Crop yield response to water - Cra

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Figure 1 Typical developmental stages of sorghum (FAO 2011).Area harvestedYield1001.8901.6Area harvested (million ha)80706050403020100196119641967197019731976197919821985198819911994199720002003200620091.41.210.80.60.40.20Average yield (tonne/ha)Figure 2 Sorghum harvested area (GAEZ, 2011).Reference year 2000Sorghum 145
sowing usually starts in late September and continues to October; although late sowing maytake place between the end of November to the beginning of January. In Sudan and BurkinaFaso, sorghum planting starts in late May and continues up to early July, but late plantingstake place from late July until early August in areas of erratic rainfall in West Africa. Sorghum isnormally planted from mid-October to mid-December in Southern Africa. Season length of earlymaturing sorghum cultivars, which include most hybrids, is 110 days or even less, whereas longseason sorghum may last as long as 5 to 7 months.In rainfed situations, plant populations may range from 50 000 to 150 000 plant/ha, withlow densities in the low rainfall areas. Under irrigation or non-limiting moisture, 120 000 to200 000 plant/ha are generally recommended. Overly high plant populations increase plantcompetition, increase the chances of charcoal rot, and may increase water use. The advantageof more heads per unit land area is counterbalanced by reduced head size, leading to verylittle increase in grain yield. On low fertility soils with low input management in some Africancountries, 50 000 plant/ha have been found to be optimal. As for sweet sorghum, 110 000 to120 000 plant/ha have been found to be optimal for the rainy season in India.Sorghum grown mixed with assorted pulse crops for domestic consumption is a traditional practiceof poor dryland farmers in India and Africa. Sorghum intercropped with pigeonpea at 2:1 rowratio is a prevalent cropping system on Vertisols in India. Paired rows of sorghum intercroppedwith paired rows of groundnut at a 4:2 row ratio in India, and sorghum intercropping withcowpea at 2:2 row ratios in Africa, are also popular with farmers on Alfisols with short growingseasons. Post-rainy season sorghum, after rainy season fallow, is most common on Vertisols inIndia and Ethiopia. In China and the United States sorghum is frequently grown with irrigationafter the first season soybean, or after winter wheat as a double crop.Growth and DevelopmentAs a C 4 crop, sorghum does not tolerate cool temperature regimes. For seed germination, theminimum temperature is about 8 o C, and optimum temperature, 21–35 o C (Peacock, 1982).Under field conditions, a minimum soil temperature in the range of 15–18 o C is required for80 percent emergence in 10-12 days. Normally in the field emergence takes 5–10 days. Panicleinitiation takes place after approximately one-third of the growth cycle, after the last leaf hasinitiated and about one-third of total leaf area has developed. Rapid leaf development andstem elongation follow panicle initiation. Rapid growth of the panicle starts after all but thelast two or three leaves emerge. By the time the flag leaf is visible, all but the final 3 to 4 leavesare fully expanded and light interception is approaching its maximum; a few lower leaves maybegin to senesce if nitrogen is not plentiful or the crop is planted very densely.The rate of leaf appearance in sorghum is closely related to thermal time. When temperatureis not limiting, it takes about 2 days for each new leaf to emerge. For a cultivar with 18 leaves,in India a typical phenology and growth stages of 0 to 9 (as defined by Vanderlip and Reeves,1972) are as follows: emergence (0); 3-leaf stage (6 days after emergence, 6 DAE/6); 5-leaf stage(16 DAE/10); panicle initiation (32 DAE/16, approximately 9 leaf stage); flag leaf appearance(50 DAE/18, tip of final leaf visible in the whorl); boot stage (head enlarges in flag leaf sheath,60 DAE/10 ); 50 percent flowering (68 DAE/8, half of the plants complete pollination, fromthe tip downwards); soft dough stage (80 DAE/12 squeezing kernel between fingers results146crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
Page 109 and 110: Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
Page 113 and 114: When nutrition is limiting, yield p
Page 116: wheat 101
Page 120 and 121: Figure 1 World rice harvested area
Page 123: Response to StressesBecause rice ev
Page 129 and 130: Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
Page 132 and 133: emergence to flowering is about 65
Page 135 and 136: ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
Page 140: Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
Page 144 and 145: A number of studies indicate that s
Page 146: ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
Page 150 and 151: Figure 1 World barley harvested are
Page 152: Barley development may be thought o
Page 155 and 156: The seasonal water requirements for
Page 159: Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
Page 164 and 165: loss. If water stress is severe eno
Page 166: ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
Page 170: Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
Page 173: Response to StressesCotton stands o
Page 176: FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
Page 181 and 182: spring. In double cropping, sowing
Page 183 and 184: size as affected by soil water defi
Page 186: sunflower 171
Page 191 and 192: to produce energy (electricity from
Page 193 and 194: Response to stressLow temperatureSu
Page 196: Sugarcane 181
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1 World potato harvested are
Page 202 and 203: initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
Page 204: ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
Page 209 and 210: Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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