid water flows from the soilto the sites in the leaves where it evaporates before diffusing through the stomatato the atmosphere. Water moves passively through this path following a gradientin potential energy, from the soil to the leaves. In any location along this path, suchenergy level may be determined and is called water potential. Furthermore, the waterflow encounters resistance all along the pathway from the soil to the atmosphere (seediagram). The tree exerts some control on this water flow, which is needed to matchthe transpirational loss to the evaporative demand of the environment. When there areimbalances between supply and demand, the tree controls its water loss through theadjustment of the degree of stomatal opening and by other means.The water flow from soil through tree to the atmosphere.Yield Response to Water of Fruit Trees and Vines 255
The orchard ET processThe ET c from an orchard is more complex than from a uniform herbaceous crop because thereare different components that contribute to the water loss from an orchard. In addition totree Tr, there could be Tr losses from a cover crop or from weeds, and there are E losses fromthe soil. In the case of microirrigation, there are two E components that may differ in theirrates: one is the E from the soil areas wetted by the emitters, and the other is the E fromthe rest of the soil surface which is only wetted by rainfall. Figure 7 shows the four differentcomponents of water vapour that contribute to orchard ET and are further explained below.figure 7 The evapotranspiration process from an orchard under microirrigation.256crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219 and 220: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 221 and 222: Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
Page 256 and 257: soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
Page 258: tef 243
Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
Page 264: equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
Page 272: Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 276 and 277: ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
Page 282 and 283: For training systems on a vertical
Page 284 and 285: ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
Page 286 and 287: are seeking more precision in their
Page 288 and 289: ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
Page 290 and 291: ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
Page 292 and 293: ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
Page 294 and 295: The water budget methodWith this me
Page 296 and 297: ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
Page 298 and 299: opening and photosynthesis relative
Page 300 and 301: that occur during the periods of fr
Page 302 and 303: The crop, where price can vary more
Page 304: Modify horticultural practicesPruni
Page 307 and 308: FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
Page 309 and 310: season. Thus the risks of salinity
Page 312: 4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
Page 315 and 316: Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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