Crop yield response to water - Cra

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Figure 1 World tomato harvested area and average yield over the period 1961-2009 (FAO, 2011).Area harvestedYield1040935Area harvested (million ha)8765432130252015105Average yield (tonne/ha)001961196519691973197719811985198919931997200120052009Figure 2 Tomato harvested area (SAGE, 2000).Reference year 2000TOMATO 193
Tomato requires soils with proper water-holding capacity and aeration. Well drained, deep,sandy loam soils are preferred, but heavier soils can also be highly productive under propermanagement. Tomato is intolerant to soil compaction and waterlogging, thus the upper 15-20 cm soil layer needs to be permeable. In clay soils, deep ploughing is sometimes necessaryto allows for water drainage and better root penetration. At some locations tomato needs a3-year rotation, with crops other than solanaceous (e.g. potato, pepper, eggplant, tobacco),to minimize nematodes, virus and bacterial diseases. Generally tomato is grown in rotation,often with only a 2-year cycle.Growth and developmentMore commonly, tomatoes are transplanted to achieve more uniform plant emergence,density and development. Because of its small seeds it is difficult to attain uniformity andhigh percentage of emergence when sown in the field. Direct sowing is usually limited tostandard cultivars, with hybrids this method is uneconomic because of the high seed cost.Seed beds must be carefully prepared to eliminate soil clogs for direct sowing. The use ofprecision sowing machines, compared to traditional planters or manual sowing, allows for theuse of pelleted seed and avoids the thinning at the fourth leaf or later stage. Tomatoes arebest sown when the 7-day average soil temperature of the top 100 mm layer is ≥ 10 °C. Sowingperiod ranges from end of February to May in the Northern Hemisphere, or from August tomid-December in the Southern Hemisphere. Of course, the season is much less defined in thetropics and subtropics.The optimal sowing depth is 2-4 cm. The density of sown processing tomatoes is generallyhigher than those that are transplanted because, up to a point, higher plant densities lead tohigher yields and this is counter-balanced by the increasing cost of seedlings for transplantingat higher densities. About 100 000 seeds per hectare (1-1.5 kg/ha) are necessary whentraditionally sowing processing tomato. In contrast, 0.3-0.5 kg/ha of seeds are used in caseof precision sowing with pelleted seeds. Seedlings for transplanting are sown in a nursery inplug trays (25-35 mm diameter per seedling) at a density of between 750 and 1 000 seedlings/m 2 , and transplanted at 25 000-33 000 plant/ha. Seedlings are commonly transplanted atthe 4-5 true-leaf stage, 4 to 7 weeks after sowing. Seedlings should be short, 150-200 mm,including the root clod, and less if transplanting is by machine, and should have a thick stembase (diameter ≥ 4 mm). These requirements are met only if the radiation level is high in thenursery. The transplanting period ranges from the end of March to the end of June-early July inthe Northern Hemisphere, or from September to mid-December in the Southern Hemisphere.Plant spacing varies widely depending on conditions, seed or seedling cost, plant type andcultivars and local practices. Density ranges from 2 to 6 plants/m 2 and row spacing ranges from0.75 m to 1.6 m, with processing tomato often planted more densely than market tomato. inthe latter case, wider space is left for picker’s access, so that the ripe fruit can be harvestedfrequently. On wide beds, processing tomato may be planted in double rows to obtain aslightly higher yield. Generally, tomato starts to flower early, 25-40 days after transplantingor 35-50 days after emergence, depending largely on temperature. The life cycle varies from95-115 days for processing tomato or up to more than 145 days for undetermined fresh markettomato.194crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
Page 155 and 156: The seasonal water requirements for
Page 159 and 160: Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
Page 161: sowing usually starts in late Septe
Page 164 and 165: loss. If water stress is severe eno
Page 166: ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
Page 170: Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
Page 173: Response to StressesCotton stands o
Page 176: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 181 and 182: spring. In double cropping, sowing
Page 183 and 184: size as affected by soil water defi
Page 186: sunflower 171
Page 191 and 192: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 193 and 194: Response to stressLow temperatureSu
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 211 and 212: and there is frequent wetting of ex
Page 213 and 214: is so excessive that fruit setting
Page 217 and 218: Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219 and 220: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 221 and 222: Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 244 and 245: *Flower and grain colour presented
Page 246 and 247: Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
Page 248 and 249: with typical values around 10.5 g/m
Page 250: ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
Page 254 and 255: Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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