Crop yield response to water - Cra

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TAbLE 1Phenology of sugar beet in several environments (durations are in days).Sowing periodSowingemergenceSowingmaximumcanopy coverSowingstartcanopysenescenceSowing-maturityMediterraneancountriesNovember 10-14 100-130 130-160 200-250February 16-20 80-100 100-130 150-180Northern EuropeMarch 18-22 80-100 100-120 160-190April 18-22 70-90 90-120 150-180India October 8-12 40-60 60-80 120-140September 8-20 90-110 110-130 240-270USAMarch 16-20 80-100 100-120 170-190June 7-17 70-80 80-90 130-150FIGURE 3 Typical developmental stages of sugar beet.SUGAR BEET 205
Water use & ProductivitySugar beets consume 500-800 mm of water during the growing season. The seasonal waterrequirements depend on climate and weather conditions, planting date and density, irrigation,and crop management (Allen et al., 1998). Sugar beets are most sensitive to moisture shortagesin the early growing stages but their peak water consumption comes late in the season whenmaximum canopy cover is reached. Soil moisture levels should be maintained above one-halfto one‐third of total available water (TAW) to avoid stomatal closure. Over the peak 30‐daygrowing period, maximum water use ranges from 6 to 9 mm/day, depending on climate.Commonly there is a positive relationship between water use, root production, and sugarcontent. Water stress reduces yield, while overirrigation near harvest reduces root sucroseconcentration and increases processing costs, thus reducing profit (Ehlig and LeMert, 1979).As for water productivity, spring sown beet commonly studied in Northern Europe andAmerica, have reported consumptive water productivity for dry matter production (WP B/et )between 2.1 and 6.8 kg/m 3 (Dunham, 1993). This wide range of values reflect the diversityof climates in terms of evaporative demand and the fact that many WP B/et values were notnormalized for this parameter. It is pertinent to indicate here that the dry matter of concernis mainly composed of storage root dry matter, with shoot dry matter making up only a smallportion (e.g. 20 percent). This is in contrast to all non-root crops, for which dry matter ofconcern is focused on the above–ground portion, neglecting the root portion because it isextremely difficult to extract quantitatively from the soil (Rinaldi et al., 2006).Response to StressesSugar beet is sensitive to water deficits at the time of crop emergence and for a period of aboutone month after emergence. Frequent, light irrigations are preferred during this period, andirrigation may also be needed to reduce crust formation on the soil and to reduce salinity ofthe top soil. Early over-watering may retard leaf development and can encourage floweringduring the first year (bolting). Water deficits in the middle of the growing period (vegetativeand yield formation periods) tend to affect sugar yields more strongly than when occurringduring later periods. Unrestricted water supply near harvest time tends to reduce root sugarconcentration although it increases root fresh weight, with the final effect on sucrose yieldbeing small. Moderate water deficits, together with mild nitrogen deficiency towards the endof the growing period, reduce root growth but increase sucrose concentration. In general, topgrowth toward the end of the growing period tends to be negatively correlated with sugarproduction, apparently the result of competition for assimilates between vegetative growthand root storage. Normally, the irrigation season ends between 2 to 4 weeks before harvest,depending on the water‐holding capacity of the soil, to increase sucrose concentration in thebeets. The soil should, however, not be too dry to hamper lifting the beets at harvest. Thus,except during emergence and early growth, it appears that the crop is not very sensitive tomoderate water deficits. When plants are under water stress, leaves become dark green incolour and if the stress is severe, the leaves fail to recover from midday wilting in the evening(Hanks et al., 1981).Adequate soil nitrogen availability is required to ensure a good vegetative growth in spring.Nitrogen is often given in split applications, a small amount at planting and the rest after206crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
Page 170: Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
Page 173: Response to StressesCotton stands o
Page 176: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 181 and 182: spring. In double cropping, sowing
Page 183 and 184: size as affected by soil water defi
Page 186: sunflower 171
Page 191 and 192: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 193 and 194: Response to stressLow temperatureSu
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 209 and 210: Tomato requires soils with proper w
Page 211 and 212: and there is frequent wetting of ex
Page 213 and 214: is so excessive that fruit setting
Page 217 and 218: Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
Page 256 and 257: soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
Page 258: tef 243
Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
Page 264: equirements per unit land area for
Page 268 and 269: figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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