Crop yield response to water - Cra

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nil at EC e of 13 dS/m in some studies. For practical purposes, the irrigation water salinitythreshold for long-term use is about 3.5 dS/m on sandy soils, 2.0 dS/m on loamy soils and1.2 dS/m on clay soils (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). During fruit ripening, light saline stressescan improve the fruit quality without any detrimental effect on yield. In fact, fruit qualityis better with moderate salinity but at the cost of reduced yield, as shown by a number ofstudies in Israel.Irrigation practiceSurface irrigation by furrow is still commonly practised. Pressurised irrigation methods(sprinkler, mini-sprinkler and drip irrigation) are now common in many main croppingcountries. Large-scale tomato growers have long learned to limit irrigation as the cropapproaches maturity. Because of its vegetative vs. reproductive changes in response to waterstatus, irrigation management should focus on water saving while maintaining yield andenhancing fruit quality. In recent years, experiments with deficit irrigation have been directedat these objectives, with either the deficit maintained at a selected level over a long time(often referred to as DI), or with the irrigation being deficit only at selected stages of thecrop’s life cycle, referred to as regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) (Battilani et al., 2008). In morearid areas preplant irrigation is practised when past rainfall is insufficient to replenish the soilprofile. Preplant irrigations are also used to leach more saline soils. Frequently, if soil is wellcharged initially, one to two irrigations over a 2-4 week period are used for stand establishmentafter transplant or seeding. During canopy development and much of the flowering period,irrigation needs to be sufficient to ensure fast canopy growth and yet not so much as to causeexcessive leaf growth and the associated dropping of flowers and young fruit. Soon after fruitcolour change, irrigation should be reduced, but the start of irrigation cutback depends onthe water remaining in the root zone of the soil, and the ET rate for that period. These arereadily simulated by AquaCrop. The cutback over the ripening stage saves water but needsto be optimal to improve fruit quality while allowing last fruits to reach commercial size andmaintaining the canopy coverage to protect fruit from sunburn.YieldYield of processing tomatoes has increased by more than 50 percent over the past 30 years inCalifornia and Mediterranean countries. A good commercial fresh fruit yield ranges from 60to 120 tonne/ha for processing tomatoes and up to more than 150 tonne/ha for fresh marketcultivars. Yield can be much higher in greenhouse production for fresh markets. In drier areas,rainfed crop production ranges from 40 to 70 percent of irrigated. Soluble solids content ofthe juice of most widely used cultivars can vary between 4.2 and 5.5 percent. Factories requiresa minimal quality for processing tomatoes: juice acidity must range between 0.34 and 0.40g/100 ml, reducing sugars between 2.5 and 3.0 g/100 ml and Bostwick consistency between 8and 12 cm/30 s. Dry matter content of fresh fruit ranges from 4.0 to 7.0 percent (Leoni, 2002).Harvest Index (HI, the ratio of yield measured as dry matter to total above ground biomass)normally ranges from 0.5 to 0.65. HI decreases when plants are over watered or receiveexcessive nitrogen fertilization because of excessive vegetative growth, but yield may not beaffected or even slightly increased, as long as the increased biomass production compensatesfor the lower HI. On the other hand, yield can be negatively affected when vegetative growthTOMATO 197
is so excessive that fruit setting is much delayed and HI is reduced sufficiently. AquaCropprovides the means to simulate this behaviour and the possibility of optimizing yield by usingthe appropriate irrigation strategy.ReferencesAdams, P. 1986. Mineral nutrition. In: Atherton, J.G. & Rudich, J., eds. The Tomato Crop. London, Chapman & Hall,pp. 281–334.Ayers, R.S. & Westcot, D.W. 1985. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 29 rev. 1. Rome,FAO.Battilani, A. 2006. Water and nitrogen use efficiency, dry matter accumulation and nitrogen uptake in fertigatedprocessing tomato. IX ISHS Symposium on Processing Tomato, Melbourne Nov 15-18 2004. Acta Horticulturae,724:67:74.Battilani, A., Bonetti, G. & Di Lucca, G. 2002. Tomato root growth under different soil and climate conditions. ActaHorticulturae, 613:47-56.Battilani, A., Plauborg, F.L., Andersen, M.N., Jensen, C.R., Sandei, L. & Solimando, D. 2008. Water saving irrigationstrategies for processing tomato. XI ISHS Symposium on Processing Tomato, Toronto 2008. Acta Horticulturae,823:69-76.Benton, J.J. 1999. Tomato plant culture. London, UK, CRC Press.Dieleman, J.A. & Heuvelink, E. 1992. Factors affecting the number of leaves preceding the first inflorescence in thetomato. Journal of Horticultural Science 67:1–10.FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database, available at link http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed on December 2011.Gent, M.P.N. & Ma, Y.Z. 1998. Diurnal temperature variation of the root and shoot affects yield of greenhousetomato. Horticultural Science 33, 47–51.Heuvelink, E. & Dorais, M. 2005. Crop growth and yield. In: Heuvelink, E., ed. Tomatoes. CABI Publishing, Cropproduction science in horticulture No. 13.Leoni, C., 2002. Improving the nutritional quality of processed fruit and vegetables: the case of tomatoes. In:Jorgen, W.M.F., ed. Fruit and vegetable processing – improving quality, Woodhead Publishing and CRC Press LLC.Oliveira M.R.G., Calado, A.M. & Portas, C.A.M. 1996. Tomato root distribution under drip irrigation. Journal of theAmerican Society for Horticultural Science, 121: 644–648.SAGE. 2000. Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Online databaseavailable at link http://www.sage.wisc.edu/mapsdatamodels.html. Accessed on December 2011.WPTC, 2011. World processing Tomato Council Releases, available at: www.wptc.to/Releases-wptc.aspx . Last accessed11 December 2011.198crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
Page 161: sowing usually starts in late Septe
Page 164 and 165: loss. If water stress is severe eno
Page 166: ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
Page 170: Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
Page 173: Response to StressesCotton stands o
Page 176: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 181 and 182: spring. In double cropping, sowing
Page 183 and 184: size as affected by soil water defi
Page 186: sunflower 171
Page 191 and 192: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 193 and 194: Response to stressLow temperatureSu
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 209 and 210: Tomato requires soils with proper w
Page 211: and there is frequent wetting of ex
Page 217 and 218: Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219 and 220: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 221 and 222: Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
Page 256 and 257: soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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Page 261 and 262: Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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