Crop yield response to water - Cra

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temperatures clearly influence reproductive performance disproportionately more thanvegetative performance, it is not known how temperature stress reduces pod formation.Whether the maintenance of leaf production and expansion at high temperatures may be acause or a consequence of poor pod formation, it results in the major proportion of biomassbeing allocated to vegetative development. The reduction in pollen viability due to heat stressmay be associated with poor pod set.Bambara groundnut is a short-day species. While flowering is generally set by thermal time,very unusually, the onset of pod growth is affected by photoperiod (Harris and Azam-Ali,1993). At daylengths longer than 12 hours, the crop will take longer to initiate pod filling,delaying maturity.Irrigation practiceGenerally, bambara groundnut is grown as a rainfed crop in semi-arid Africa. Where available,irrigation practices enhance the total productivity of the crop. However, even when water isnot limiting yield is still subjected to the daylength control of pod growth. This has importantimplications both for rainfed and irrigated production as sowing date needs to be set by theoptimal daylength for pod filling and seasonal rainfall and/or irrigation need to fit withinthis production interval. When water resources are limited and daylength is not a constraint,any available water should be applied during the late vegetative period (up to flowering) toensure that the maximum numbers of pods are set, provided that water is not so restricted asto shorten the crop life cycle markedly.YieldYields under favourable conditions may range from 3.0 to 3.8 tonne/ha (Collinson et al., 2000).However, as a result of genetic variability and because the environments in which bambaragroundnut is grown are characterized by various biotic and abiotic stresses, typical yields areextremely low and vary between 0.65 and 0.85 tonne/ha for most of the semi-arid tropics(Hampson et al., 2000). In practice, there are large differences in reported yields between andwithin countries, with yields as low as 0.06 to 0.11 tonne/ha (Zambia), 0.05 to 0.66 tonne/ha(Swaziland), and 0.07 to 0.86 tonne/ha (Zimbabwe). At harvest, the ratio of pods to total drymatter (Harvest Index, HI) is in the range of 0.30 to 0.45. The HI decreases under drought,temperature stress and longer day lengths, and is maximal when applied water is sufficientfor maximum canopy cover to be achieved and daylength and temperatures are optimal.The nutritional composition of bambara groundnut (protein content is 16-25 percent) iscomparable or superior to other legumes (Linnemann and Azam-Ali, 1993), providing animportant supplement to cereal-based diets.ReferencesCollinson, S. T., Sibuga, K. P., Tarimo, A.J.P. & Azam-Ali, S.N. 2000. Influence of sowing date on the growth and yieldof bambara groundnut landraces in Tanzania. Experimental Agriculture, 36, 1-13.Edje, O.T., Mavimbela, E.K. & Sesay, A. 2003. Effect of seed source on growth and yield of three landraces ofbambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) in Swaziland. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on BambaraGroundnut, Botswana College of Agriculture, 8-12 September, 2003.BAMBARA GROUNDNUT 225
FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database, available at link http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed on December 2011.Hampson, K., Azam-Ali, S.H., Sesay, A., Mukwaya, S.M., Azam-Ali, S.N. 2000. Assessing opportunities for increasedutilisation of bambara groundnut in Southern Africa. Tropical Crops Research Unit, School of Biosciences, Universityof Nottingham. DFID CPHP Project R-7527.Harris, D. & Azam-Ali, S.N. 1993. Implication of daylength sensitivity in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) forproduction in Botswana. Journal of Agricultural Sciences (Cambridge), 120, 75-78.Linnemann, A.R. 1991. Preliminary observations on photoperiod regulation of phonological development inbambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea). Field Crop Research, 26, 295-304.Linnemann, A.R. & Azam-Ali, S.N. 1993. Bambara groundnut (Vigna subteranea). In:Underutilised crops pulses andvegetables, London, Chapman and Hall.Massawe, F.J., Azam-Ali, S.N. & Roberts, J. A. 2003. The impact of temperature on leaf appearance in bambaragroundnut landraces. Crop Science, 43, 1375-1379.Mwale, S.S., Azam-Ali, S.N. & Massawe, F.J. 2007. Growth and development of bambara groundnut (Vignasubterranea) in response to soil moisture 1. Dry matter and yield. European Journal of Agronomy, 26, 345-353.Pasquet, R. S., Schwedes, S. & Gepts, P. 1999. Isozyme diversity in bambara groundnut. Crop Science, 39, 1228-1236.226crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
Page 191 and 192: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 193 and 194: Response to stressLow temperatureSu
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 209 and 210: Tomato requires soils with proper w
Page 211 and 212: and there is frequent wetting of ex
Page 213 and 214: is so excessive that fruit setting
Page 217 and 218: Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219 and 220: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 221 and 222: Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
Page 256 and 257: soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
Page 258: tef 243
Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
Page 264: equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
Page 270 and 271: ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
Page 272: Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 276 and 277: ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
Page 282 and 283: For training systems on a vertical
Page 284 and 285: ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
Page 286 and 287: are seeking more precision in their
Page 288 and 289: ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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