Crop yield response to water - Cra

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Figure 1 World rice harvested area and average yield over the period 1961-2009 (FAO, 2011).Area harvestedYield20051804.5Area harvested (million ha)1601401201008060402001961196419671970197319761979198219851988199119941997200020032006200943.532.521.510.50Average yield (t / ha)Figure 2 Rice harvested area (GAEZ, 2011).Reference year 2000rice 105
historically grown under shifting cultivation with long fallow periods (more than 15 years). Atthe turn of the twentieth century, most of Asia’s upland rice areas have made the transition topermanent systems where rice is grown every year, while 14 percent of the Asian upland ricearea still practises shifting cultivation with shorter fallow periods (3-5 years). In Central andWest Africa, the rice belt of Africa, upland areas represent about 40 percent of the area underrice cultivation but involve about 70 percent of the region’s rice farmers.Growth and developmentLowland rice is usually grown in ‘puddled’ fields. Puddling consists of harrowing or rototillingunder shallow submerged conditions, and is done to control weeds, to reduce soil permeability,and to ease transplanting. After puddling, land is levelled under wet conditions. A typicalvertical cross-section through a puddled rice field shows a layer of 0-0.10 m ponded water,a puddled, muddy topsoil of 0.10-0.20 m, a plow pan that is formed by decades or centuriesof puddling, and an undisturbed subsoil. Rice roots are usually contained within the puddledlayer and are quite shallow.The dominant method of crop establishment in most rice areas is by transplanting. Rice is firstraised in a separate seedbed. Seeds are pre-germinated and are broadcast into either a floodedor wet soil surface in the nursery at a rate of 500 to 800 kg/ha. At transplanting (12-25 days afterestablishment for modern cultivars, whereas it takes 40 days or more for traditional cultivars),the plant densities are equivalent to seeding rates of 40-50 kg/ha. Two to three seedlings arenormally hand transplanted in hills 0.15 to 0.30 m apart. Hybrid rice is usually transplanted asone seedling per hill, while some local cultivars are planted with 5-6 seedlings per hill. Each plantdevelops three to seven tillers, dependent on nutrient status, cultivar, and seedling density. In agood crop stand, the number of grain-bearing panicles will reach 400-600/ m 2 in the dry season,and 300-400/m 2 in the wet season (for common indica cultivars in the tropics).Rice can also be established directly in the field by wet or dry seeding (broadcasting pregerminatedseeds onto wet or flooded soil or sowing dry seeds in dry or moist soil). Seeds arebroadcast or sown in rows of 20-30 cm spacing, at the rate of 80 to 250 kg/ha (Rice KnowledgeBank, IRRI). In recent years the trend in Asia is toward more direct seeding. In commercialproduction fields of the United States and Spain, seeds are commonly broadcast from airplanes.The duration of the growing cycle (from germination to maturity) of rice depends on cultivarand location, ranging from 90 days for short-duration modern tropical cultivars, to 180 daysfor traditional or modern cultivars in subtropical and temperate environments. Cultivardifferences in growth duration are determined by changes in the time from germination tobeginning flowering (60 to 150 days), while the time from beginning flowering to maturityis pretty constant and lasts about 30 days in the tropics but can go up to 65 days in cool,temperate regions The growth and development of rice is temperature dependent (Kropff etal., 1994), stopping at average temperatures below the base temperature, which is tentativelyset at 8 °C for rice in AquaCrop. Most tropical cultivars die when, in the early vegetativegrowth phase, the average daytime temperature drops below 12 °C for more than threeconsecutive days. Generally, damage to the pollen occurs when the temperature at floweringis outside the range of 8 to 35 °C. Though many traditional rice cultivars are photoperiodsensitive (shortening day lengths induce flowering), most modern high-yielding ones are not.(See Figure 3 for typical development).106crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
Page 72: Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
Page 75 and 76: for each planting date. If there ar
Page 77: ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
Page 83 and 84: Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
Page 88 and 89: Table 2Additional information and d
Page 90 and 91: capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
Page 95 and 96: densities. This range is referred t
Page 97 and 98: Table 3Comparison of simulated with
Page 99 and 100: In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
Page 102: REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
Page 107 and 108: Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
Page 109 and 110: Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
Page 113 and 114: When nutrition is limiting, yield p
Page 116: wheat 101
Page 123: Response to StressesBecause rice ev
Page 129 and 130: Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
Page 132 and 133: emergence to flowering is about 65
Page 135 and 136: ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
Page 140: Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
Page 144 and 145: A number of studies indicate that s
Page 146: ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
Page 150 and 151: Figure 1 World barley harvested are
Page 152: Barley development may be thought o
Page 155 and 156: The seasonal water requirements for
Page 159 and 160: Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
Page 161: sowing usually starts in late Septe
Page 164 and 165: loss. If water stress is severe eno
Page 166: ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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