Crop yield response to water - Cra

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The stalk is composed of an immature, rapidly growing section at the top with a low sucrosecontent (top 8 internodes) and a mature, slower growing section with high sucrose contentat the bottom. As the stalks become longer (up to 3 m) and older (8 months and older) themature section forms a large portion of the stalk making it suitable for harvest. The maturationprocess can be enhanced by withholding irrigation to induce a mild water deficit (Smith andInman-Bamber, 2005) or by applying chemical ripeners.Flowering is initiated when minimum temperature exceeds 18 o C and water status is favourableduring a 3-week window period of declining photoperiod at about 12.5 hours (Bull andGlasziou, 1976). When a stalk has initiated a flower, it will cease initiating new leaves andinternodes and the stalk will mature and, if left long enough, produce side shoots resulting ininferior cane quality. Cultivars differ hugely in their propensity to flower.The duration of the different development stages are shown in Table 1. With its tropicalorigin, sugarcane is intolerant to cold temperature. Studies of various growth and relatedprocesses of sugarcane have pegged the base temperature in a range of 8 to 18 o C, and theoptimum temperature in the range of 30 to 35 o C (Ebrahim et al., 1998; van Dillewijn, 1952;Inman-Bamber, 1994). At the time of this publication, the T base and T upper are set at 9 o C and32 o C in the preliminary calibration of AquaCrop for sugarcane, and may be adjusted slightlyas more data become available for calibration and testing.Water use and irrigation practicesAlthough sugarcane develops a canopy relatively slowly (especially for a C 4 species),evapotranspiration of a fully canopied crop is a little higher than that from short grass(Inman-Bamber and McGlinchey, 2003). Depending on climate, peak evapotranspiration ratesranges from 6 to 15 mm/day (Thompson, 1976), and annual ET is between 800 and 2 000 mmof water. At least 850 mm of water per year is required for sustainable rainfed production.For commercial production, full irrigation is practised when annual rainfall is less than800 mm and supplemental irrigation is applied when annual rainfall is less than 1 000 mm.Irrigation is applied using furrow, sprinkler (portable and centre pivot) and drip systemsand scheduled according to soil water status as determined by (1) direct measurements ofsoil water potential (threshold -40 to -80 kPa) or soil water content (threshold 50 percentof available capacity) or by (2) profit and loss method using weather data (Carr and Knox,2011). The latter involves estimates of reference evapotranspiration determined from UnitedStates Department of Agriculture (USDA) Class A-pan evaporation, evaporation mini-pansor weather data and crop canopy cover (crop factor). Profit and loss methods include simplecalculations or complex methods using simulation models.Adequate irrigation is important during crop establishment and during the stalk growthphase. Irrigations could be reduced during the tiller and maturation phases withoutsignificant yield losses (Carr and Knox, 2011). In fact, controlled water deficit during the dryout period near harvest increases sugar content per unit dry stalk biomass and can enhancesugar yield.Sugarcane 177
Response to stressLow temperatureSugarcane is sensitive to low temperatures. A substantial amount of work has been done toassess the minimum temperature required in the field for various developmental and growthprocesses. Depending on the process and the particular study, the minimum temperaturerequired was found in the range of 9 o C to 19 o C (Inman-Bamber 1994; Lingle, 1999).Nonetheless, as mentioned, the base temperature for AquaCrop is tentatively set at 9 o C at thetime of this publication. Frost damage occurs on actively growing parts when they are exposedto freezing temperatures, resulting in the death of the growing points and a subsequent dropin cane quality due to side shooting. In severe cases the entire stalk may die.WaterSugarcane can tolerate some drought. Elongation of leaves and stalk are much more sensitivethan photosynthesis to water stress. Stalk height and its increase has been used as an indicatorof irrigation needs in management. Although growth and cane yield are reduced generallywhen available soil-water content (TAW) drops below 50 percent, during the maturationphase, periods of mild water deficit (TAW between 80 and 50 percent) actually enhancedsucrose accumulation and sucrose yields (Inman-Bamber et al., 2002; Smith and Inman-Bamber,2005), by restricting leaf and stalk fibre growth and storing the assimilates as sucrose in thestalk. Largely grown in tropical and subtropical climates with substantial rainfall, sugarcaneappears to be exceptionally resistant to waterlogging, withstanding periods of up to 14 daysof shallow standing water or saturated soil in a Florida study (Glaz and Morris, 2010).FertilitySugarcane requires appreciable quantities of fertilizer because of its high biomass production.As for other crops, nutrient uptake rates are most rapid during the early phase (tillering and stalkelongation) when biomass accumulation rates are high (Golden and Ricaud, 1963). Sugarcanecan grow in a wide range of soils but prefers deep, well-drained soils with an optimum pH ofbetween 6 and 7.5. A sugarcane crop producing 100 tonne of fresh stalks can remove 120-200 kgnitrogen/ha, 20-40 kg phosphorus/ha and 150-300 kg potassium/ha. High levels of nitrogenare undesirable during the maturation phase as nitrogen promotes vegetative growth at theexpense of sucrose accumulation.SalinitySugarcane is moderately sensitive to salinity and sensitive to sodicity (Nelson and Ham,2000). High salinity can induce water stress and symptoms include wilting, scorching of leavesand restricted growth. Soil salinity, measured as saturated paste electrical conductivity, ofless than 20 dS/m have little or no effect on crop growth, cane yields decrease between30-40 dS/m, with 40 dS/m representing the economic production threshold (Rozeff, 1995).178crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
Page 144 and 145: A number of studies indicate that s
Page 146: ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
Page 150 and 151: Figure 1 World barley harvested are
Page 152: Barley development may be thought o
Page 155 and 156: The seasonal water requirements for
Page 159 and 160: Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
Page 161: sowing usually starts in late Septe
Page 164 and 165: loss. If water stress is severe eno
Page 166: ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
Page 170: Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
Page 173: Response to StressesCotton stands o
Page 176: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 181 and 182: spring. In double cropping, sowing
Page 183 and 184: size as affected by soil water defi
Page 186: sunflower 171
Page 191: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 209 and 210: Tomato requires soils with proper w
Page 211 and 212: and there is frequent wetting of ex
Page 213 and 214: is so excessive that fruit setting
Page 217 and 218: Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
Page 219 and 220: North Africa and near East ranges f
Page 221 and 222: Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
Page 223 and 224: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 228 and 229: Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
Page 231 and 232: Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
Page 233 and 234: SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
Page 237 and 238: Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
Page 239 and 240: Generally, the growing season begin
Page 241 and 242: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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