Crop yield response to water - Cra

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y the requirement set by transpiration demand for the crop canopy which is driven byatmospheric conditions.When crop water requirements are greater than total soil water available in the root zone,it restricts the major plant processes of canopy expansion, transpiration and photosynthesisor radiation use efficiency, and accelerates leaf senescence. Relative leaf area expansionrates decrease from their maximum at a threshold between 15-20 percent below fieldcapacity, to be negligible as the total available soil water decreases from field capacitydown to about 30 percent or more of the total available water capacity of the soil. Radiationuse efficiency is less sensitive to water stress than canopy expansion and declines in a 1:1response to the decrease in available soil water (Brown et al., 2009). If water supply is onlyhalf of crop demand, production will only be half of potential.The amount of water extraction can be calculated for different layers of soil (Brown et al.2009). Starting in the top layer, extraction is the minimum of potential supply from that layerand demand from the atmosphere. Water extraction from underlying layers depends on theremaining demand after extraction by overlying layers. Effectively, alfalfa has a top-downwater extraction pattern throughout the growing season for seedling and regrowth crops.Reductions in water extraction rates are observed in situations of water shortage. In theabsence of other measurements, it can be assumed that alfalfa can extract about 3 percentof the plant available water from the soil on any day. Effectively the potential daily watersupply can be estimated from the available water capacity of the soil and the rooting depth ofthe alfalfa crop. The extraction rate coefficients of alfalfa are low compared with other crops(Dardanelli et al., 1997) so alfalfa will prolong the use of the soil water it has access to, mainlybecause its deep rooting enlarging the supply reservoir.Alfalfa is less tolerant of waterlogging (saturated soils) than other forage (grass) species.Anaerobic conditions for more than 7-14 days lead to root death and secondary diseaseinfection, particularly from Phytophthora species.Soil fertilitySuccessful alfalfa stands are grown on deep (>1.0 m) free-draining soils, to take advantageof its taproot, with a pH of 6.0–8.0. Adequate phosphorous (P), Sulphur (S), Boron (B) andMolybdenum (Mo) are usually required depending on soil nutrient status. Potassium (K) basedfertilizers are recommended, particularly under intensive cutting, because leaves of alfalfa, anatrophobe, have a higher potassium and lower sodium (Na) content than many other foragespecies.TemperatureAt temperatures less than 5 °C or greater than 45 °C, alfalfa development is negligible.Between these thresholds, alfalfa development rates increase linearly to reach a maximum at~30 °C. Low temperatures also limit net canopy photosynthesis rates. Radiation use efficiencywas shown to increase linearly from 0.6 g/MJ at 6 °C to 1.6 g/MJ at 18 °C (Brown et al. 2006).ALFALFA 217
SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to relatively high salinity in the lower root zone provided the upper zoneis saline free. It is more sensitive to Na + than Cl - so that sodium accumulation is the dominantreason for yield decreases when irrigating with saline water. Irrigation, even with moderatelysaline water, can cause salts to accumulate deeper into the soil profile which enables roots toproliferate in regions of relatively low salinity. At salt concentrations above 10 dS/m significantyield reductions are expected. In these conditions, the absolute yield of alfalfa may still begreater more than ‘salt-tolerant’ grasses.Yield and QualityThe diversity of climate and soil types used to grow alfalfa means reported yields rangefrom less than 1 tonne DM/ha in rainfed systems, on soils of low water holding capacitycombined with low annual rainfall (
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 181 and 182: spring. In double cropping, sowing
Page 183 and 184: size as affected by soil water defi
Page 186: sunflower 171
Page 191 and 192: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 193 and 194: Response to stressLow temperatureSu
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 209 and 210: Tomato requires soils with proper w
Page 211 and 212: and there is frequent wetting of ex
Page 213 and 214: is so excessive that fruit setting
Page 217 and 218: Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219 and 220: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 221 and 222: Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
Page 256 and 257: soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
Page 258: tef 243
Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
Page 264: equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
Page 270 and 271: ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
Page 272: Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
Page 276 and 277: ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
Page 278 and 279: ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
Page 280 and 281: FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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