Career Guidance Policies in 11 Acceding and Candidate Countries

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCEPOLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING ANDCANDIDATE COUNTRIESSYNTHESIS REPORTJULY 2003

THE EUROPEAN TRAINING FOUNDATION IS THEEUROPEAN UNION’S CENTRE OF EXPERTISESUPPORTING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAININGREFORM IN THIRD COUNTRIES IN THE CONTEXT OFTHE EU EXTERNAL RELATIONS PROGRAMMESHOW TO CONTACT USFurther information on our activities, calls fortender and job opportunities can be found onour web site: www.etf.eu.int.For any additional information please contact:External Communication UnitEuropean Training FoundationVilla GualinoViale Settimio Severo 65I – 10133 TorinoT +39 011 630 2222F +39 011 630 2200E info@etf.eu.int

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCEPOLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING ANDCANDIDATE COUNTRIESSYNTHESIS REPORTJuly 2003Prepared by: Professor Ronald G. Sultana – Director, Euro-Mediterranean Centre for EducationalResearch, University of MaltaGuidance Review Coordinator: Helmut Zelloth – Country Manager for Poland, Estonia and Latvia,European Training Foundation (ETF)Special thanks to Alison Kennedy and Dragana Gligorijevic for assistance with the final documentThis synthesis report was the subject of an official consultation process with the ministries concernedin 11 Acceding and Candidate Countries and is based on 11 national reports (using the OECDQuestionnaire on Career Guidance Policies) and its country summaries (see Appendix) prepared bythe following Experts/National Coordinators:Bulgaria: Nadezhda Kamburova, Svetlana Nickolova and Evgenia Petkova, Cyprus: GeorgeChristodoulides, Estonia: Margit Rammo, Mare Juske, Katrin Mälksoo and Mari Saari, Hungary:Laszlo Zachar, Istvan Kiszter and Andras Vladiszavljev, Latvia: Zinta Daija, Lithuania: JonéSikorskiené, Malta: Ronald G. Sultana, Poland: Wojciech Kreft and Wlodzimierz Trzeciak, Romania:Mihai Jigãu, Slovakia: Stefan Grajcar, Irena Fondova and Jozef Detko, Slovenia: Saša Niklanovic

A great deal of additional information on theEuropean Union is available on the Internet. Itcan be accessed through the Europa server(http://europa.eu.int).Cataloguing data can be found at the end ofthis publication.Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications ofthe European Communities, 2002.ISBN 92-9157-349-3Reproduction is authorised, provided thesource is acknowledged.Printed in Italy

TABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWORD 5EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 71. INTRODUCTION 111.1 Background to the Commission’s focus on career guidance 111.2 Background to the Acceding and Candidate Country Review 122. CAREER GUIDANCE AND PUBLIC POLICY 152.1 Policy challenges for career guidance 152.2 The special challenge of lifelong learning 162.3 Implications for career guidance 163. DELIVERING CAREER GUIDANCE MORE EFFECTIVELY 193.1 Meeting the needs of young people in schools and tertiary education 193.2 Meeting the career guidance needs of out-of-school young people 223.3 Meeting the career guidance needs of adults 223.4 Widening community access through more and innovative diverse delivery 243.5 Providing career information more effectively 254. RESOURCING CAREER GUIDANCE 294.1 Staffing career guidance 294.2 Funding career guidance 315. IMPROVING STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 335.1 Strategic leadership 335.2 Evidence and data 345.3 Legislation and regulations 355.4 Quality standards 365.5 Improving stakeholder involvement 366. CONCLUSIONS – THE KEY ISSUES 396.1 General conclusions 396.2 Key challenges 396.3 The way forward 413

ANNEX 43BULGARIA 43CYPRUS 47ESTONIA 51HUNGARY 55LATVIA 59LITHUANIA 63MALTA 67POLAND 71ROMANIA 75SLOVAKIA 79SLOVENIA 834

FOREWORDHelmut Zelloth, ETF Guidance Review CoordinatorStimulated by the discussions on theemerging knowledge economy as well asthe lifelong learning perspective and anumber of related initiatives at Europeanlevel 1 , career information, guidance andcounselling are moving up the policyagenda at national and international level.In this context, in December 2002 theEuropean Commission set up an ExpertGroup on “Lifelong Guidance” which has amandate to develop a commonunderstanding of basic concepts andunderlying principles for guidance and toreflect on the European dimension ofguidance for education, training andemployment systems. This Group iscomposed of officials from education andlabour ministries, experts, social partners,NGOs representing consumers, youngpeople and parents from both MemberStates and Acceding and CandidateCountries (ACCs) as well as internationalbodies.The work of this Expert Group is supportedby an important body of information comingfrom reviews on career guidance policiesthat have been implemented by severalinternational organisations, such as theOECD, the European Commission, theWorld Bank, CEDEFOP and the ETF. Allactivities are closely linked, and expertsfrom each organisation are participating inreviews, site visits, analytical meetings andsteering committees.In 2002, at the request of the EuropeanCommission, the ETF collected informationon guidance and counselling policies in 11ACCs 2 , focusing on the following keyissues: key goals and policy instruments,roles of stakeholders, targeting andaccess, staffing and financing, qualityassurance, delivery settings and methods,and evidence base. Country reports wereprepared by 11 independent nationalexperts with the support of the NationalObservatories, and the present draftsynthesis report has been drawn up by aninternational expert, reflecting the keyfindings of the review.Before publication both the country reportsand the synthesis report have been thesubject of an official consultation processwith the relevant ministries in the ACCs,and will be followed by specificdissemination activities and events.All these developments as well as theiroutputs are expected to give an additionaldrive to the strengthening of careerguidance policies in different geographicalregions, including ACCs.The latter havedemonstrated a high commitment tolearning from good practice and standardsin the education and labour market fieldand in increasingly engaging ininternational co-operation.We believe that this information will allowboth policy-makers and practitioners torelate and benchmark their activities betterwithin the international context, as well asstimulate initiatives to develop furthernational career guidance systems andstructures based on a shared lifelonglearning vision.1 European-wide consultation process on the Lifelong Learning Memorandum, the Communication on LifelongLearning of the European Commission, the process of Enhanced European Cooperation in VET and theprocess on the Future Objectives of Education and Training Systems2 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia. TheCzech Republic was covered by the OECD Review and Turkey by the World Bank Review5

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe provision of career information andguidance throughout a citizen’s life hasbecome an issue of great importanceworldwide, as societies preparethemselves to meet the challenges that thetransition to knowledge-based economiesrepresents. An unprecedented researcheffort has in fact been initiated by theOECD, which has distributed a dedicatedquestionnaire to 14 countriesinternationally in order to create a baselineof information on the current state of policydevelopment in career guidance. Thatsame survey instrument has been used byCEDEFOP to gather data on the remainingEU countries, and by the ETF in relation to11 ACCs . The World Bank has initiated aparallel review in a number ofmiddle-income countries, again using theOECD questionnaire. The thematic reviewby these key partners will lead to thedevelopment of the most extensiveharmonised international database ever onguidance policy and practice.This synthesis report summarises the stateof play in the development of careerinformation and guidance in both theeducation and labour market sectors inBulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania,Slovakia and Slovenia. Experts from eachof these countries have written a report,structured around the OECD survey and onthe basis of their own knowledge of thefield, often following extensive consultationwith key partners.The broad purpose of this exercise is, firstof all, to provide an account of the mostrecent and most significant developments,trends, challenges and major issues, aswell as the strengths and weaknesses, ofnational career information and guidancesystems and policies, in such a way as torender the data susceptible to comparativeanalysis. Secondly, the synthesis reportaims to facilitate the generation ofbenchmarks, enabling the countries thatparticipated in the review to gauge howwell they are doing in career informationand guidance provision in relation to othercomparable countries, and to facilitate thesharing of good practice. Thirdly, the reportshould prove to be a useful tool for thedevelopment of policy, particularly asACCs have acknowledged the centrality oflifelong learning in their strategic responseto the challenges of integration in theglobal economy generally, and in the EUmore specifically, and the value of careerinformation and guidance throughout lifefor citizens within that context.The synthesis report consists of sixsections, which closely follow the OECDoutline in order to facilitate comparisonbetween the different reports once thesebecome available. In the Annex, expertsresponsible for writing up the detailedcountry reports have contributed asummary providing an overview of the keyelements of the national arrangements forcareers information and guidance, outliningthe strengths, weaknesses, issues andchallenges for their systems.The first section provides a background tothe Commission’s involvement in thecareer information and guidance review. Italso outlines briefly the geopolitical,economic and cultural contexts of the 11countries surveyed, particularly in so far asthese impact on career guidance provision.The second section focuses on the policychallenges for career information andguidance in terms of national objectives.The latter include the upgrading of theknowledge and skills base of the7

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESpopulation, with a view to addressingunemployment, to meeting the demands ofknowledge-based economies, and toensuring that the labour supply anddemand are in harmony. Another set ofchallenges arises from a social policycontext that seeks to ensure equitabledistribution of education and employmentopportunities, with guidance serviceshaving a key role to play as activemeasures in combating early schoolleaving, facilitating the integration of at-riskgroups in both education and the labourmarket, and reducing poverty.Governments in ACCs – and to a lesserextent, the private sector – haveacknowledged the important contributionthat career guidance can make in reachingthese educational, employment and socialobjectives, and indeed have launchedseveral initiatives to underscore theircommitment to the cause. Nevertheless,while the discourse around careerguidance has intensified, it appears that insome cases that discourse has outstrippedpractice, and plans tend to suffer from alack of implementation.The third section constitutes the heart ofthe report, as it considers several aspectsthat contribute to the more effectivedelivery of career guidance. An initialfocus is the services provided in theeducation sector. Here attention is givento the extent to which guidance is astand-alone activity offered infrequentlyand at key transition and decision-makingpoints, which seems to be the key modalityof provision when compared to othermodels where guidance issues permeatethe curriculum. Attention is also given tothe initiatives that help to connect theschool with the world of work; to theinstruments used in delivering guidance; tothe groups that are targeted; and to theeducation sectors where services arenon-existent (namely primary schooling), orwhere they are most present (secondarylevel), or where they are on the increase(tertiary level, including universities).A second focus is on the employmentsector, and the extent to which adultsreceive guidance as they negotiateoccupational and further education andtraining trajectories in a lifelong learningsociety. The synthesis report highlights thefact that most adult guidance is offered inthe context of public employment services,and that it tends to be remedial in nature,narrowly targeted at unemployed people,with the immediate goal of finding thememployment. Other key trends noted arethe lack of cross-sectorial collaboration,and the minor involvement of the privatesector in the provision of adult guidance,where at best they function asjob-brokerage services. One aspect ofguidance that has witnessed a great dealof development in most ACCs is the use ofICT (Information and CommunicationTechnology) to ensure more effective andwidespread provision of education- andcareer-related information to thecommunity. There is also a gradual trend toincreased input and involvement bystakeholders, and to a shift in the modalityof service whereby clients are providedwith the resources to assess their needsand aspirations, and to match these withemployment opportunities. A key issuecutting across the whole of this section isthe lack of a sound evidence base thatwould permit the evaluation of theeffectiveness of the guidance service inreaching its objectives.Section four considers the human andfinancial resources dedicated to careerguidance. In most ACCs, staff involved inoffering guidance services have a higherlevel of education – often in psychology orthe humanities – though not all have hadspecialised pre-service training in the field.Trends include increased opportunities forin-service training, and the gradualprofessionalisation of career guidancethrough the specification of entry andqualification routes, the articulation ofclearly defined occupational roles, thedrawing up of a formal code of ethics, andthe formation of associations and networksthat may have a research and trainingfunction. Most ACCs report that theprofession tends to attract women in themain, and that the qualifications andtraining routes for staff employed in theeducation sector tend to be different fromthose for staff engaged in the employmentsector. The information about the financialresources allocated to career guidance isextremely sketchy and inconclusive. Most8

of the budget for careers information andguidance services comes from the state,with few ACCs reporting any substantialinvestment in the activity by the privatesector.Section five synthesises the observationsmade by experts from the ACCs in terms ofthe strategic leadership that is exercisedin the field of career guidance, and of howthis could be strengthened. Despite the factthat there have been several noteworthydevelopments, a general conclusion thatcan be drawn is that there is a need forstronger mechanisms to providecoordination and leadership in articulatingstrategies for lifelong access to guidancewithin a national policy framework that isboth dynamic and adequately resourced.As things stand at the moment, careerguidance still tends to be seen bygovernments as a marginal activity. Thereis also much scope for a more vigorousrole for the private sector and stakeholders,in a field where, curiously, trade union inputseems to be particularly weak. Littleevaluation is carried out to monitor qualityin service provision, or to measureeffectiveness, particularly in relation tospecific performance targets and outputs.While examples of good practice exist in anumber of the countries surveyed, a morerobust evidence base is required ifguidance is to be provided in a way thatresponds to the distinct needs of adifferentiated clientele.Section six provides a concluding noteidentifying the main challenges as well asthe way forward for career guidance in thecountries surveyed. While none of theACCs on its own holds the key foraddressing the most pressing issues thatare identified, collectively they certainlyprovide a rich thesaurus of good practicefrom which policy-makers and practitionerscan draw inspiration.9

1. INTRODUCTION11.1 BACKGROUND TO THECOMMISSION’S FOCUS ONCAREER GUIDANCE1.1.1 Career guidance has been identifiedas one of the main priorities foraction in the European Commission’sCommunication on Lifelong Learning. 3 Assuch, the Commission has decided tocreate a baseline of information on thecurrent state of policy development incareer guidance in Europe, through asurvey using a dedicated questionnaireprepared by the OECD. This questionnairehas already been used in 14 countries 4 aspart of an OECD thematic review, in anattempt to develop benchmarks – enablingparticipating countries to gauge how wellthey are doing in career guidance provisionin relation to other comparable countries –and to facilitate the sharing of goodpractice, providing countries with anopportunity to promote their successes andto learn from practices elsewhere. On thebasis of the proven usefulness of theOECD survey, the Commission, with thehelp of CEDEFOP, has extended thecollection of information to the remainingEU Member States, with the ETFoverseeing the same exercise in relation to11 ACCs (namely Bulgaria, Cyprus,Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta,Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia).The World Bank, for its part, has launcheda parallel review in a number ofmiddle-income countries (including Chile,Russia, the Philippines, Turkey and SouthAfrica), again using the OECDquestionnaire. The involvement of thesekey partners – all using the same surveytool – will lead to the development of themost extensive harmonised internationaldatabase ever on guidance policy andpractice.3 Commission of the European Communities (2001), Making a European Area of Lifelong Learning a Reality,COM(2001) 678, pp.17-18.4 The countries that took part in this review are Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland,Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, UK, Australia, Canada, and Korea. For an account of the processadopted for the purpose of this review, see R. Sweet (2001), Career information, guidance and counsellingservices: policy perspectives. Australian Journal of Career Development, Vol.10(2), pp.11-14. Materialrelating to the OECD review can be accessed at the following website: www.oecd.org11

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES1.1.2 The main motive behind theCommission’s interest in this area isthe consideration of how the organisationand delivery of occupational informationand career guidance services mightadvance the public policy objectives oflifelong learning and active employmentand welfare policies. Other than thecollection of baseline information, theCommission has decided to set up anexpert group, the European LifelongGuidance Group, in order to provide anopportunity to key policy-makers in eachmember state, as well as in ACCs, to sharetheir experiences and to consider whichinitiatives might be appropriate at theEuropean level.1.2 BACKGROUND TO THEACCEDING AND CANDIDATECOUNTRY REVIEW1.2.1 The present synthesis reportprovides an analytic account of themost recent and most significantdevelopments, trends, challenges andmajor issues, as well as strengths andweaknesses of national guidancesystems and policies, as reported byexperts from the 11 ACCs responsible forresponding to the survey instrumentdesigned by the OECD. 5 These expertscompleted their task on the basis of theirown in-depth knowledge of careerguidance in their country, and in someinstances after an extensive consultationexercise with key decision-makers andproviders in the field. The presentsynthesis report strives to develop a strongcomparative dimension: this is justifiedby virtue of the fact that all the countriesinvolved in the study are one step awayfrom accession to the EU, and their ownpolicy-making has been greatly influencedby EU policies, including the EU SocialCharter, EU Employment Action Plans, andstructural indicators that focus onemployment, innovation, social inclusionand economic reforms. Comparison isparticularly justified in the case of the nineACCs that have only recently embarked onthe transition from a centrally planned to ademocratic market economy, which meansthat they have to deal with ‘radical changesin the role of the state, the individual andthe economy’ that have ‘an immense effecton the starting point, nature, andinvestment in, career development’. 6Indeed, most of these countries report anintensification of interest in careerguidance. This is understandable, giventhat labour supply and demand werepreviously an outcome of state planning,and as a result insecurity aboutemployment and economic futures is arelatively new experience for many citizensin central and eastern Europe. 71.2.2 Despite the similarities, however,one must not lose sight of the veryreal differences – geopolitical,economic and cultural – both betweenand sometimes even within countries. The11 ACCs reviewed in this context includesome large nations, such as Poland,Romania and Hungary; small states, suchas Estonia, Slovenia, Latvia and Lithuania;and micro states with populations less thana million, such as Malta and Cyprus. At themacro level, scale can matter when, forinstance, it comes to managing adecentralisation process, and to developingstrong municipal career service structuresoperating within the framework of asteering national policy. At the micro levelscale can also matter in shapingoccupational destinations, not leastbecause small, close-knit societies aremore likely to develop extensive personalnetworks in which ‘who you know’ cansometimes be more decisive than ‘whatyou know’ in clinching a job. Some of theACCs have a relatively homogeneousethnic composition (e.g. Malta, Poland,Slovenia), while others are quite5 In drawing up this report, the work of the author was greatly facilitated by the draft outline structure of the finalOECD report coordinated by Richard Sweet, and by feedback provided by Helmut Zelloth (coordinator of theETF project on career guidance), Haralabos Fragoulis and Jean-Raymond Masson (ETF), Anthony G. Watts(OECD), John McCarthy (European Commission), as well as by the experts who wrote the respectivecandidate country reports.6 See D. H. Fretwell & P. Plant (2001), Career development policy models: synthesis paper. Paper presentedat the Second International Symposium on Career Development and Public Policy, Vancouver, Canada, p.1.7 See European Training Foundation (2000), Careers Guidance and Counselling: theory and practice for the21st century. Report of the conference held in Budapest, Hungary, 29-31 March 2000.12

1. INTRODUCTIONmultiethnic (e.g. Estonia, Latvia). Some,such as Bulgaria, Romania and Slovakia,have significant numbers of minoritygroups. There are also significantdifferences between the ACCs in the percapita income they can command (withCyprus, Malta and Slovenia going beyondthe 10 000 threshold and the rest rangingbetween 5 500 and 9 500 per capita). Insome countries, the political contextencourages stakeholders to makeimportant contributions to thepolicy-making process as well as toprovision of services. Other states fromamong the ACCs are more reluctant toadopt a social partnership model. Differenthistories, traditions, ideologies and policyregimes have an impact on shaping theeducation systems in the different ACCs,with some only recently beginning toquestion centralised systems thatencourage early streaming and tracking,and that seriously limit the extent to whichindividuals and their families can ‘choose’educational and occupational trajectories.Career guidance is an old tradition in someof the countries involved in this review:Poland’s service started in 1918, forinstance, while guidance services werealready being offered in Latvia andLithuania in 1929 and 1931 respectively. Inmany other countries, however, careerguidance is a recent service, with littletradition to build upon. Culturally too thereare significant differences, with religion(mainly Christian – with its Catholic,Orthodox and Protestant varieties – butMuslim as well) and the family playing quitesignificant roles when it comes to shapingyoung people’s futures, occupationally orotherwise. All these factors, together withthe variable composition of the differentcountries’ economies, have a significantimpact on the way career guidance isperceived, on how it is organised, on thechallenges that have to be overcome andon the issues that need to be addressed.13

2. CAREER GUIDANCE ANDPUBLIC POLICY22.1 POLICY CHALLENGES FORCAREER GUIDANCE2.1.1 Despite the diversity ofsocio-economic, cultural andeducational contexts that mark the 11ACCs under review, all face a broad setof similar challenges for education,labour market and social policies that haveimplications for career guidance andinformation systems. Through a variety ofnational policy documents, as well asthrough reports and analyses producedduring the process leading up to accessionto the European Union, all ACCs havearticulated goals that include the upgradingof the knowledge and skills base of thepopulation with a view to addressingunemployment, to meeting the demands offorward-looking knowledge-basedeconomies, and to ensuring that the laboursupply and demand are in harmony. Forthose ACCs emerging from the experienceof decades of centrally planned economies,such challenges and goals are particularlypressing.2.1.2 All ACCs have also firmly locatedsuch goals within a social policycontext that seeks to ensure equitabledistribution of education and employmentopportunities. Guidance and counsellingservices are indeed seen to be activemeasures to reduce school drop-out rates,to facilitate the fuller integration of at-riskgroups into both education and the labourmarket and to reduce poverty. Educationaland career guidance are thereforeincreasingly promoted as an effectivepolicy strategy not only to reduce gendersegmentation, but also to assist personswith disability, immigrant groups, ethnicminorities and ex-convicts to re-engagepathways that lead to fuller social andeconomic integration.15

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES2.2 THE SPECIAL CHALLENGEOF LIFELONG LEARNING2.2.1 A key consideration here is thespecial challenge that is posed bylifelong learning, with guidance beingseen as a key tool facilitating personaldevelopment and employment in relationto the need for a constant engagement withlearning and training. Partly as a result ofthe desire to participate more effectively inthe global economy, but also in responseto the invitation made by the EUCommission to member and accessioncountries to consider its Lifelong LearningMemorandum, ACCs have started toformulate national lifelong learning policiesthat have implications for the way citizensflow through and between educational andwork pathways. Most ACCs have in factembarked on a set of reforms that strive tomake compulsory schooling moreresponsive to the differentiated learningneeds of students, encouraging learners tobe more proactive in opting for trajectoriesthat, while taking them closer to the worldof work, nevertheless keep them engagedin learning. Through a range of initiatives,including more flexible but coherentpathways, the acknowledgement oflearning achievement through alternativeassessment strategies that openly andtransparently recognise experience andcompetence, and the burgeoning ofopportunities for adult learning both withinand away from work contexts, youngpeople and older citizens are beingencouraged to develop those skill andattitudinal profiles that will be increasinglyrequired in post-Fordist, high-abilitysocieties. There is indeed a clearrecognition of the fact that as pathwaysbecome more diversified but linked, and asthe openings into further education andtraining multiply, groups and individualsshould increasingly benefit fromtransparent and easily accessibleinformation, supported where appropriateby guidance.2.3 IMPLICATIONS FORCAREER GUIDANCE2.3.1 The ACC reports collectively signalan increasing realisation on thepart of governments – though, apparently,less so on the part of the private sector –that career information and guidance, bothin and through education as well as thelabour market, are central to any policy thatseeks to increase access to learning, tobolster learning completion rates, toincrease the national stock of skills, toensure their flexible deployment bothnationally and Europe-wide, to reduceunemployment, and to enhance theindividual’s employability throughcompetent career management. At thepresent moment, in most of the ACCs, therealisation that occupational guidance is amarket-economy facilitator and also apotentially effective instrument to combatsocial exclusion tends to be more readilysustained by formal declarations – andsuch policy-steering mechanisms as newlegal provisions – than by actual practice.Thus, while the discourse around careerguidance has intensified, in the case ofmany ACCs that discourse has outstrippedactual practice. This will become clear as asynthesis of the main problems andchallenges that career guidance has toface is presented throughout this report.However, it must also be kept in mind thatthe writing of this synthesis is akin toshooting a moving target: changes aretaking place all the time, and it is difficult tokeep up with all the developments in policyimplementation.2.3.2 At this stage, however, it should benoted that several developmentshave been reported by different ACCsindicating the attractiveness of careerguidance as an important tool for helpingto achieve the range of education, labourmarket and social objectives outlinedearlier. Such developments will behighlighted throughout this report, andinclude: the promulgation of legal instrumentspromoting career guidance andstipulating it as a right of citizens (e.g. inBulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia); the extension of career guidanceservices to new client groups, such ashigher education students (e.g. inEstonia, Poland and Romania),students or registered unemployedpeople with disabilities (e.g. in Bulgaria16

2. CAREER GUIDANCE AND PUBLIC POLICYand Slovakia), those already inemployment (e.g. in Latvia) and parents(e.g. in Cyprus);the enhancement of access to servicesthrough regional provision (e.g. inEstonia, Latvia and Poland);the enhancement of access to services,in practically all the ACCs, through ICTand internet provision;the development of new tools, such asaptitude testing services (e.g. in Cyprusand Malta);the creative reconstitution of guidanceservices away from traditionalparadigms, in such a way as to offerintegrated services in modalities thatencourage clients to be more proactivein their search for information and intheir decision-making (e.g. the CIPS, orVocational Information and CounsellingCentres, in Slovenia);the articulation of professionalqualification standards for careercounsellors (e.g. in Estonia, Malta andPoland);the establishment – or intensification ofthe activities of – career guidanceassociations (e.g. in Estonia, Latvia,Poland and Romania);attempts to enhance cross-sectorialcollaboration (e.g. through theestablishment of National ResourceCentres for Vocational Guidance –Euroguidance Networks in the ACCs;and through the development ofstrategic plans to build up an integratedcareer guidance system, as in Poland).17

3. DELIVERING CAREERGUIDANCE MOREEFFECTIVELY33.1 MEETING THE NEEDS OFYOUNG PEOPLE IN SCHOOLSAND TERTIARY EDUCATION3.1.1 In most ACCs, as is the caseinternationally, much careerguidance takes place in the context ofthe school, in post compulsory educationsettings and increasingly in universities. Byfar the greatest provision is made at thesecondary school level, to the extent that inLatvia, for instance, schools at this levelcan only be accredited if they havevocational guidance activities. Generallyspeaking, little if any career guidance oreducation is provided at the primary schoollevel; Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia areexceptions among the ACCs in this regard.The timing of educational and vocationalguidance provision tends to depend on thestage at which key decisions must bemade by students as they flow through thepathways offered. Most often, therefore,service delivery is tied to immediatedecisions that must be made, rather thanbeing seen as a seamless processaccompanying students throughout theirstay at school and beyond.3.1.2 While some of the ACCs havespecialist staff to provide careerguidance services in schools (e.g. Cyprus,Malta and Slovenia), this is by no meansthe case for all. Slovakia does not have anoccupational category to fulfil careerguidance roles, which are entrusted toregular teachers. In some cases (e.g.Hungary, Latvia, and to a lesser extent,Bulgaria, Estonia and Romania), the classteacher is a key player in the provision ofservices at the secondary school level,even though he or she is not necessarilytrained in school-to-work transition matters.This leads to recourse to specialisedcareer guidance services outside theschool (e.g. teachers in Latvia referstudents to Professional CareerCounselling Centres). In Lithuania, schoolpsychologists are expected to providevocational guidance, but in reality, the latterservice is mainly delivered to students bylabour market training and counselling19

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESpersonnel. Across all ACCs, staff tend tohave multiple roles, often findingthemselves obliged to provide the wholerange of guidance services, includingpersonal counselling and educationalguidance, rather than focusing solely oncareer issues. Given the fact that many ofthe staff employed in guidance roles havea psychology background, and that schoolsare increasingly the places in which youngpeople act out their frustrations, there is atendency for personal counselling concernsto crowd out career guidance.3.1.3 At the secondary education level, anumber of ACCs report that careereducation, information and guidance is alsooffered through the curriculum (i.e. byformally allocating space in the weekly orsemestral time-table for the subject, asoccurs in Romania, and to a lesser extentin Cyprus), or across the curriculum (i.e.by formally addressing work-related issuesin different subjects, as occurs in Latvia,Malta and Poland). None of the ACCreports refer to cross-departmentalcurriculum development strategiesfacilitating coordinated efforts in careerguidance by different subject teachers.While this might happen on an ad hocbasis, or as part of a curricular projectwithin an innovative school, such activitiesare not prominent or common enough to behighlighted by any of the ACCs. In somecases, there is a desire to strengthen thebond between the world of work and thecurriculum. This is the declared intention inSlovakia’s National Employment Plan, forinstance, and in Malta’s new NationalCurriculum.3.1.4 Taken one level further, careerguidance as an activity does not yetseem to be considered to be part andparcel of the overall organisation of theeducational institution – what might bereferred to as a ‘whole-school approach’to guidance. Neither can we yet talk of theappearance of the ‘guidance-orientedschool’, where the function of careers staffis not merely to help young people to makeimmediate choices in relation to furtherstudy, training or work, but also to promotethe skills and attitudes that are required bylifelong learning and lifelong occupationaldevelopment. Thus, not only is it rare tofind a clearly articulated role for the careereducation curriculum within the generalschool programme of studies, it is also rareto have a clearly articulated role for othermembers of staff or the community moregenerally to contribute to career guidance.In most ACCs, alumni, parents, employersand, to a lesser extent, trade union leadersoccasionally visit schools and universitiesto share their knowledge and skills withyoung people. In particular, employersoften provide job-related information, whichis generally made available in careerguidance rooms or at career fairs orseminars. Generally speaking, employersand trade union representatives contributeto career fairs or exhibitions, which areorganised in practically all ACCs, often at anational level. However, while there aresome excellent initiatives to facilitatestakeholder input (e.g. in Estonia, Latviaand Lithuania), such involvement tends tobe sporadic and is dependent on thepersonal initiatives of institutions orindividuals rather than being part of anyinstitutionalised mechanism forcoordination, delivery or policy-making.3.1.5 Some of the ACCs provide ‘workshadowing’ and ‘work experience’opportunities for secondary level studentsin order to help them gain first-handknowledge of the world of work. While inmost cases the organisation of suchactivities depends on the initiatives takenby individual guidance staff or schools,there are examples of central policy leadsin this direction. Estonia, for instance, hasa ‘work shadowing day’ organised annuallyat national level. There is some evidencethat these kinds of activities are on theincrease (e.g. in Latvia). Cyprus, forinstance, has introduced a one-weekplacement in work contexts for Grade 11students, and is also planning to introducesummer work placements. Lithuania hasintroduced 15 hours of work experience atGrade 11 and another 15 hours at Grade12. Such initiatives, however, are morecommon in VET-type schools, such asthose in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Slovakia.Other ACCs have developed in-schoolprogrammes that encourage students toset up businesses, helping them to learnentrepreneurial skills experientially, underthe guidance or mentorship of established20

3. DELIVERING CAREER GUIDANCE MORE EFFECTIVELYmembers of the business community.Latvia and Estonia, for instance, participatein Junior Achievement, while Malta has theYoung Enterprise scheme, as well as theSCOOPS (Co-Ops in Schools) project.3.1.6 Career guidance is provided both toindividuals and within the context ofgroup settings. The predominance of apsychological orientation towardsvocational guidance in most ACCs means,however, that the former mode of deliveryis more common. Guidance seems to begenerally interpreted as an intervention inthe process of constructing one’soccupational identity in view of and on thebasis of individual characteristics andaspirations. The focus on individualself-fulfilment, while positive, tends toobscure the way that social and genderexperiences structure desires andtrajectories. Group career guidance, aswell as facilitating the linkage between thepersonal and the social in thedecision-making process, has the addedadvantage of ensuring wider access toservices. As many of the country reportsnote, schools are generally failing to satisfystudent demand for guidance, as thestaff-to-pupil ratio is inadequate if the onlyor primary modality of provision isbased on the individual guidanceinterview (e.g. the ratio is 1:800 in CypriotLyceums and TVE schools). There are,however, a number of examples of goodpractice that could provide a usefulcontrast to the sole reliance on individualprovision: in addition to the curricularprogrammes already noted, Malta andPoland, for instance, organise occupationalorientation workshops and seminars forgroups of students during their final year ofsecondary schooling.3.1.7 Much of the emphasis across alleducation sectors in the ACCsappears to be on provision of service. It isnoticeable that the idea of makingresources and contexts available in orderto encourage and enable young people toengage in self-directed careerexploration is slowly gaining ground.Pen-and-pencil (e.g. in Cyprus and Malta)and, less often, computer-basedself-assessment tests (e.g. in Hungary,Slovenia) are used in some schools. SomeACCs – notably Slovenia and Romania –have indeed articulated a policycommitment to a shift in the modality ofprovision, encouraging self-help,self-evaluation and computer-basedstrategies, with the client to feature morecentrally in the decision-making process.3.1.8 Across all ACCs there is anaspiration to offer guidance servicesto one and all. However, given the scarcityof both human and material resources,decisions often have to be made to targetpriority groups. Some target VET-trackstudents; at Grade 10 level, for instance,Hungary provides career guidance servicesexclusively to VET students. However,other ACCs (e.g. Slovakia) do not givepriority to students in the VET track,considering that they are not in as great aneed of career guidance, since theassumption is that they have already madetheir occupational choices.3.1.9 Career guidance is generallyunderdeveloped in many of theuniversities in the ACCs, though there is aclear trend towards setting up or increasingservices. Where guidance is alreadyoffered – as in Poland through its universitycareer bureaux – specialist staff have avery broad remit, often providing a wholerange of guidance services, includingpersonal counselling, study skills, stressmanagement, and information aboutdifferent courses on offer and the careerpathways such courses open up. Someservices, including assistance withapplications for employment, training forinterviews, job brokerage, and graduateplacement, are offered by studentassociations, either to complement thework done by the established careersoffice, or to make up for a deficit. Romaniahas developed a particularly strongprogramme for its university sector, and isthe only one of the ACCs to offer aspecialised career-orientation curriculum totertiary level students, focusing oncounselling during the first year of studies,and on information during the subsequentyear. Some university career services alsoorganise tracer studies among graduates inorder to be in a better position to guidestudents on likely employment trajectoriesafter finishing a degree (e.g. in Estonia andMalta).21

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES3.2 MEETING THE CAREERGUIDANCE NEEDS OFOUT-OF-SCHOOL YOUNGPEOPLE3.2.1 Most countries target early schoolleavers and school drop-outs in anattempt to ensure that these benefit fromspecialised guidance services, with a viewto reintegrating them into education and/ortraining programmes as quickly aspossible. As the OECD thematic reviewhas noted, services for this group of clientstend to be most successful when theyinvolve a highly individualised approachwhich interweaves personal, educationaland occupational guidance. This is mosteffective when service providers implementoutreach programmes which, whilearticulated within (and coordinated by) ahighly developed central policy approach,make good use of local resources that areclosest to the target group, and work handin hand with other providers acrossdifferent sectors, including schools andcommunity associations.3.2.2 ACCs generally do highlight theneeds of this particular group ofyoung people, but have not developed asuccessful strategy to respond to theseneeds. In some cases, as in Slovenia, theproblem lies with the fact that guidanceservices tend to be seen by schooldrop-outs as part of the system that theyhave experienced in a negative way, andthat they have abandoned. Schools toomight not be too keen to welcome backyoung people who are perceived to betroublesome. This also partly explains why,in most cases, unemployed school-ageyoung people tend to be catered for by thepublic employment service rather than byschool-based guidance services. In Maltaand Romania, for instance, young peopleare offered skills training and basic literacycourses, as well as programmes thatattempt to help them rebuild theirself-image in order to re-engage withlearning and to plan a life path. Overall,however, none of the ACCs report anysustained attempt to ensure collaborationbetween the education and labour marketsectors, and between these and thecommunity, in an effort to generate aneffective response to the specific needsof out-of-school young people.3.3 MEETING THE CAREERGUIDANCE NEEDS OFADULTS3.3.1 Most of the career guidance that isaddressed towards adults takesplace within the context of publicemployment services (PES), and in mostcases, the service targets unemployedpeople. As such, while providers doattempt to meet a whole range of needs,and do try to fulfil a broad remit ofresponsibilities, the focus of the personnelin ACCs largely seems to be on training foremployability, on information-giving and onjob brokerage rather than on careerguidance. An exception is in Latvia, whereProfessional Career Counselling Centresoutside the PES provide a service for bothunemployed and employed students andadults. PES personnel are typicallyoverburdened with multiple roles (e.g. inCyprus, Latvia, Malta and Slovakia), theirmain tasks appearing to be channellingunemployed people towards training andretraining tracks, informing them aboutemployment opportunities and acting asmediators and brokers between them andpotential employers. They may also beengaged (as in Bulgaria, Latvia, Romania,Slovenia and Slovakia, for instance) ingroup-based activities that encourageunemployed people to become moremotivated and more skilled in looking forwork (e.g. job clubs, writing CVs,self-presentation strategies duringinterviews and positive thinking). The maingoal is often to combat long-termunemployment, and notable success hasbeen achieved in some cases in thisregard. For example, Slovenia’s 14 JobClubs, where guidance is part of a set ofstrategies, have an impressive successrate, with an average of 55% of long-termunemployed clients finding work within sixmonths.3.3.2 Some of the PES in ACCs offerfurther services that are moredirectly connected to career guidance.Poland’s Poviat labour offices, for instance,together with the 51 Centres for Career22

3. DELIVERING CAREER GUIDANCE MORE EFFECTIVELYInformation and Planning in VoivodshipLabour offices, are very well resourced,and provide a range of services both tothose who are unemployed, and to thosewho are at risk of losing their jobs.Similarly, Lithuania, through its LabourExchanges and its Labour Market TrainingAuthorities, offers programmes that seemto give due importance to the vocationaldevelopment of clients. Slovenia too offersemployment counselling over and abovethe range of information-based servicesthat are common to many PES, and has ateam of trained career counsellors whohelp unemployed and long-termunemployed people to draw upemployment plans.3.3.3 All in all, however, as is the case inseveral other countriesinternationally, 8 career guidance servicesfor adults tend to be remedial in nature,and narrowly targeted at unemployed andlong-term unemployed people, with theimmediate goal of finding thememployment. In contrast to this would be aproactive approach, addressing a muchwider group, and utilising the whole rangeof guidance functions 9 to help all adults tosustain employability and respond flexiblyto change. While several of the ACCsreport that the concept of lifelong guidanceis increasingly referred to in nationaldebate, particularly in response to theLifelong Learning Memorandum of theEuropean Commission, this debate has,as yet, had little impact on actual policyand practice in the field of adult careerguidance. None of the ACC reports, forinstance, referred to leisure, third age, orretirement counselling, which willinevitably become critically important giventhe implications of the demographicstructure in Europe. It is only in a few of thelarger enterprises in the ACCs that wefind a guidance service, often within thehuman resource development departmentor unit, that is offered to personnel with aview to helping them to make progress intheir career, or to switch tracks due toeither changing interests or changes in theskills profiles required by the company.3.3.4 Career guidance for adults issometimes offered by trade unions,though in most cases such provision isinformal, offered by union staff who haveno training in guidance, and targetedlargely at union members who are at risk ofunemployment due to restructuring (e.g. inRomania, and more modestly in Cyprus,Estonia and Malta). Most often, however,trade unions are only represented at anational level on bodies that cater for socialpartnership (e.g. in Bulgaria), and negotiateon behalf of members facing massredundancies and the effects ofprivatisation. They sometimes supportvocational guidance, entrepreneurialeducation and courses on job-searchtechniques, but their actual involvement incareer guidance is on the whole minimal.3.3.5 Other guidance services are veryoccasionally offered by privateemployment services. These are largelyunderdeveloped in most of the ACCs,though governments appear to beincreasingly keen to outsource to theprivate sector (e.g. in Cyprus, Estonia andHungary; Slovenia’s employment servicesalso outsource aspects of the mandate ofJob Clubs to private providers). In mostcases, private provision has only appearedin the past decade, and is only nowbecoming established (e.g. in Poland).Such services are most likely to be focusedon finding, selecting and placing personnelin highly qualified and specialised labourniches (as in Romania, for instance).Typically – and as is the case in Bulgaria,Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia –private employment services in ACCs actas job brokers and head-hunters ratherthan as fully-fledged providers of guidanceand counselling. While their job-matchingapproach responds to the immediate needsof clients in search of work, none of theACCs report that there is much enthusiasm8 See A.G. Watts (2002), Policy and practice in career guidance: an international perspective. Keynote speechdelivered to the Institute of Career Guidance Annual Conference, Ashford, Kent, 5-7 September 2002, p.6.9 Drawing on a number of sources, Plant identifies a range of 15 activities that constitute career guidance.These are: informing, advising, assessing, teaching, enabling, advocating, networking, feeding back,managing, innovation/systems change, signposting, mentoring, sampling work experience or learning tasters,and following up. See P. Plant (2001), Quality in careers guidance. A paper commissioned jointly by theEuropean Commission and the OECD, prepared for the OECD review of policies for information, guidanceand counselling services.23

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESfrom adults to make use of this fee-payingservice as yet.3.3.6 Adults can access career guidanceservices in at least two other ways.First, if they are students following coursesin tertiary level institutions, they canbenefit from advisory services thatincreasingly feature in universities andcolleges. Second, in some countries,community-based associations provideservices to specific groups, especially ifthese are the targets of national equitypolicies. Few of the latter initiatives arereported by the ACCs, where the mainagent remains the state, with one examplebeing provided by Bulgaria and its OpenSociety Fund.3.4 WIDENING COMMUNITYACCESS THROUGH MOREAND INNOVATIVE DIVERSEDELIVERY3.4.1 In the context of compulsory levelschooling, and as noted earlier,access to career counselling andguidance has been improved in some ofthe ACCs through the introduction of atransition-to-work curricular area (e.g.in Romania and Cyprus), or ofwork-related themes across thecurriculum (e.g. in Estonia, Latvia, Maltaand Poland). This has also encouragedthe provision of group-based rather thanmerely individual-based guidance,ensuring wider access to greater numbersof students.3.4.2 Practically all ACCs report theincreasing use of ICT in order todisseminate information more widelyabout occupations, and in some cases tosupport guidance functions and to enableinteractive career decision-making viaCD-based software, career navigationsystems, or the internet. In most cases,the use of ICT complements rather thanreplaces traditional forms of provision,such as face-to-face interviews, leafletsand brochures carrying occupationalprofiles. While many of the ACCs, as isperhaps to be expected, adopt softwarethat has been developed in moreeconomically advanced countries thathave a longer guidance tradition (e.g.Romania uses the Canadian software‘Interoptions’, while Slovakia and Sloveniaused an adapted version of the Britishsoftware ‘Adult Directions’), there areseveral instances in which material hasbeen produced locally, to reflect therealities of the indigenous labour market,and to respond more effectively to thecountry’s specific human resourcedevelopment needs. One example of thisis Poland’s ‘Counsellor 2000’ software,which permits a multi-dimensionalanalysis of occupations, stimulates clients’efforts and assists them in choosing anappropriate job. Another is Slovakia’s‘Guide to the World of Occupations’. Thissoftware was developed under theLeonardo da Vinci programme incooperation with Czech Republic, Greece,Cyprus and the United Kingdom.3.4.3 Several of the larger ACCs note thatit has proved difficult for them todeliver career information and guidance inthe remoter regions, and that ICTrepresents a very powerful tool forovercoming such barriers. This isparticularly true if, rather than just providinginformation on the nature of occupationsand on vacancies, the software allowsself-exploration, self-assessment ofvocational interests and abilities andinteractive sessions with counsellors, withthe internet providing a portal into a broadand flexible network of interlinkedservices. 10 ‘Distance career counselling’is therefore increasingly on the agenda(e.g. in Poland and Romania, but also inseveral other ACCs such as Cyprus,Estonia, Hungary, and Latvia, where theguidance function is being incorporatedinto websites). However, one needs tokeep constantly in mind the equitydimension in web-based guidanceservices, given the differential state ofpenetration of IT and the internet acrossthe population. ICT has, in some cases,also proved very powerful in enabling theintegration of all relevant and related datain one internet-based system (e.g. inEstonia).10 See A.G. Watts (2001), The role of information and communication technologies in an integrated careerinformation and guidance system. A paper commissioned jointly by the European Commission and theOECD, prepared for the OECD review of policies for information, guidance and counselling services.24

3. DELIVERING CAREER GUIDANCE MORE EFFECTIVELY3.4.4 There is also a noticeable shift, inseveral of the ACCs, from anapproach that emphasises provision, toone that encourages and enables clients toaccess services proactively, and to engagein a self-service mode (e.g. the VocationalInformation Counselling Centres – CIPS –in Slovenia). Some of the best examples ofthe use of ICT facilitate such a shift, butself-help methods have also beenpromoted through the use ofself-administered decision-making toolsand self-scoring assessment instruments,and the organisation of career guidancefacilities in such a way that clients canaccess information and engage inself-exploration on their own, asking for anindividual interview with counsellors only ifand when they need to. Some ACCs, suchas Cyprus, have set up internet points inyouth clubs and other centres where youngpeople tend to gather, offering aself-service approach to analysis ofaptitudes and interests, and to matchingprofiles with vacancies and further trainingopportunities.3.4.5 Several of the ACCs report the useof newspapers, television, roadsidehoardings and other advertisingstrategies and outlets in order to ensurethat occupation-related information reachesa wider range of people in the community.In many ACCs, the press featuressupplements on careers, advertises jobvacancies and further education andtraining opportunities, as well asinformation about overall labour markettrends.3.4.6 In some cases, call-centretechnology is being used to goodeffect, enabling clients to telephone theirqueries (e.g. in Lithuania). In most cases,however, such call-in services tend to beused to provide psychological and personalsupport (i.e. help-line counselling, as inMalta) rather than career guidance.3.4.7 The issue of widely dispersedpopulations in remote regions insome of the ACCs poses a seriouschallenge to the delivery of guidanceservices and work-related information to allcitizens. Alongside the use of ICTs, someare attempting to overcome the problem byproviding outreach services to remoteareas (Estonia). Some (e.g. Hungary) arefinding that the demand for the service isnot sufficiently high to justify the presenceof an expert on a permanent basis, and areconsidering providing the service duringtimes of the year when the demand is high.Others have developed peripateticcounselling team services to respond tounsatisfied demand. A case in point wouldbe Latvia, which has mobile teams to makeup for the fact that it has ProfessionalCareer Counselling Centres in only 19 of26 of its regions.3.4.8 Practically all ACCs report initiativeson the part of educational institutionsthat invite alumni and parents as well asbusiness and community leaders into theschool in order to share their experienceand knowledge of the world of work withstudents. They are also sometimesinvolved in arranging student visits to theirenterprises. While in most cases suchactivities depend on the personal initiativeof a guidance officer or of the school itself,there are countries in which the input ofstakeholders is more formalised. Hungary,for instance, has active ParentOrganisations that provide students andparents with information about educationaland occupational pathways. At highereducation levels, student organisations andassociations are increasingly active inproviding career-related information,particularly where, as in Estonia, there is alack of government-funded provision.3.5 PROVIDING CAREERINFORMATION MOREEFFECTIVELY3.5.1 Information is at the core of careerguidance and education; indeed, ittends to prevail over other guidancefunctions. From the point of view of theclient, information should lead to improvedknowledge about the self, about the labourmarket, about education and trainingopportunities and pathways, and about theways in which all these elements interacttogether. Most ACCs report that the formalresponsibility for the provision of suchinformation lies largely with the state:government agencies collect the25

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESinformation, organise it and disseminate it.Information is often published at a nationallevel, with data fed to a centre via anetwork of regional and local providers.Such information typically includes aclassification of occupations, occupationaldescriptions, macroeconomic indicatorsand labour market trends. Much of thisinformation is distributed free of chargethrough educational and traininginstitutions, labour offices, career fairs andexhibitions, and community-basedorganisations and libraries. Some of theinformation is produced at a local orregional level, either by training centres or,occasionally, by employers themselves. Ona different scale, guidance staff withineducational institutions sometimesproduces their own information brochures,leaflets and internet sites (e.g. in Sloveniaand Malta).3.5.2 Much of the information isprint-based, but there is anincreasing trend for it to be also – orexclusively – produced in ICT format, asCD-ROMs, on diskette, or on the internet.Production costs are thus substantiallyminimised, and the task of updatinginformation is rendered more feasible.Films that would otherwise be expensive,and that provide qualitative informationabout the experience of working inparticular occupations, can be downloadedvia the internet by clients, at little or no cost(e.g. in Hungary and Lithuania). Several ofthe ACCs report that the potential ofICT-based career information is still beingtapped, with the tendency being to attachmore importance to the amount ofinformation than to the adequacy of itsdesign. Thus, sections giving informationon educational and training pathways andthe relevant occupations they lead to arenot always linked, to each other, or to thepersonal profile of the client using thesystem. Such a system, integrating themost recent developments in artificialintelligence that link informationmanagement with decision-makingstrategies, is being developed in Poland.Slovakia, too, is engaged in a similarendeavour, in collaboration with eight othercountries and under the auspices of aLeonardo da Vinci project. Often, however,websites become nothing more thanreplicas of print-based materials.Furthermore, ICT-based information doesnot tend to be directed to a specificcategory of client. A rare exceptionreported by the ACCs is the modification ofa multimedia application – ‘Counsellor2000’ – that permits a multidimensionalanalysis of occupations while guiding aclient to choose an appropriate job, andthat has also been adapted for use bypeople with disabilities (Poland).3.5.3 Connectivity between career andeducational information on the onehand and labour market data – such asvulnerability to unemployment andearnings compared to minimum salary –seems to be quite rare in the ACCs, withPoland, Bulgaria and Romania being theexceptions.3.5.4 Often, different ministries – notablythose of education and of labour –collect different information, and it is notalways the case that these different datasets are consolidated and linked in such away as to help the client to make bettersense of options and opportunities. Estoniahas attempted to deal with this byorganising joint seminars betweenappropriate individuals from the twoministries in order to ensure commonstandards. Bulgaria has passed a lawspecifying the nature of the coordinationthat must exist between different ministriesin the delivery of career guidance services.For its part, Slovakia has a formalagreement on cooperation in careerguidance, making it mandatory for the twoministries to set up a system ofinterconnected information on VET and thelabour market, and encouragingcooperation within and between institutionsat national, regional, district and locallevels.3.5.5 In most cases, the state remainsthe standard-setter and guarantorof quality in information provision.Some ACCs have formalised procedures inorder to ensure that information is bothcorrect and timely. Thus, some regulate thequality of the information provided throughlegal measures and instruments (e.g.Estonia’s Public Information Act); somehave developed strategies to ensure26

3. DELIVERING CAREER GUIDANCE MORE EFFECTIVELYaccuracy through systematic comparison ofdata from different sectors (e.g. Lithuania);and others have developed qualitystandards (e.g. Bulgaria and Slovenia),with groups of experts monitoring theproduction of data following set criteria. Insome cases (e.g. Poland) clients are askedto comment about the user-friendliness ofthe information package with which theyhave been provided, particularly when thisis web-based. More rarely, as is the case inBulgaria, material is trialled with targetgroups and evaluated by experts.3.5.6 While most ACCs produce their owncareer-related information, othersbuy, translate and adapt software or evenprint-based material. As noted in section3.4.2, Slovakia and Slovenia use anadapted version of the UK-produced ‘AdultDirections’ programme, with Sloveniainvesting a great deal of effort into buildingnational databases (including jobdescriptions and details of its owneducation system) to ensure that the UKprogramme reflects national realities. OtherACCs have been able to developsophisticated information systems with thehelp of agencies such as the World Bank(e.g. Poland and Romania). One of thechallenges that ACCs have to face,particularly when systems have been setup with the help of donor agencies, is thatof regularly updating the information afterthe external funding has dried up.3.5.7 Several ACCs report that, while thestate remains the key guarantor ofthe production and dissemination ofcareer-related information, it is increasinglywilling to outsource to specialisedgovernment agencies or foundations (e.g.the Foundation for Vocational Educationand Training Reform, which runsEuroguidance and the NationalObservatory in Estonia, among other HRDprojects), to not-for-profit organisations(e.g. the Open Society Fund in Bulgaria),or to private for-profit enterprises. Thelatter have not entered the informationmarket in any major way, often restrictingtheir activities to producing educational andoccupational guides and manuals. Anexception to the rule seems to beRomania, and to some extent, Slovakia,where the private sector operates severalwebsites that are accessible to clients, fora fee.3.5.8 Much of the energy that is expendedin most ACCs seems to go into theproduction and dissemination ofinformation, with relatively little beingknown about the extent to which clientsaccess it, understand it, connect it totheir own frames of reference oractually use it to implement their lifegoals. Neither is much known in ACCs, orin other countries, for that matter, about thecost-effectiveness of the different modes ofinformation production and dissemination,in relation to use and impact.27

4. RESOURCING CAREERGUIDANCE44.1 STAFFING CAREERGUIDANCE4.1.1 There is a great deal of varietywithin and between ACCs in termsof the level and nature of qualifications andtraining required of those who providecareer guidance. This ranges from nospecific requirements at all, other than afew hours’ in-service training (e.g. PESstaff in Malta), to the stipulation of highlevels of training, including a Master’sdegree for practitioners in the area, as inthe case of Poland and Romania. MostACCs require career guidance staff to havea first degree, often in psychology,pedagogy, sociology or social work. Entryinto the career guidance field in theeducation sector, where requirements tendto be more clearly stipulated, is oftenaccomplished on the basis of what theauthorities consider to be a relevantdegree, together with experience inschools. Some in-service courses aregenerally offered. Most ACCs do not offer aspecific university level degree or diplomain career guidance. At best, as in Latvia,those with a psychology degree may havefollowed a module on the psychologicalbases of guidance – a module that isoffered in only some universities. The mainexceptions here are Poland, which offers ahost of specialised short and longcertificate-awarding courses – includingpostgraduate studies – in careercounselling, and Cyprus, Hungary, Latviaand Malta, which offer short courses in thesame area of specialisation. Poland hasalso developed a draft ‘description andstandards of professional qualifications forcareers counsellors’, specifying therequirements for personnel working withinboth education and labour sectors, and iscurrently working on a Leonardo da Vinciprogramme that will lead to an equivalenceof certification for career guidance staff inPoland, Germany, Austria and Hungary.4.1.2 There are often differences in thebackgrounds of those providingcareer guidance in education settingsand those working in public employmentservices. Generally speaking, as has beennoted in a review of practice in 23countries, 11 there is no mutual recognitionof guidance qualifications between the29

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESeducation and labour market sectors. Staffproviding career guidance in labour officesoften have a psychology degree, but somehave degrees in law, economics andengineering (e.g. in Romania).Furthermore, in-service opportunitiesthat offer guidance-specific training seemto be more available in PES than in theeducation sector. This is partly becausepre-service training for PES workers isgenerally lacking, and also becausedealing with unemployed people is oftenat the top of a government’s fundingpriorities. Furthermore, the process ofaccession to the EU has enabled PESguidance staff to participate ininternational visits and internships in thecontext of such programmes asACADEMIA and the establishment of theEuroguidance network. Staff from thecentral and eastern European Accedingand Candidate Countries have alsobenefited from training modules inguidance, developed in the framework ofPhare projects.4.1.3 The private sector of guidanceservices is generally unregulated,and none of the ACCs report any specificrequirements in terms of training andqualifications.4.1.4 In most cases, career guidance inACCs is not yet professionalised –i.e., it is not often offered by staff who havespecialised and regulated career guidancequalifications, with clear entry andqualification routes into clearly definedoccupational roles, and supported by anextensive network of professionalassociations and research and trainingorganisations. Notable exceptions arePoland and Romania, where careercounselling has been added to theClassification of Occupations and Trades.In Poland too, there have been importantdevelopments in the provision of a varietyof study routes giving access toemployment as a career guidance officer. Itis rare to find a clearly articulated careerdevelopment structure for guidance staff,with facilities for progression from the roleof less experienced to the role of moreexperienced worker. Lithuania andRomania are exceptions among the ACCsin this regard. Romania and Estonia arealso among the few countries that reporthaving para-professional categories – suchas Youth Information Officers – to supportthe work of qualified guidance staff. Suchpara-professionals, together withnon-professionals (e.g. significant adultsand peers, who often work with the ‘hard toreach’), and ‘linked professionals’ (e.g.social workers) can, if trained, consolidatethe occupational identity of careerguidance workers, and further ensureaccess for all to services.4.1.5 Occupational roles, and clearcodes of practice and of ethics,are often not formally defined or regulatedby legally binding documents. As alreadynoted, career guidance staff in schools,and to a lesser extent in labour offices,tend to have to respond to a broad range ofresponsibilities, with the counsellingfunction often overwhelming the careerguidance one. In some cases, as in Maltafor instance, career guidance staff spendsa proportion of their time teaching subjectsunrelated to school-to-work transition.4.1.6 Few ACCs have attempted todevelop a competence frameworkoutlining what is needed by careerguidance staff, though examples of goodpractice in this area are provided byEstonia and Malta, and especially byPoland. There is a realisation that thecompetence base of guidance personnelhas to reflect changing demands,including skills in ICT, in projectmanagement, in networking andinternational cooperation, and inresponding to an increasinglydifferentiated clientele. New skills are alsoneeded in order to reconceptualise andreorganise career guidance as an activitythat is increasingly based on self-helptechniques. A competency approach couldcounteract the tendency for guidanceworkers to attend to work tasks that are aresult of the type of training they havehad, rather than a response to clientneeds.11 See J. McCarthy (2001), The skills, training and qualifications of guidance workers. A paper commissionedjointly by the European Commission and the OECD, prepared for the OECD review of policies for information,guidance and counselling services.30

4. RESOURCING CAREER GUIDANCE4.1.7 Most ACCs report that, while it isdifficult to assemble reliableinformation about the size and agecomposition of the career guidanceforce, there is little doubt that by far thegreater number of workers in this areaare female. In some countries theproportion is as high as 90% or more(e.g. in Poland, in both the educationsector and PES). As with all otherprofessions that become feminised, thistrend has implications for occupationalidentity, for the status accorded to theactivity by society, and consequently forthe salaries and resources it will be ableto command.4.1.8 ACCs report the increasingdevelopment of professionalassociations of career guidance staff. Insome cases, as in Romania, a specialsection dedicated to vocational guidancehas been established within an alreadyexisting Psychology Association. Lithuaniahas plans to move in the same direction,while Cyprus, Latvia and Poland alreadyhave their own Association of Educationaland Career Guidance Counsellors.4.1.9 Little information has been providedby the ACCs as to the qualificationsand background of guidance-relatedpersonnel in private employmentservices. Most often, however, they tendto have a background in human resourcedevelopment and management.4.2 FUNDING CAREERGUIDANCE4.2.1 As is the case for most countriesinternationally, it is difficult, if notimpossible, to provide estimates ofnational expenditure on career guidancein the ACCs. One reason for this is thatgovernment budgets rarely provideinformation regarding expenditure. Anotheris that career guidance is only one of awhole range of activities that the relevantstaff provides, and expenditure is notrecorded separately for each of theseactivities. Thus, for instance, several ACCsnote that there is no differentiation incentral records between how much is spenton guidance-related activities in publicemployment services and how much isspent on career guidance as a whole.Similarly, when central budgets areallocated to regions or to specificinstitutions such as schools, there is noreadily available record of what proportionsof these funds go to which activities.Information about the extent of expenditureby the private sector on career guidance iseven more limited.4.2.2 In most ACCs, career guidanceactivities and provision is almostentirely funded by the state, withguidance services being provided free ofcharge in both the education and laboursectors. In only a very few cases areminimal charges made to clients for certainaspects of guidance; this is the case forsome forms of therapy in Romania, forinstance. Funds are often made availablecentrally, directly from the governmentbudget. Sometimes funds are devolved toregions or to institutions, which are thenfree to allocate resources as they see fit. Insome cases the region outsourcesprovision, subcontracting service deliveryto community organisations, privatecompanies or not-for-profit organisations(e.g. in Estonia).4.2.3 Only rarely do we find cases wherethe private sector contributes to thefunding of a service offered by the state.The Cypriot HRD Authority, for instance,finances its activities (including thecollection of occupational information) byimposing a levy of 0.5% on the payroll of allprivate and semi-public companies andorganisations. In Poland, the employers’contribution is made through a 2.45% levyof the payroll, thus financing a labour fundwhich includes guidance activities underactive measures.4.2.4 Another source for the funding ofcareer guidance activities in ACCs isexternal agencies. Most often, funding isaccessed through involvement in EUprogrammes, such as Leonardo da Vinciand Phare. Most ACCs, like EU memberstates, have set up National ResourceCentres for Vocational Guidance in theEuroguidance Network, with funds beingmade available by individual governmentsin collaboration with the EU Commission.31

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESHungary, Poland and Romania havebenefited from World Bank funding todevelop their career guidance systems andresources. As noted in section 3.5.6,sustainability issues arise once suchexternal funding comes to an end.32

5. IMPROVING STRATEGICLEADERSHIP55.1 STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP5.1.1 The review of the 11 ACCs showsthat career guidance hasincreasingly featured on the agendas ofgovernments. Overall, however, anddespite real progress achieved, careerguidance still tends to be seen bygovernments as a marginal activity. As aresult it is rare to find determinedstrategic leadership, with provisionsustained by a clearly articulated nationalpolicy framework that is both dynamic andadequately resourced. The picture thatemerges from the ACC reports is thatwhere governments have provided policydirections, they have done so through theenactment or revision of legislation andthrough the issuing of formal documents,and have been somewhat less ready tofollow through with funding, or by ensuringimproved services to clients. This issomewhat understandable given thesevere budgetary restraints that many ofthe ACCs have to exercise. In some cases,especially in Central and EasternEuropean ACCs, the deficit in strategicleadership can also be at least partlyattributed to the lack of expertise withinministries (e.g. in Estonia), wherebureaucratic inertia and a reluctance toabandon old practices leads to a policytorpor. It is therefore clear that there is aneed for stronger mechanisms toprovide coordination and leadership inarticulating strategies for lifelongaccess to guidance. Such mechanismswould draw together the relevant ministriesas well as professional bodies andstakeholders, enabling local, regional andnational levels to interact for the benefit ofclients. The National Forum for VocationalGuidance, described in the Polish report,seems to approximate closely to such amechanism. Other steering institutionsreported by ACCs include the NationalCareer Orientation Council in Hungary.5.1.2 The Polish case also highlights thefact that government strategicleadership is particularly necessary in thecontext of decentralisation. While it istrue that the EU policy regime promotesdecentralisation through its emphasis onthe concept of subsidiarity, and that givingmore power and responsibility to the local33

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESauthorities encourages ownership ofchallenges and initiatives intended toovercome them, it is also a fact thatdevolution of responsibilities within a policyvacuum can lead to costly overlaps, anexcessive number of disparities that giverise to inequalities, and a lack of standards.In the case of Poland, the winding down ofthe national network of labour offices infavour of local government provision hasled to a serious deterioration in the qualityof provision. Decentralisation can also be aconvenient mechanism for devolvingresponsibilities to local government withoutpassing on the necessary funding, as isnoted in the report for Latvia. Both thePolish and Latvian experiences support theview that the best way forward may verywell be to have a judicious mix ofcentralised and decentralised models, inwhich municipalities develop their ownpolicy in the context of central guidelinesthat have been formulated after wideconsultation with stakeholders. Estoniaseems to have adopted such a model,stipulating contracts between central andregional government to avoid problems ofgreat variability between regions.5.2 EVIDENCE AND DATA5.2.1 Evidence and relevant data arenecessary if governments and otherstakeholders are to assess theeffectiveness of career guidanceservices in meeting public policyobjectives. While there are someexamples of good practice in this regardamong the ACCs reviewed, the majority donot appear to have the capacity togenerate the data indicators relating to theimpact of the services provided. It must besaid that research on the impact of careerguidance is difficult to do well: it is hard toobserve directly, and in any case there areso many variables that have an impact oncareer decision-making that causality isdifficult to establish, especially when issuesof effectiveness are being considered.Furthermore, the outcomes that careerguidance tries to achieve are not ofteneasily measurable, particularly in nationalcontexts where, as in most ACCs, thereare no specialised institutions or centres tocarry out systematic research in this area.At best, theses or research projects onspecific aspects of guidance have beenproduced within university departments(e.g. in Romania) or by professionalassociations, where these exist, but suchreports tend to be one-off occurrences thatgive a snapshot in time and are notproduced on a regular basis permittingcumulative research. Some countriesgenerate annual reports that are submittedby the relevant departments to centraland/or regional government, but theirusefulness to policy-makers is oftenlimited. The capacity to produce researchdata is particularly limited in the smaller ofthe ACCs, and even when such data isproduced, it is often not exploited to thefull. Thus, Malta expends a great deal ofresources in carrying out a tracer studywith all its school leavers, but theinformation gathered is hardly ever used tosteer policy-making. Some of the ACCsreport government intentions to investmore heavily in research on careerguidance (e.g. Lithuania, Malta andPoland), particularly in the services offeredthrough the public employment agencies.5.2.2 Those countries that have generateddata can provide governments with avariety of useful statistics and informationthat may be considered in the process ofpolicy-making. Such data include thefollowing: The number of users of services,including their characteristics (such asage, gender, region, socio-economicstatus, educational level and ethnicorigin). Most of the ACCs that do collectthis kind of data indicate that there hasbeen a very significant increase in theuse of services. Estonia, for instance,has seen a threefold increase in the useof guidance by students since 2000;Latvia has seen a 25% increase in theuse of the services by students, highereducation students and unemployedpeople. Most ACCs also note thatguidance services tend to be most oftenaccessed by school leavers and youngadults; most of the clients are female,and from an urban background. The different needs of different types ofclients. There are some examples ofgood practice in this area: Latvia, forinstance, has regularly carried out34

5. IMPROVING STRATEGIC LEADERSHIPdifferent kinds of surveys that provideinformation regarding the differentcareer-guidance-related needs ofschool students, VET students andunemployed people. On the whole,however, there is a lack of such datafrom ACCs. This could be related to thefact that most career guidance servicesare undifferentiated, with the servicesfollowing a ‘one size fits all’ approach.Bulgaria, Lithuania, Romania andSlovakia stand out among the ACCs fortheir attempts to tailor aspects of theircareer guidance service to the specificneeds of clients with disabilities.Client satisfaction rates, and variation inthese rates by client characteristics.Where research on this aspect iscarried out (e.g. in Estonia, Lithuania,Poland and Romania), the tendency isto focus on quantitative indicators (e.g.how many of the unemployed clientswho used the career guidance servicefound a job or commenced furthertraining). The collection of qualitativeindicators (i.e. client satisfaction with theservice offered) tends to be rare (e.g. inLatvia).5.2.3 It is significant to note that, as withseveral other countries involved inthe parallel OECD survey, none of theACCs were in a position to providesufficient details about the overall cost ofservices, the ways in which costs areshared between different parties, nor therelative costs of different types of services.5.3 LEGISLATION ANDREGULATIONS5.3.1 There is some variety in the extent towhich legislation and regulation areused to steer career guidance services inthe ACCs reviewed. Some of the countries,such as Cyprus and Malta, have nolegislation addressing vocational guidance,which is managed within the context of thecivil service rules and regulations of therespective education and labourdepartments. Others, such as Estonia,Hungary, Latvia and Poland, have detailedgoals set out for career guidance within thecontext of national strategies concerningemployment and human resourcedevelopment, or of national developmentplans. Typically, where legislation doesexist, reference to career guidance is madewithin education acts, or laws concerningVET or those regulating the provision ofservices within the Ministry of Labour,where the right of citizens to vocationalcounselling is formally declared (e.g. inBulgaria, Lithuania and Slovakia). Suchreferences tend to be formulated in termsof general goals (such as ‘enablingstudents to choose occupations’, or‘facilitating successful professionaldevelopment of individuals’, ‘reducingunemployment and poverty’, ‘improvingadaptability’, and ‘promotingentrepreneurship’).5.3.2 More rarely, one finds legislativemeasures specifically addressingvocational guidance (e.g. in Lithuania), ora relatively detailed section focusing onguidance (e.g. in Poland) in a lawembracing a variety of aspects of publicservice. In such cases, one is more likely tofind details regarding the type of servicesthat are to be provided, how they are to beprovided, the code of ethics to be followedin making provision, and the qualitystandards that must be met. Some lawsoutline the new delivery structures thatneed to be set up in order to implement theprovisions of the law. This is the case inBulgaria and Slovakia. Occasionally, jobdescriptions for career guidance personnelhave the force of formal regulations andorders, thus serving to establish standards(e.g. in Romania).5.3.3 Several of these laws andregulations have been promulgatedin recent years, and most ACCs’ reportsnote that while legal provisions have beenmade, these have often not beenimplemented (e.g. in Latvia and Poland;Bulgaria has partially implemented itsplans, but has yet to establish the CareerInformation and Guidance Centres to whichthe VET law refers). Legislation obviouslydoes not guarantee access, but the factthat it is there usually provides a fillip toprovision. It also justifies claims on the partof both providers and clients for adequateresources, and facilitates the developmentof programmes, as well as structures forthe delivery of such programmes.35

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES5.4 QUALITY STANDARDS5.4.1 Most ACCs report an increasedinterest on the part of governmentsin introducing quality assurancemeasures for career guidance. In the caseof Malta, for instance, this is part of anoverall effort by the state to establishquality charters across all its departments,specifying not only standards but alsostrategies for achieving those standards. InRomania, performance evaluation hasbeen adopted as a mechanism for qualitycontrol, and is directly tied to careerprogression.5.4.2 Practically all ACCs have attemptedto establish quality standards byregulating entry into the professionthrough the stipulation of the minimumqualifications required by candidates. Mosthave also attempted to address qualityissues by providing further trainingopportunities for staff, in some casesmaking this a condition for continuedtenure of their post (e.g. Romania). Somecountries have developed occupationaldescriptions for career guidance staff andfor those involved in the production ofcareer-related information, detailing thecompetencies that staff are expected todemonstrate (e.g. Malta, Poland andSlovakia). In most cases, these have theweight of guidelines rather than beingmandatory in nature, and are therefore lessdirective than standards, which often havechecking procedures or sanctions attachedto them. Some governments have alsoissued guidelines with a view to improvingadministrative procedures in guidancecentres, or minimum criteria that have to besatisfied before public or private entitiesare awarded a licence to offer careerguidance services (e.g. Bulgaria). Theissue of central management of standardsbecomes critical in the context of a trendtowards devolution of responsibilities tolocal government. As has already beennoted, such a trend, if it is not sustained bydetermined policy steering, can have apotentially negative effect on ensuringquality standards across a country. InPoland, for instance, the standardsdeveloped by the National Labour Office in1999 were never adopted after the PESwas dismantled in favour of givingautonomy to the regional offices.5.4.3 Overall, there are very few cases inwhich performance targets havebeen articulated with a view toguaranteeing quality service, particularlyfrom the point of view of the client. OnlySlovenia notes a developing interest inoutcomes-based evaluation of careerguidance services.5.4.4 Apart from governments,professional associations can alsospearhead initiatives that set out to ensurequality provision. Thus, the LatvianAssociation of Educational and CareerGuidance Counsellors has made importantsteps forwards in drawing up standardsapplicable to career guidance. TheNational Association for Educational andVocational Guidance in Romania has, forits part, developed a code of ethics as wellas quality indicators for its members.5.5 IMPROVING STAKEHOLDERINVOLVEMENT5.5.1 Strategic leadership can beimproved through mechanisms thatincrease the involvement of stakeholders,particularly if these are represented onformal consultative and advisory bodies.Overall, it can be stated that for the ACCsunder review, stakeholder involvement isunderdeveloped, partly because thepublic is not necessarily fully aware of thebenefits of a well-functioning careerguidance service, and partly because somepolicy-makers have not yet embracedstyles of leadership that involve socialpartnership.5.5.2 It has already been noted that tradeunions are not particularly active inthe field of career guidance in the ACCsreviewed. Employers, however, tend tohave a more direct involvement, at bothnational and local levels. Employers are, ofcourse, involved in manycareer-guidance-related activities, rangingfrom addressing students in schools tohosting students for work shadowing orwork experience and apprenticeshipplacements, and participating in careersexhibitions and fairs. Both trade unions andemployers are involved more formally innational and local bodies throughrepresentation on constituted tripartite36

5. IMPROVING STRATEGIC LEADERSHIPbodies that deal with different aspects ofeducation, training and employment. Insome cases, such as in Bulgaria andSlovakia, such representation is requiredby law.5.2.3 Other stakeholders include studentsand parents. Their views are usuallyheard more often in the context of broadpublic consultations on needs and theextent to which current services on offermeet those needs. In some of the ACCssuch feedback is collected regularly andsystematically through client satisfactionsurveys. In most cases, however, the viewsof these stakeholders are gathered on onlyan ad hoc and irregular basis, as a result ofa specific project or initiative. It is rare tofind national bodies that involve parentsand students as key partners inpolicy-making.37

6. CONCLUSIONS – THE KEYISSUES66.1 GENERAL CONCLUSIONSThis review has attempted to provide across-country analysis reflecting themost recent developments, trends,challenges and major issues for ACCsregarding counselling and guidance, andthe strengths and weaknesses of nationalguidance systems and policies. It isintended to give a sense of the variety inservice provision, the repertoire ofinitiatives, the multiple strategiesdeveloped to overcome challenges, andthe extensive efforts being made to bolsterthe impact of career guidance in facilitatingpersonal fulfilment, in improving access tolifelong learning, and in providing theappropriate human resources to buildstronger, more dynamic economies. It isclear that, as is the case with the OECDoverview report to which this report shouldbe considered a companion piece, none ofthe ACCs on its own holds the key foraddressing the most pressing issuesthat have been identified. Indeed, nosuch blueprint can possibly exist given that,despite an increasingly integrated andglobalised world, each context has its ownecological specificity. Nevertheless,collectively, the 11 ACCs reports provideus with case studies of national career andinformation guidance systems, as well aswith a rich thesaurus of good practice.6.2 KEY CHALLENGESIt is useful to outline the key challengesthat lie ahead of the ACCs in this area.Based on the reports of the countries’experts, the key issues as they appear inthis synthesis document can besummarised under three related headings,i.e. in terms of (a) the extent, (b) themodality and (c) the resourcing ofprovision.6.2.1 Key issues in terms of the extent ofprovision The right to career guidance has onlyrecently been entrenched in legalinstruments in some of the ACCs.Several of these countries do so onlywith reference to the vocationaleducation and training sector.39

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESThere does not yet seem to be muchdifferentiated delivery of service thatwould permit a more effective responseto the particular needs of specificgroups, such as people withdisabilities, migrants and refugees. It issignificant that few of the reportsmention career guidance programmesspecifically aimed at women.There are significant gaps inguidance provision for adults. Inparticular, there have been fewdevelopments in making guidanceservices available for those already inemployment, to support careerchanges, or to prepare them forincreased leisure or retirement. Suchservices tend to be offered, if at all, onlyin large enterprises that have a strongHRD department.In most cases, but especially so in thelabour market sector, there is atendency to emphasise the giving ofinformation rather than the provision ofguidance.6.2.2 Key issues in terms of the modalityof provision A major weakness in the area of careerguidance is the lack of cross-sectorialcollaboration, with the education andlabour market providers often working inparallel rather than in convergent andmutually beneficial ways. This is often tothe detriment not only of clients, but ofthe staff themselves, who have much tolearn from the experiences, knowledgeand skills of their counterparts in otherservices. Guidance in education contexts needsto move on from a mode of deliverythat is almost solely focused on keydecision-making points to one that isintegrated into the curriculum throughdifferent subject areas. There is alsoplenty of scope for the furtherdevelopment of linkages between theworld of education and that ofemployment, particularly when suchactivities encourage young people toengage in a critically informed mannerwith issues that will soon be central totheir lives. While there is a trend towardsencouraging clients to engage in aself-service mode in relation toeducational and career guidance, theoverwhelming approach is stilltraditional, inspired by input models ofprovision. Despite inadequate staff-to-clientratios, much of the guidance activitiesare still aimed at the individual, whengroup approaches would ensure greateraccess to the service. Few initiatives are reported bycandidate country experts in terms ofthe development of community-basedprovision of career guidance services,in such a way as to attend to the needsof the ‘hard to reach’. Quality assurance mechanisms areunderdeveloped in most ACCs, as isthe evidence base. There is littleresearch that can guide providers interms of the effectiveness of the servicethey offer in reaching different types ofclients and in responding to their needs.This is especially important as thereports on which this synthesis is basedindicate an increasing tendency for thestate to outsource and contract outprovision. Social partnership in the provision ofcareer guidance services isunderdeveloped in the ACCs. Parents,alumni, employers and occasionallytrade unions do contribute information,experiences and advice, but only on asporadic basis. There is an increasingly widespreaduse of ICTs in the dissemination ofeducational and occupationalinformation. However many of themedia used do not support a guidancefunction, and may often be acomputer-based version of what isalready available in print. More must bedone to exploit the connectivityfunctions that information andcommunication technology permits,enabling clients to clarify aspirations,evaluate skills and identify furthereducation, training and employmentopportunities.6.2.3 Key issues in terms of resourcingprovision More effort must be made to provideguidance staff with preservicespecialised training, possibly as acertificate or diploma level course after40

6. CONCLUSIONS – THE KEY ISSUESa first degree in such related areas aspsychology, economics and/or thehumanities.In both the education and labour marketsectors, it is clear that career guidancestaff often suffer from a role overloadthat severely limits their effectiveness.Career guidance staff tend to beunderprofessionalised, in the sensethat in ACCs they are generally notbenefiting from the kinds of activitiesthat associations undertake in order toadvance their own profession, includingtraining, research and the developmentof codes of practice. The competenciesexpected of career guidance personnelare often not clearly stipulated.Much of the funding for guidanceactivities comes from the state, withlittle input from the private sector.There is little research that can guidethe public and/or private sector inchannelling resources to particularsectors or groups.6.3 THE WAY FORWARDNeedless to say, each country will gaugethe extent to which it has already taken onthe challenges identified above. The listmerely serves as a useful overview of whatthe candidate country experts havecollectively singled out as needing theattention. Policy-makers and practitionerscan, in this way, better situate their ownactivities within the general picture,appraising and benchmarking their ownachievements in relation to those of others,and drawing inspiration from the range ofalternatives that have been pilotedelsewhere.41

ANNEXINFORMATION, GUIDANCE ANDCOUNSELLING SERVICES: A BRIEFOVERVIEW OF NATIONAL ARRANGEMENTSBULGARIANadezhda Kamburova, Svetlana Nickolova & Evgenia PetkovaBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average7.8 (2002)66% (2001)5 710 (2001)25% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 49.6% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)23.9% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 18.1% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)39.3% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 3.7% (2001) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)44.2% (2000/01)55.8% (2000/01)21% (2002)71% (2001)1.3% (2002)7.5 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education or trainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8and 17/2002 (Info Soc)43

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESGeneral BackgroundBefore 1990, career guidance and counselling in Bulgaria was largely confined to theeducation sector, where it was an inherent part of the system rather than an explicit servicewith its own distinct identity. After 1990, however, the Ministry of Education and Scienceset out to develop the field, and a Centre for Vocational Guidance was established withinthe Ministry in Sofia. The Centre’s main activities included the development and adaptationof tests as well as the creation of an information system covering the vocational schoolsand vocational colleges in the country. A network of 28 Pedagogical Consulting Officesrelating to the regional administrative governing bodies and covering the whole countrywas created. The initiatives undertaken by these Offices were closely linked to activities ofthe Vocational Guidance Centre. These offices were, however, closed down in 2000.In 1994 the former National Employment Service, now functioning under the name of theEmployment Agency (executive Agency to the Minister of Labour and Social Policy), set upa specialised system for vocational guidance services. This followed a German model, andcatered mainly for unemployed people.Nowadays, the services for information, guidance and counselling of young people andadults in Bulgaria are mainly provided within the framework of the Employment Agency.The legislative basis for carrying out activities in this field is the Law on EmploymentIncentives (2001), which revises the previous Law on Employment Protection andEmployment Promotion (1998). According to this law, all job seekers above the age of 16 –whether unemployed or employed – have a right to vocational information and counselling.The legislative basis for vocational guidance activities also includes the Law for VocationalEducation and Training (1999). Important steps were undertaken for its implementationwith the establishment of the National Agency for Vocational Education and Training, aspecialised public body that has, as a goal, the accreditation of activities in the VET sectoras well as the coordination of institutions and organisations related to VET, includingguidance. According to this law, vocational guidance services should be delivered byCentres for Information and Career Guidance, whether these are run by the government,the community, or the private sector (Bulgarian, foreign, or joint ownership betweenBulgarian and foreign investors). For a number of reasons, these Centres have not yetbeen established.Activities connected with providing services in the field of career guidance in the publicsector are funded by the state budget and are offered to clients free of charge. The privateguidance and information sector remains underdeveloped.Guidance in the Education SectorMuch remains to be done in the provision of vocational information and guidance servicesin the Bulgarian education system. There are, for instance, no separate career educationlessons as a normal part of the secondary school curriculum. Neither are theresystematically organised activities to integrate career education in other subjects. Generalsecondary schools do not organise periods of work experience, though these are includedin the curriculum of VET schools.Lower and upper secondary schools do allocate one hour per week for students to meettheir class teacher. This provides an opportunity for issues related to occupational choiceand career development to be discussed. Secondary schools also have pedagogicaladvisers who provide information and counselling about educational opportunities after theseventh and eight grades and after the termination of compulsory schooling.44

ANNEXThere is no formal career guidance set-up in the higher education sector. Both postcompulsory institutions and universities organise orientation seminars with the aim ofpresenting first-year students with detailed information about the relevant courseprogrammes, the main subjects of study and opportunities for specialisation and forpostgraduate studies. At Sofia University, the oldest higher education institution inBulgaria, a Consultant Centre for career development has been established as a unit of theLabour Office. Its aim is to provide information, guidance and counselling services to assisthigh school and university students to manage their careers. In other parts of the country,specialised information, guidance and counselling services for school and universitystudents are provided by the Centres for Vocational Information, which are units withinLabour Offices.Guidance in the Labour Market SectorThe Employment Agency provides information, guidance and counselling services toyoung people and adults through its territorial branches, the Labour Offices. In the contextof the mediatory services for employment, unemployed people and job seekers of all agesare offered information on job vacancies in the local labour market, the requirements ofemployers and the characteristics of specific occupations, together with guidance andcounselling on the opportunities for broadening their chances in the labour market throughqualification and re-qualification courses.Labour Offices have a number of units attached to them. Job Clubs, for instance, provideinformation on actual and prospective occupations. Similarly, Centres for VocationalInformation function as specialised units delivering information, guidance and counsellingservices. These Centres target school students in the main, but many other clients havefree access to the services provided, including parents, university students, unemployedpeople, those in employment but seeking to change their jobs, employers, teachers andcareer guidance specialists. Client needs are addressed individually or in groups.Currently in Bulgaria there are 111 Labour Offices, 40 Job Clubs and 15 Centres forVocational Information. Three of the Labour Offices in Bulgaria’s large towns have unitsattached to them providing specialist information, guidance and counselling services topeople with physical disabilities.The Employment Agency has an Information and Publishing Centre that is responsible forthe development, updating and dissemination of occupational information materials andproducts. The information materials and products are developed and updated according toapproved requirements and procedures and on the basis of regular evaluation of the needsof clients. Every effort is made to ensure that the information produced is reliable anduser-friendly. The material produced covers (a) various aspects of a wide range ofoccupations (e.g. characteristic work activities and tasks; work environment; psychologicaland personal requirements; opportunities for career development); (b) opportunities foreducation, training, specialisation, and retraining for the different occupations in thecountry and abroad (e.g. application forms, institutions and organisations; courseprogrammes; entry requirements; diplomas and certificates awarded); and (c) labourmarket information (for instance, opportunities for practising different occupations at anational and regional level, self-employment options, and the social status of the differentoccupations). Information is provided in different ways, including print, video andmultimedia formats. There are currently printed materials covering 450 occupations, while110 video films and 90 multimedia products have been developed. Clients have access tothese materials at the Labour Offices, as well as through Job Clubs and the Centres forVocational Information.The following is an overview of the strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Bulgaria, with some pointers for the way forward.45

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESStrengths:The promulgation of a legislative basis for the functioning and development of thesystem;The development of a reliable information base, which is constantly updated,broadened and enriched in response to clients’ needs;The practical experience that has been amassed in the provision of career informationand guidance services to young people and adults;The implementation of innovative projects, many of which have benefited from thefinancial support of external agencies.Weaknesses:Underdeveloped information, guidance and counselling services in the educationsystem;An insufficient number of specialised units providing information, guidance andcounselling, with some parts of the Bulgarian territory not covered;The lack of specialised training for career counsellors in the higher education system;The lack of officially approved quality standards to regulate service provision.The Way Forward:The development of a national strategy for the future of information, guidance andcounselling in both the education and labour market sectors in the context of lifelonglearning, on the basis of evaluation of practical achievements and weaknesses thathave become evident during recent years;The establishment of more effective links and mechanisms for coordination of activitiesbetween all institutions and organisations related to career guidance at both nationaland regional levels;The continued investment in building up the network of specialised units providinginformation, guidance and counselling services;The broadening of the scope of information, guidance and counselling services andimplementation of lifelong services.Svetlana Nickolova is a psychology graduate and has a Master’s degree from the Technical Institute in Dresden, Germany.She has held positions at the Research Institute for Education and at the Centre for Vocational Guidance in the Ministryof Education and Science in Bulgaria. She is currently the head of the section producing information in the Informationand Publishing Centre of the Employment Agency. Her main areas of interest are in secondary VET schools; vocationalcompetencies and interests; innovative methods in vocational training; psychological assessment of the effectiveness oftraining methods; and the design and implementation of guidance-related printed materials, video films and multimedia.She also has a strong interest in researching and adapting successful practices from EU countries in the field of careercounselling and active employment policies. She has published articles, research reports and other documents relating toVET and guidance.Nadezhda Kamburova is a psychology graduate and holds a Master’s degree from Sofia University. She has occupiedpositions at the Research Institute for Education and at the Centre for Vocational Guidance in the Ministry of Educationand Science. She is currently the senior expert in the section producing information in the Information and PublishingCentre of the Employment Agency. Her main areas of competence include VET in secondary vocational schools; thedevelopment of career information; and comparative research focusing on successful European Union practices in suchfields as career guidance and active employment policies. She has published research reports and other documentsrelating to career guidance. E-mail for correspondence: ciidnsz@datacom.bgEvgenia Petkova is a psychology graduate from Sofia University and has followed traineeships in the European Commission(Brussels) and the Institut International d’Administration Publique (Paris). She has occupied various positions in Bulgarianinstitutions dealing with the European integration of the country, and she is currently the Deputy Director of the HumanResource Development Centre in Sofia. She has published articles and research papers on Bulgarian vocationaleducation and training and lifelong learning as seen from a European perspective. E-mail for correspondence:evgenia.petkova@sanebg.org46

ANNEXCYPRUSGeorge ChristodoulidesBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average0.7 (2002)66% (2001)17 180 (2001)74% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 65.9% (2000) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)49.2% (2000) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 3.8% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)8.4% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 6.1% (2002) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)37.5% (2000/01)14.3% (2000/01)14% (2002)65% (2001)3.7% (2002)22.1 (2001)* % of 18-24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundCareer information, guidance and counselling services in Cyprus are mainly delivered bystaff from the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Labour and SocialSecurity. The former provides such services via schools, the latter via Public EmploymentOffices. Other providers include the Student University Services (state and private), thePrivate Employment Services and, recently, the National Youth Organisation. Employershave an indirect input through the occasional dissemination of career information, whiletrade unions offer help and guidance to members who lose their jobs and are seeking tore-enter the labour market. As social partners, both employers and trade unions participatein advisory and other councils that deal with education and training.There are no legal instruments regulating or steering guidance or information services ineither the education or the labour sector, though the Schemes of Service of governmentemployees do provide a framework that is also applicable to career guidance personnel.Schemes of Service detail duties and hierarchical accountability, and specify the academicand professional qualifications required of incumbents of positions in the public sector.They are legal instruments in that they are formally endorsed by parliamentary decisions.Policy Objectives are detailed through the Operational Regulations, which are also ratifiedby Parliament.The Joint Assessment Paper (JAP), setting out as it does the policies and priorities foremployment, is likely to have a strong influence on the shaping of new mission statementsfor the information, guidance and counselling services, which are striving to respond moreeffectively to the needs of the economy and of society, and also to the establishment of aculture of learning.47

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESGuidance in the Education SectorThe relevant services in the education sector focus on counselling students and helpingthem to identify their qualities, strengths and inclinations so that they are able to makeconsidered choices in relation to educational and career paths. Occupational/careerinformation and guidance are not as much emphasised. Consequently, the influencesshaping the national policies of the Ministry of Education and Culture are primarilyeducational and social; labour market needs tend to be secondary considerations.The main target groups are ninth- and eleventh-grade students. The former are offeredinformation and counselling to guide them in the choice of subject options they will follow inthe tenth and eleventh grades. The latter students receive guidance in the choice of studypathways linked to further education, and are also sensitised to the way industry functionsin preparation for their participation in the ‘World of Work Familiarisation Week’.Services are provided centrally from Nicosia, where the Ministry runs a one-stop-shopfacility for use by students and parents as well as for the in-service training of schoolcounsellors. The centre has a library with leaflets and catalogues detailing various studyproviders, as well as information about scholarships and other occupational andeducation-related topics. Access to the various services is, generally speaking, optionaland is encouraged by word of mouth, by class teachers and by education psychologists.All ninth-grade students are expected to attend sessions on guidance-related issuesthroughout one semester.Counselling staff is required to possess appropriate qualifications to be employed asteachers, together with a postgraduate qualification in counselling. More and more newrecruits are now appointed on the strength of their first degree in psychology or sociology.The usual ratio of counsellors to students is about 1:650 for Grades 7, 8 and 9, and about1:800 for Grades 10, 11 and 12, though in some cases the ratio could be as high as 1:300students to cater more effectively for at-risk groups. Pre-service and in-service training isoffered to new recruits by the Pedagogical Institute.Guidance in the Employment SectorThe key objectives and goals for the information, guidance and counselling services of theMinistry of Labour and Social Security are related to the employment opportunities andtraining courses available to unemployed people, to those who receive social welfarebenefits, to those seeking better employment and to at-risk target groups, such as schooldrop-outs. The major influences shaping the national policies of the Ministry of Labour andSocial Security relate to the target of reducing unemployment. Access to the services is, ingeneral, optional. Services to at-risk groups – including young people living in remoteareas, women who are outside the labour market, elderly workers and people withdisabilities – are still underdeveloped.Most guidance-related activities are offered through individual face-to-face interviews. Jobseekers are registered through the nationwide Computerised Candidate System (CPS),which stores such information as the educational and occupational history of clients, theirqualifications and their interests. Such profiles are then matched with vacancies. There arefurther plans to improve the services through the introduction of internet-based facilities.The Ministry and the Human Resource Development Authority (HRDA) regularly publishinformation on vacancies and on the numbers of unemployed people by sector ofeconomic activity.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Cyprus, with some pointers for the way forward.48

ANNEXStrengths:There is considerable investment in the upgrading of services, through the introductionof psychological and aptitude testing and the implementation of computer-aidedguidance systems, such as the CPS;Staff qualifications, particularly in relation to the education sector, are being improved,so that guidance personnel now hold degrees in psychology or sociology, together withspecialised postgraduate training in counselling;Employers show a willingness to liaise with school counsellors in implementing careerguidance schemes and in contributing information about the world of work;The National Youth Organisation is becoming more and more interested and involved inproviding user-friendly career counselling services to young people;Private employment services are on the increase, and are becoming more involved incareer guidance and aptitude testing. Their involvement is subject to moderation andquality assessment by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security;There is a variety of providers who, between them, cover the production anddissemination of a wide range of career and education-related information and data.Weaknesses:The system is too centrally controlled, with field providers at the level of the school andof the Public Employment Offices allowed little room for taking initiatives;There are no effective mechanisms for involving the various stakeholders in policyformulation and in the delivery processes;Lifelong learning policies are as yet unshaped, and the potential contribution ofguidance services in promoting a knowledge-based economy is not sufficientlyunderstood;There is little interaction, cooperation and integration of services between the majorinformation, guidance and counselling services providers, and the mechanisms toactivate and facilitate such cooperation are lacking;There are no explicit mechanisms in place to ensure quality standards;No research has been carried out to gauge the community’s needs and clients’expectations in the area of occupational guidance and information.The Way Forward:The development of national strategies relating to lifelong learning, together with aclearly articulated understanding of the contribution that information, guidance andcounselling services can make to such strategies;The establishment of mechanisms for cooperation between different providers, and theintegration of services so that objectives and targets are more effectively reached;The involvement of stakeholders in policy formulation and in the implementation ofservices;The undertaking of research to identify needs, to assess quality and to formulatestandards.George Christodoulides is a Senior Adviser with the Consultancy Unit of Intercollege, Cyprus. He is an accredited consultantin quality systems management and in human resources. He teaches Strategic Management at undergraduate and MBAlevel. He has been Headmaster of a Technical School, Director of the Higher Technological Institute, Director of Technical& Vocational Education, Chairman of the Cyprus Standards Organisation, and Consultant for the World Bank andUNESCO in Technical Educational and Training. E-mail for correspondence: christodoulides.g@intercollege.ac.cy49

ANNEXESTONIAMare Juske, Katrin Mälksoo, Margit Rammo & Mari SaariBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average1.4 (2002)71% (2001)9 240 (2001)40% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 61.3% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)48.4% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 9.1% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)24.5% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 7.3% (2002) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)62.1% (2000/01)31.8% (2000/01)13% (200286% (2001)5.2% (2002)30.1 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundCareer guidance has been practised in Estonia for over 70 years. As is the case in othercountries, the development and nature of this field has been dependent on the interactionof several factors. The coordination of career guidance and counselling is a task currentlyshared between two ministries: the Ministry of Education and Research is responsible forthe provision of services to young people, whereas the main target group of the Ministry ofSocial Affairs are unemployed people. The number and range of services provided by theprivate sector is growing rapidly, and includes career counselling, coaching andcompetency assessment, as well as career development services for managerial staff andspecialists, together with the more common job brokerage/recruitment role.In Estonia, career guidance has close affinities with psychology, and developments in thelatter field have an important impact on the former. Research in the psychologicalsciences, as well as the teaching of psychology at institutions of higher education, ensuresthe availability of appropriately qualified staff and establishes the paradigm on the basis ofwhich those engaged in career counselling organise their work. Indeed, a critical shift canbe observed in the way counselling is being defined, with a new focus on cooperation andcommunication between the client and the counsellor replacing the previous emphasis ontesting and the provision of information.Other shifts have been signalled by new legislative and regulatory measures in both theeducation and labour market sectors. In the latter sector, there has also been a drivetowards quality provision through the official adoption of standards in public services, thesetting out of a clearly articulated protocol for the provision of vocational guidanceservices, and the drawing up of a job description for service providers, including activities51

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESby target groups. Political mechanisms for the steering of guidance services – such asmandatory standards – have not yet been implemented in the education sector.Despite important developments in the right direction, Estonia still does not have a unifiedand sufficiently regulated vocational guidance and counselling system. The need for thishas nevertheless been officially recognised, and steps are being taken to find optimumsolutions.Guidance in the Education SectorInformation relating to career guidance and counselling activities and aimed at youngpeople is collected and put together at the Ministry level, which is also where decisionsabout policy, initiatives and resources are made. The Ministry works in close cooperationwith two organisations, namely the Estonian Youth Work Centre and the Foundation VETReform in Estonia. Relevant annual agreements are signed with the county governors – ofwhom there are 15 – who are responsible for services in the area. Each county has one ormore Youth Information and Counselling Centres (YICC), whose responsibility it is toprovide a range of guidance and counselling-related services. The extent to which theseCentres focus on career guidance, and the range of guidance services offered, differs fromregion to region and largely depends on capacity. There are currently 21 centres inoperation across Estonia, some of them managed in cooperation with local governments inthe country’s largest cities.Young people also have access to career-related information in schools, with across-curricular theme – ‘Professional Career Development’ – featuring in the NationalCurriculum for Basic Schools and Gymnasia. Although this cross-curricular theme will notbe implemented until September 2004, schools have already embarked on the process ofidentifying staff members who will take responsibility in this area.Service provision in educational settings is further supported by school psychologists who,in many cases, also provide career-counselling services. Using mainly client-centred,humanistic counselling approaches, these psychologists help young people learn abouttheir aptitudes, personal characteristics and vocational orientations. Students are alsoprovided with support to enable them to identify their potential and inner resources.Counsellors are usually attached to the central unit, but have no formal teaching duties.Up until a few years ago, vocational education establishments did not offer careerguidance services to their students. Recently, however, the VET school sector has seensome major reforms, with several schools in a number of towns merging into regionaltraining centres that also provide training courses for adults. Some of these new centreshave introduced career guidance services, either in the form of specific lessons in suchemployment-related matters as job seeking skills, or through testing and test processing,offered by career counsellors visiting the school. In general, however, it can be said thatcareer- and guidance-related matters have not featured highly in vocational educationestablishments.At the tertiary level, career guidance services operate in five Estonian universities. Inaddition to providing career consultation and counselling, such services often also act as abridge between employers and students. Companies are invited to introduce theirenterprises to students, lectures and seminars are organised, with students being invited tojoin a job seekers’ database. The university career centres also collect feedback from thelabour market, particularly through the first destination survey, and through employerquestionnaires. There is no central regulation of career guidance services in highereducation, and centres are established on the initiative of each university.52

ANNEXGuidance in the Labour Market SectorVocational guidance as a labour market service is regulated by the Labour MarketServices Act which came into force on 1 October 2000. There are currently 18 vocationalcounsellors working in 16 regional employment offices. The Ministry of Social Affairs isresponsible for the central formulation of the political guidelines and strategic goals thatconstitute national labour market policy, and for ensuring that these guidelines arefollowed. The implementation of the labour market policy is monitored by the administrativeLabour Market Board, which supervises and monitors the regional employment offices.Vocational guidance in employment offices is currently offered exclusively to unemployedjob seekers (i.e. those registered as unemployed) and to job seekers who have receivednotice of the termination of their employment due to the restructuring of the enterprise forwhich they work. At the same time, information on the situation in the labour market and onthe possibilities of labour market training is provided to every information seeker.In 2002 counselling was provided to more than 8,100 job seekers, i.e. around 7.5% of thetotal number of unemployed people. The main target groups are the long-termunemployed; women (or men) returning to the labour market after an extended period ofabsence (often due to taking time out to raise a family, but also for other reasons); jobseekers who have no qualifications or previous work experience, or who cannot work intheir usual occupation for health reasons; people belonging to minority groups; andemployers looking for appropriate labour. The aim of vocational counselling is to help jobseekers to acquire a better understanding of their work situation, of the education andlabour market situation, and of the opportunities available in employment and training inrelation to their choices and preferences. The service is voluntary and free of charge forthe client. The recommendations of the counsellor are taken into consideration whensuggesting applicable labour market services to the client.As well as giving information, counsellors also carry out interviews with clients, administercareer guidance tests and provide training in job seeking and decision-making skills.Individual action planning will be launched during 2003 as a strategy to help at-risk jobseekers (e.g. young people aged 16–24, long-term unemployed people, mothers with smallchildren) to re-enter the labour market. It will also be used with unemployment benefitapplicants in order to activate their job seeking process.Guidance personnel work not only with individuals, but also with groups, particularly whenthese are formed on the basis of sharing similar difficulties or needs. Most regionalemployment offices provide internet access to job seekers, and a web-basedself-information system was launched in 2003 in order to improve accessibility to labourmarket services. The self-information system facilitates the mediation between the clientand work and training opportunities, providing career information as well as professionalsuitability testing and e-learning possibilities.All counsellors working in the employment offices are graduates, with 80% of them havingdegrees in psychology, pedagogy or social work. Further training opportunities are regularlyoffered on the basis of the training programme approved by the Estonian Labour Market Boardto ensure that vocational counsellors have the necessary skills required by their profession.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Estonia, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:The general acknowledgement within the relevant ministries of the importance andnecessity of guidance services;53

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESThe availability of a newly issued set of documents and laws regulating serviceprovision in the labour market system, including aims, tasks and clients of the service,as well as quality service criteria and service delivery standards;The higher education requirement and coordinated further training of counsellors, whichhave resulted in a harmonised level of professional skills for counsellors working in thelabour market system;The existence of some methodological materials and tools, including handbooks forcounsellors, workbooks for job seekers and pupils, and professional suitability tests;Growing cooperation at the regional level between the education and labour marketguidance sectors, including the exchange of information, the dissemination ofinformation materials, and the organisation of joint information days.Weaknesses:The lack of unified political steering in this area between the Ministry of Education andResearch and the Ministry of Social Affairs;The existence of two separate counselling systems, with separate management andfinancing, targeting different client groups; this impedes purposeful cooperation, limitsopportunities for joint development activities and uses more resources;Insufficient regulation of guidance in the relevant policy documents within the educationsector, with service delivery standards and quality assurance criteria not yet beingdeveloped;Lack of postgraduate specialised training of vocational and career counsellors;Low wages in the sector, resulting in difficulties recruiting and retaining specialists withhigh levels of qualifications;Variable levels of accessibility and quality of vocational counselling services across regions;The fact that guidance of working adults is addressed only by the private sector.The Way Forward:The joint development of a guidance service provision model that will form the basis ofa national implementation strategy that addresses young people and adults (bothworking and unemployed);The provision of support in the teaching of careers issues as a cross-curricular themewithin the National Curriculum for Basic Schools and Gymnasia;The development of high-quality internet-based information systems and otherelectronic tools for different target groups;The acknowledgement of the guidance practitioner as a key contributor towards theimplementation of lifelong learning;Increased cooperation with EU member states and countries in the European Economic Area;The development of new methods to address the needs of different target groups (suchas adults, pupils and at-risk groups).Mare Juske works as a chief specialist at the Estonian Labour Market Board. Her tasks involve the provision of information onthe labour market situation and labour market training, the coordination and development of job mediation and vocationalcounselling services, and the harmonisation of their provision in the employment offices. She has worked in the guidancefield since 1988. E-mail for correspondence: mare.juske@tta.eeKatrin Mälksoo works at the Foundation VET Reform in Estonia as a project manager in the Phare programme. Shecoordinates the implementation of the project component dealing with the development of career guidance services inEstonia. Having previously been employed by Euroguidance Estonia, she has been involved in the development of thefield since 2000. E-mail for correspondence: katrin.malksoo@sekr.eeMari Saari works as a psychologist at the Tartu Counselling and Crisis Help Centre, her main target group being unemployedpeople. Since 1993 she has led several groups of adults and young people in career planning, and has been a lecturer insolution-focused brief therapy and career counselling. She has worked in the guidance field since 1975. E-mail forcorrespondence: mari.saari@email.isp.eeMargit Rammo works at the Foundation VET Reform in Estonia as a coordinator for the Estonian Euroguidance Centre. TheCentre contributes towards the development of Estonia’s career guidance system and, as a member of the Europeannetwork, sets out to support guidance counsellors in promoting European mobility and the European dimension withineducation and training. Rammo has coordinated the production of several publications – such as ‘Texts in CareerCounselling’ and ‘Education, Labour Market and Careers Guidance in Estonia’ – as well as web-based guidance tools.She has been involved in the guidance field since 1998. E-mail for correspondence: margit.rammo@sekr.ee54

ANNEXHUNGARYLaszlo Zachar, Istvan Kiszter, Andras VladiszavljevBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average10.2 (2002)66% (2001)12 250 (2001)53% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 56.5% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)24.1% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 5.6% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)10.5% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 4.5% (2002) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–2451.6% (2000/01) percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education 11.5% **(2000/01) early school leavers rate* (%) 12% (2002) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation70% (2001) participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%)3.3% (2002) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)14.8 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortraining** in addition more than 50% of upper secondary students are in prevocational programmesSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003); OECDEducation at a Glance 2002; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8 and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundThe Ministry of Education and Ministry of Employment Policy and Labour share the task ofproviding career information, guidance and counselling in Hungary. The participation of theprivate sector is not widespread, and private employment services are more concernedwith making job placements. Some guidance is also offered through community-based civilorganisations, but this provision is mainly informal and offered mostly by non-specialisedpersonnel.The legal instruments steering guidance and information services in both the educationand labour market sectors are included in the laws governing public education, vocationaleducation, adult training and the promotion of employment. An important policy instrumentis the Framework Curricula for secondary schools, which provides clear directivesregarding career orientation in the ninth and tenth grades, encouraging gender-equalguidance and equity in opportunities and outcomes.Guidance in the Education SectorThe curriculum in Hungary does not feature any one subject that is directly linked to careercounselling and guidance, though the theme of the world of work is addressed in a varietyof subjects. At primary school level, the subject known as ‘technique’ is designed toprovide careers information, to which two to three hours are dedicated weekly, making atotal of around 72 hours annually. Twenty of these 72 hours are dedicated to occupationalchoice and career guidance. In addition, the class teacher meets students for one hour aweek, and a portion of the time is devoted to providing labour market information. The55

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESlatter focus is intensified during the final year of primary schooling, when students have tomake decisions about their future.At the secondary school level, students receive career counselling and guidance from theirform teacher during the so-called ‘form teacher hour’, as in primary school. Two hourseach week are timetabled for this activity. Each secondary school also provides personalcounselling, which is mainly psychological and remedial in orientation.Guidance services are rather underdeveloped at the tertiary education level, though someuniversities – such as the University of Economics and the University of Technology –organise career fairs on an annual basis, attracting private sector companies in search ofgraduates. Over and above fulfilling recruitment needs, such career fairs give students theopportunity to engage in self-assessment in terms of the qualities required for specificoccupations, collect relevant career information, engage in decision-making, learn andpractice self-presentation skills, manage stress, look for jobs, learn how to write theircurriculum vitae, and in some cases submit handwriting samples to graphology experts, onthe basis of which personality profiles are drawn up.The National Pedagogical Institute coordinates and supervises schools across Hungary,while the actual provision of career information, guidance and counselling services is theresponsibility of the pedagogical institutes of the counties.Guidance in the Labour Market SectorThe State Employment Service operates 20 County Labour Centres and 173 localbranches nationwide. The Employment Law defines the responsibilities of the Centres,stipulating that career guidance and counselling are their primary tasks, with the rapidinsertion of young unemployed into the labour market being a key goal. The main targetgroups are young people and adults in need of community and social support, particularlythose who are unemployed or disadvantaged.The County Labour Centres organise a career information forum in each county in order toassist the occupational selection process. County educational institutions, the chambers andrepresentatives of civic organisations have all participated in these forums. Every year theCounty Labour Centres also organise career information exhibitions and similar events, whichare intended to assist young people and adults as they move in and out of the labour market.Since 1992 nine Regional Training Centres have been set up with World Bank support.These Centres provide training and retraining programmes for adults, with careerguidance, information and counselling services featuring as an element therein. From 1994onwards Employment Counselling Departments have been established with Germanassistance. The services of these Departments – as an institution network – include theprovision of career information, training, and career guidance and counselling. Suchservices are provided free of charge to groups and individuals, and target unemployedworkers and students. Currently each province (19 counties and Budapest) offersEmployment Counselling services.In 1998 the Ministry of Labour entrusted the Csongrad Province Labour Centre with thetask of establishing the National Career Information Centre (NPK) with the help andsupport of the EU Leonardo da Vinci programme. The Centre’s main objectives include themapping of available training programmes and opportunities for training and employmentthat exist outside Hungary’s borders. The Centre is also responsible for providinginformation about Hungary’s education, labour, and social security systems to youngpeople from other countries in order to assist mobility between states. The Centre hasdeveloped national databases about higher education, secondary education, adulteducation, vocational training and career information, all of which are available to anyschool or individual via the internet.56

ANNEXThe following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Hungary, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:Hungary has a regulated guidance service in the education sector, with clear roles,objectives and learning materials, and with many institutions having a special roomdedicated to guidance and counselling activities;Guidance issues are built into the school curriculum, and work-related issues areaddressed in a number of curricular areas;Information about educational and occupational futures is freely available through theNational Career Information Centre and the Employment Information Centres, andgenerally speaking, clients have open and easy access to services;Increasing attention is being given to the specific information and guidance needs ofat-risk groups.Weaknesses:The information content of the manuals and descriptions needs to be updated withspecial attention being given to regional differences;There are few well-trained counsellors;There are no quality-assurance mechanisms in place;There is a lack of cross-sectorial collaboration;Career guidance personnel in schools do not always have a good grasp of labourmarket realities;ICT-based information that contains a guidance function has yet to be developed;Some at-risk groups, including students with disabilities, are not yet receiving specialattention in terms of career guidance;Adult guidance is underdeveloped, often focusing on unemployed people.The Way Forward:There is a need to develop a national and integrated career guidance strategy;The articulation of formal standards would help to achieve quality in the provision of services;Guidance needs to be seen within a lifelong perspective, and structures and servicesshould be developed with that in mind;The potential of ICTs in addressing individual and community needs should beexploited more effectively;Closer links should be established with the social partners in the provision of services.István Kiszter graduated in Mechanical Engineering and qualified as an Engineering Teacher at Budapest University ofTechnology and Economy. He achieved the DACUM Facilitator Certificate at Holland College, Charlottetown (P.E.I.Canada) in 1995. He works in the Ministry of Employment Policy and Labour as the head of the Adult EducationDevelopment Department. His main areas of interest are the methodological aspects of adult education and joborientation. He currently directs three regional career guidance development programmes which are financed by Phare.E-mail for correspondence: istvan.kiszter@om. huAndras Vladiszavlyev graduated from Szeged University of Science as a teacher and career counsellor. Between 1993 and1995 he worked as the General Director of the National Labour Centre in Hungary. He is currently the General Director ofthe Csongrad County Labour Centre and the Coordinator of the National Resource Centre for Vocational Guidance inHungary. The Centre contributes to the development of Hungary’s career guidance system and, in the fields of educationand training, it supports guidance counsellors in promoting European mobility and European harmonisation. He has alsoled various European projects. He is the author of The Modernisation of the Vocational Training (2000), as well as of anumber of other books and articles. E-mail for correspondence: va@npk.huLaszlo Zachar graduated in Mechanical Engineering and qualified as an Engineering Teacher at Budapest University ofTechnology and Economy. He has been the director of National Institute for Adult Education from 2002. He is also anassociate professor at Budapest University of Technology and Economy and Pecs University of Science. In recent yearshe has had a number of university and secondary school textbooks published. His main areas of interest are thetheoretical and practical aspects of adult education, particularly the knowledge of the world of work and job orientation.E-mail for correspondence: zachar.laszlo@nfi.gov.hu57

ANNEXLATVIAZinta DaijaBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average2.3 (2002)67% (2001)7 750 (2001)33% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 58.7% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)36.9% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 12.8% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)22.9% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 5.9% (2001) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)64.5% (2000/01)32.3% (2000/01)19% (2002)79% (2001)8.4% (2002)7.2 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundThe Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry of Education and Science share the responsibilityfor the organisation of career information, guidance and counselling services in Latvia. Thelead organisation is the Professional Career Counselling Centre (established under thesupervision of the Ministry of Welfare in 1987) which offers its services centrally through 20regional offices and through a peripatetic counselling group. The Centre’s tasks includedelivering guidance and counselling services to citizens (mainly compulsory education,VET and higher education students, unemployed people, and the employed peoplewishing to change jobs); compiling and disseminating educational and occupationalinformation; developing guidance methods and strategies; investigating client needs; andproviding training in career guidance. The Professional Guidance Information Centre(established under the supervision of the Ministry of Education and Science in 2000)compiles and disseminates educational and labour market information and is functioningas the National Resource Centre for Vocational Guidance in the Euroguidance network.There is one public organisation that charges a fee for providing guidance and counsellingservices to young people. Some guidance information is also offered through the Childrenand Youth Interest Centres and the Adult and Further Education Centres, but much of thisprovision is informal, and offered by non-specialist personnel.Vocational guidance in the Republic of Latvia is regulated through a number of legal acts(the Social Security Law, the Education Act, the Vocational Education Act, the Lawregarding Job Seekers and the Unemployed), which act as steering mechanisms forpolicy-making in both the education and the labour market sectors. Aspects of careerguidance have, over the past few years, also been included in a number of nationalprogrammes and strategies concerning employment and human resource development. It59

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESmust be noted, however, that these activities and initiatives have not been adequatelyfinanced.The career guidance profession is included in the Classification of Occupations, and theAssociation of Educational and Career Guidance Counsellors was established in 1996.Despite the increasing professionalisation of the occupation, there has been little evidenceof cross-sector collaboration.Guidance in the Education SectorGuidance-related themes are integrated throughout compulsory schooling within the socialsciences curriculum (Grades 1 to 9), which devotes one to two lessons to the areaannually. Local governments are expected to provide guidance to students, but existingregulations do not articulate roles, objectives, duties and service standards. Schools havea deputy director for out-of-class activities, and this includes responsibility for careerguidance. Guidance is mainly provided during special lessons led by the class teacher andduring project weeks, but such provision is generally in the hands of non-specialist staff.Students explore different career pathways and visit educational institutions andeducational exhibitions. In addition, students participate in individual or group guidanceand counselling sessions in the Professional Career Counselling Centre. The Centre has37 counsellors, all of whom have a first degree (generally in psychology) followed byspecialised in-service training. Counsellors visit schools and lead group counsellingsessions or organise information days. It is calculated that around 26% of theschool-leaving-age students have been involved in such guidance-related activities.Some secondary schools provide a work shadowing experience in order to help studentsgain first-hand knowledge of the world of work, and organise student enterprises incollaboration with Junior Achievement. Other schools have introduced career developmentprogrammes or provide career counselling following specialised courses offered toteachers by the Professional Career Counselling Centre.The VET and tertiary education sectors have not yet developed special career guidanceand counselling services. Higher education establishments have Study Centres, but therole of the counsellors is here confined to introducing students to the availableprogrammes of study.The Professional Career Counselling Centre, the Professional Guidance InformationCentre and some private providers publish information on an annual basis about vocationaland higher education establishments. This material is distributed in print format amongschools and libraries and is also available in bookshops. Web-based versions of thisinformation are now provided through Ministry of Education and Science channels, andthrough some private providers. A number of CD-ROMs have also been produced. Inaddition, education- and career-related information is disseminated through the monthlyjournal Target (in Latvian), the newspaper Education and Career (in Russian), and CareerDay, a supplement of the national newspaper. Career-related issues feature regularly inother newspapers, as well as in the broadcasting media more generally. Employers’organisations contribute towards the organising of annual educational exhibitions and fairsat both state and regional levels, while the State Youth Initiative Centre organises regionalyouth information days. These include a career day, on which lectures and seminars onguidance-related themes are scheduled.Guidance in the Labour Market SectorInformation, guidance and counselling services for adults – whether employed orunemployed – are offered by the Professional Career Counselling Centre. This has seen a25% increase in the use of its services, by a broad range of clients in recent years. The60

ANNEXState Employment Service offers information about vacancies and implements activelabour market measures. The latter include job seekers’ clubs, training and retrainingcourses, and work practice for young unemployed people. It also supports employmentunits for individuals with special needs.Over and above state provision, there are 40 private employment services, but these aremainly concerned with job placement.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Latvia, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths: Legal acts stipulate that all citizens have a right to career guidance and that providersshould offer a responsible service; An organisation that is external to the school and to the State Employment Service –namely the Professional Career Counselling Centre – has been established in order toprovide guidance and counselling services to a wide range of clients, including schoolstudents, vocational and higher education students, unemployed people, those alreadyin employment and people with disabilities; Regional provision has enhanced the access to services; A National Resource Centre for Vocational Guidance has been established; Guidance-related themes are being integrated across the curriculum in the compulsoryschool sector; A number of career guidance initiatives have been launched in schools, with workshadowing, career development courses and career counselling serving as models ofgood practice; Surveys are being carried out to identify the different career guidance needs of schoolstudents, VET students and unemployed people; A broad range of educational information is available in both print and ICT formats aswell as through newspapers, journals, TV, the broadcasting media, and at career andfurther education fairs.Weaknesses:Collaboration in the provision of guidance and counselling services between theMinistry of Welfare, the Ministry of Education and Sciences and local governments isunderdeveloped;Career education and guidance services in schools need to be improved, as clearobjectives, service manuals, and specialist staff are still lacking;Career guidance is also underdeveloped in VET schools and higher educationestablishments;Occupational and labour market information needs to be linked more effectively toeducational information;Career guidance is still often offered by non-specialist staff;No clear strategy or structures have been developed to respond effectively to thespecific needs of out-of-school young people.The Way Forward:The development of the career guidance and counselling system by integrating theservice and creating closer collaboration between social partners;The provision of specialised training for career guidance staff, and ensuring effectiveservice by adopting standards and a quality charter;The optimisation of the use of ICTs in addressing individual and community needs;61

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES The improvement of career guidance in educational institutions in order to develop‘guidance-oriented schools’; The strengthening of the capacity of the Professional Career Counselling Centre torespond to the needs of a wide range of clients.Zinta Daija is a Doctor of Biology (Psychophysiology), and is deputy director at the Professional Career Counselling Centre,where she directs research and runs training programmes. She was trained in career counselling and psychology byRussian specialists, has delivered lectures in this area in three higher educational establishments, and is a co-author of abook, Make Your Career by Yourself (Professional Career Counselling Centre, Riga, 2000), and of 28 articles. E-mail forcorrespondence: zinta@karjerascentrs.lv62

ANNEXLITHUANIAJonë SikorskienëBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average3.5 (2002)71% (2001)8 960 (2001)39% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 60.1% (2000) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)41.6% (2000) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 13.1% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)30.9% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 6.0% (2001) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)59.3% (2000/01)38.3% (2000/01)14% (2002)84% (2001)3.3% (2002)6.8 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundThe main providers of career guidance and counselling fall within the remits of the Ministryof Education and Science and the Ministry of Social Security and Labour. These Ministriesare responsible for career guidance and counselling development at a national level. Thetasks of these Ministries differ by target groups.The competence of the Ministry of Education and Science includes the provision ofcareer guidance at general education and vocational schools.The competence of the Ministry of Social Security and Labour includes organisingextra-curricular guidance for young people, their parents and teachers, and also forother labour market participants such as unemployed people, those facingunemployment, employers, employees and vulnerable groups.There are some other institutions that provide career counselling:Career centres at the biggest universities, which offer such services as counselling forstudents who are making vocational choices and planning their careers; organisingfurther education and internship programs within the country and abroad; providinginformation on the situation in the labour market; and helping to organise job searches;Regional labour market training and counselling services and labour exchanges;Private consulting organisations, of which there are currently around 20, offering suchservices as searching and selecting qualified specialists, conducting personnel andmanagement training, and providing counselling on management issues;The National Resource Centre for Vocational Guidance (or Lithuanian EuroguidanceCentre), which was established in 1998 with the National Agency for Leonardo da Vinci63

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESand which has as its main purpose the production and dissemination of guidancematerial as well as supporting mobility across Europe.Despite the fact that activities of separate institutions are regulated by the laws of theRepublic of Lithuania, by government resolutions and by ministerial orders, there is as yetno national system for providing career information, guidance and counselling. Institutionsoperating in this field lack coordination and cooperation.Guidance in the Education SectorEach general education school has a person responsible for career guidance, usually adirector or deputy director. Their activity is not regulated by legal documents. Compulsorylevel schools can employ an educational psychologist (of which there are 236 in all),though not all of them are able to find or afford such specialists, especially in rural areas.School psychologists have a broad remit, which is outlined in their job description. Thisincludes addressing learning difficulties and conduct and relationship problems, andproviding educational and career guidance. The latter tends to get very little attention, asother responsibilities take precedence.Career guidance began to be given more importance in 1998, when schools introducedspecialised curricular pathways. Students became more motivated to seek guidancesupport as their choices had an impact on their future educational and occupationaltrajectories. Such guidance could be from obtained outside the school, in such places as:The Territorial Labour Market Training and Counselling Services (TMLTCS, under theremit of the Ministry of Social Security and Labour);The Vocational Guidance Centre at the Lithuanian technological park (under the remitof the Ministry of Education and Science);The psycho pedagogical services (under the remit of the municipalities).Specialists in these institutions are professional psychologists, who help clients to identifypersonal interests, abilities and vocational aptitudes, and to choose the suitable studypathway in view of their career plans. Services can be offered to clients either individuallyor in groups.Guidance in the Labour Market SectorTwo public institutions deal with employment, vocational training and career issues.The Lithuanian Labour Exchange, which consists of one National and 46 TerritorialLabour Exchanges. These offer generic vocational information; clients who requiremore detailed career guidance and counselling are directed to Territorial Labour MarketTraining and Counselling Services.The Lithuanian Labour Market Training Authority and its regional subdivisions, includingsix Territorial Labour Market Training and Counselling Services (TLMTCSs) and 14Labour Market Training Centres. Territorial Services employ 180 persons, of whom 35are counsellors who are psychology graduates. They provide career information andcounselling to adults, and extra-curricular counselling to schoolchildren in towns anddistricts. In addition, they visit Territorial Labour Exchanges and schools in rural areas.TLMTCS counsellors provide individual and group career information, guidance andcounselling; they also develop and implement programmes for labour marketintegration and help clients in planning careers, while facilitating their social andpersonal development.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Lithuania, with some pointers for the way forward.64

ANNEXStrengths:Territorial Labour Exchanges provide career information through a variety of outlets,including job centres, youth job centres, information and counselling centres, vocationalinformation centres and self-information services terminals;There is a network of 6 Territorial Labour Market Training and Counselling Services thatcovers the biggest towns and their districts;TLMTCS counsellors and central staff in Vilnius prepare and conduct effectiveprogrammes helping clients develop their occupational abilities for labour marketparticipation;There is a growing number of websites that provide career information.Weaknesses:Coordination between institutions providing career counselling is weak;There is a general lack of information about counselling services;There is no training institution for career counsellors, no formal agreement regardingthe qualification requirements for entry into the profession, and no quality standards toregulate the exercise of the profession;Career guidance providers/counsellors are not available in sufficient numbers to satisfyneed or demand, and as a result, services tend to be directed those who ask for them,rather than to the target groups that are most at risk, including young people and adultswho have lost the motivation to learn or to work;The subject of career education is not yet integrated throughout the general schoolcurriculum, and currently benefits only senior students;There are insufficient up-to-date psycho diagnostic methods available for use by careerguidance staff.The Way Forward:The development of a national career guidance strategy, which would recognise theextent to which a successful occupational life is marked by lifelong learning;The involvement of social partners in planning and providing career guidance services;The preparation of quality standards to guide service providers;The coordination and targeting of a career guidance services network oriented towardsconsumer and community needs;The further development of an integrated, open, non-commercial, computerised careerinformation and counselling system.Jonë Sikorskienë is director of the Vilnius Labour Market Training and Counselling Service, a not-for-profit state bodyresponsible for the organisation of labour market career guidance, counselling and vocational training in the city of Vilniusand surrounding districts. E-mail for correspondence: sjone@vilnius.ldmt.lt65

ANNEXMALTARonald G. SultanaBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average0.4 (2002)68% (2001)12 600 (2000)56% (2000)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 54.2% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)31.0% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 7.4% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)11.2% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 5.0% (2001) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)37.1% (2000/01)26.3% (2000/01)53% (2002)n/a4.4% (2002)25.4 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Statistical Yearbook on Candidate andSE European Countries 2001; Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme 2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDPof the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003); SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 48and17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundThe task of providing career information, guidance and counselling in Malta is shared bytwo different Ministries, namely Education and Social Policy. There are few privateproviders of career information and guidance, with private employment services beingmore concerned with job placements than with actual guidance and counselling. Somevocational and educational guidance is also offered through trade unions, and through themany youth and community-based organisations on the island. Much of this provision isinformal, and offered in an ad hoc manner by non-specialist personnel.There are no legal instruments steering guidance or information services in either theeducation or the labour market sector. An important policy instrument is the NationalMinimum Curriculum, which provides clear directives regarding the school-to-workcurriculum, encouraging gender-equal guidance and equity in opportunities and outcomes.A Guidance Services Manual published by the Education Division in 2000, while not havingthe formal status of a binding policy document, does provide guidance teachers with aframework regarding role, competencies and quality standards. Overall, however,guidance has not featured highly on the government’s policy-making agenda, and there islittle interministerial cooperation or cross-sectorial collaboration.In the education sector, information, guidance and counselling services have been offeredsince 1968, when a fledgling Guidance Unit was set up. Guidance and counsellingservices currently fall under the aegis of the Department of Student Services andInternational Relations, one of 6 Departments in the Education Division, each of which isheaded by a Director. This Department has three main responsibilities, catering for (a)student services, (b) special education, and (c) international relations. The Guidance and67

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESCounselling Unit is located within the Student Services Section, which is headed by anAssistant Director. The Unit is led by an Education Officer, and is responsible for personal,curricular/educational and career guidance of students, and for the further training ofcounsellors and guidance teachers.The roles of the 30 counsellors and 125 guidance teachers differ in that the former focuson personal and developmental issues rather than vocational and career issues, a focuslegitimated by a separation of roles formalised by a Malta Union of Teachers (MUT)agreement. Counsellors are attached to the central unit and have no formal teachingduties, though they have to spend a minimum of three days a week in one or moreschools. They offer counselling to individuals and groups of students and parents, facilitatereferrals of students to other agencies or other specialists, and monitor the work ofguidance teachers. The latter are assigned duties in one secondary school, along apre-established ratio that is currently 1:300 students. Some challenging schools areallocated an additional member of staff. Guidance teachers spend half of the normalteaching time in classes teaching the curricular subjects in which they specialise. Theyspend the rest of the time leading individual and group sessions with students and parents,running a careers and further education information room, and fulfilling other dutiesassociated with their role as guidance personnel, including organising orientation visits towork places. There are no guidance teachers assigned to primary schools, and while intheory there ought to be five counsellors dedicated to the primary sector, there is currentlyonly one servicing the 80 state primary schools on the island. The impact of educationaland occupational guidance in the education sector is constrained by a highly streamedsystem of schooling in which students sit for high-stake examinations at the end of theirprimary years (age 11+), the result of which largely determines their subsequenteducational and occupational trajectories.Postsecondary establishments and the University of Malta also have counsellors andStudent Advisory Offices attached to them, catering for the whole range of personal,educational and vocational guidance needs of students. Most counsellors have a Master’sdegree, while guidance teachers usually have a first degree in teaching and a diploma incounselling.The non-state education sector, which includes 30% of all students and which is made up ofchurch, independent and parent foundation schools, also provides guidance teachers andcounsellors, and these generally have the same profile and range of responsibilities as theircounterparts in the state school system. They often join their colleagues from the publicschools for further and in-service training sessions. The guidance teacher/counsellor-to-student ratio in non-state schools is not regulated. Some of these private schoolshave guidance teachers and counsellors, while some have the former but not the latter.Over and above the information and guidance provided through the Guidance andCounselling Unit, the orientation towards the world of work and further studies is given inboth primary and secondary schools through a number of subjects, especially socialstudies, personal and social education, home economics, business studies and religiousstudies. At the secondary level, form teachers meet their classes on a regular basis anddiscuss matters of concern to students, very occasionally including aspects of vocationaland educational guidance. Form teachers also fill in Cumulative Record Cards for studentsunder their care, in consultation with the guidance teacher, who has custody of theseprofiles. In theory, such profiles can be made available to employers for recruitmentpurposes. Schools also have the option to participate in experiential extra-curricularprojects that attempt to help students develop skills in setting up cooperatives (SCOOPS –Co-Ops in Schools) or small businesses (Young Enterprise scheme). Other activitiesinclude career conventions and fairs, and the organisation of seminars to which employersand alumni are invited.68

ANNEXInformation about postsecondary educational pathways as well as opportunities for furtherstudies and adult education is also provided by another department of the Ministry ofEducation, the Department of Further Studies and Adult Education (DFSAE). The DFSAEpublishes a detailed annual prospectus of postsecondary courses, and this is distributedfree of charge to all households with a young person reaching the end of compulsoryschooling. The DFSAE also publishes a catalogue of adult and evening courses that isdistributed to local councils, district libraries and various industrial enterprises. In addition,it disseminates information through its website and through advertising on communitytelevision (Channel 22). Partly in response to the nationwide debate on the EuropeanCommission’s Lifelong Learning Memorandum, the DFSAE has decided to establishguidance and counselling services for adults.A limited vocational guidance service is also available at the Public Employment Service ofthe Ministry for Social Policy, the Employment and Training Corporation (ETC). The ETCtargets a clientele that includes unemployed people, women returning to the labour marketand individuals with special needs requiring advice on accessing supported employmentunits. It provides one employment adviser for every 550 clients, and offers its services bothcentrally and through its four regional offices. The 13 ETC employment advisers areprincipally concerned with job matching, maintaining contacts with employers and referringjob seekers to the relevant training programmes in order to increase their employabilityoptions. They have no specific training in vocational guidance, although a two-yearpart-time diploma level course is now being offered to them by the University of Malta. Theemployment advisers interview clients and draw up a profile and an action plan for eachinterviewee on the basis of their work experience, qualifications, aptitudes and workpreferences. Employment advisers tend to suffer from both a role and a case overload,and the administrative functions take precedence over the vocational guidance function.There is very little structured collaboration between the guidance services of the Ministry ofEducation and the Ministry for Social Policy – each has its own budget, and establishes itsown operational and training targets independently.There is very little scope for employers in Malta to offer vocational guidance within theirbusinesses, since most enterprises employ fewer than ten workers and do not have thecapacity to provide formal information or guidance services: of the 23,660 enterprises inMalta, 94.7% are micro enterprises, 4.3% are small companies and 0.9% medium-sizedfirms. At best, some larger enterprises offer occupational guidance informally through theHRD department, in response to specific situations, such as the introduction of an earlyretirement scheme. While trade unions do offer careers information and guidance to theirmembers, much of this activity is informal, and is usually a response to ad hoc enquiries,for example from members who are facing redundancy or changing jobs. The idea of socialpartnership in guidance is not yet fully established.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses of the career information andguidance system in Malta, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:Malta has a well-established guidance service in the education sector, with clear roles,objectives, and service manual, and with many institutions having a dedicated room forguidance and counselling activities. The role of the guidance teacher in schools isperceived to be attractive, though the personal counselling role tends to takeprecedence over the vocational guidance role;Guidance issues permeate the school curriculum, with several subjects addressing theworld of work. Experiential extra-curricular activities ensure that at least some studentsdevelop real skills in setting up and being part of cooperatives and small businesses;A broad range of information about educational and occupational futures is madeavailable in both print and ICT formats;69

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIES Because of the country’s size, clients have ready access to services; There is an increasing awareness of the differentiated needs of clients, with specificstrategies being developed to target at-risk groups, including women returners,ex-substance abusers, ex-convicts and clients from economically depressed areas.Weaknesses:Maltese guidance services suffer from a lack of clear policy steering;There is as yet no formalised quality auditing procedure for ensuring that guidanceservices in the education and labour market sectors are achieving objectives;As a result, there is a lack of cross-sectorial collaboration, with the labour market andeducation sectors working in parallel;School guidance staff tends to have little understanding of labour market issues;ICT-based information that contains a guidance function has yet to be developed;Despite the policy of mainstreaming in schools, there has been virtually nodevelopment in the provision of guidance services to students with disabilities;Adult guidance is underdeveloped, and where it is offered, is focused mainly on those whoare unemployed. There is little if any guidance offered to adults already in employment.The Way Forward:The formulation of a national strategy that integrates services and creates newsynergies, with a well-stocked national guidance resource centre;The development of standards and quality charters;A shift towards a view of guidance as a lifelong process, and the creation of structuresand strategies to support the implementation of a lifelong service;Optimising the use of ICTs in addressing individual and community needs;The establishment of closer and more open links between the social partners.Ronald G. Sultana is Professor of Sociology and Comparative Education at the University of Malta, where he directs theEuro-Mediterranean Centre for Educational Research. He trained as a counsellor in the UK, and his main researchinterests include VET, teacher training and transition-to-work issues. He is the author or editor of 13 volumes, includingCareers Education and Guidance in Malta: Issues and Challenges (co-editor, 1997 – PEG, Malta), has published over 80articles and chapters in refereed journals and books internationally and has recently authored the Cedefop synthesisreview of career guidance in 28 European countries. Professor Sultana is a member of the editorial board of the BritishJournal of Guidance and Counselling, and of the European Commission’s Expert Group on Lifelong Guidance. E-mail forcorrespondence: ronald.sultana@um.edu.mt70

ANNEXPOLANDWlodzimierz Trzeciak, Wojciech KreftBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average38.6 (2002)67% (2001)9 410 (2001)41% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 55.0% (2000) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)28.4% (2000) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 19.9% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)41.5% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 5.2% (1999) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)63.4% (2000/01)62.1% (2000/01)8% (2002)80% (2001)4.3% (2002)9.8 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003); OECDEducation at a Glance 2002; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8 and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundVocational guidance in Poland is based on the theoretical perspective that the process of ahuman being’s career planning and development starts in early childhood and lasts for thewhole life period. Vocational life is a series of personal decisions that should take intoaccount several factors. Some of these factors are of an internal nature, comprising theindividual characteristics of a human being; other factors relate to independent, objectiveexternal conditions – social, cultural and economic. The history of career guidanceservices in Poland has almost 100 years of tradition. It should be emphasised that peoplein Poland tend to use the term ’vocational guidance’ to describe the whole area of careerinformation, guidance and counselling.Career guidance and information services are mainly provided by two Departments ofState, the Ministry of National Education and Sport, and the Ministry of Economy, Labourand Social Policy. Each of these ministries manages and finances its servicesindependently. Within the Ministry of Economy, Labour and Social Policy, there is a specialDepartment of Vocational Counselling with a monitoring and coordinating function; in theMinistry of National Education and Sport there is no separate organisational unit of thiskind.The key goals of Polish national policies concerning information, guidance and careercounselling services are defined in the National Strategy for Employment and HumanResources Development.The main goal set out in the strategy is the wider involvement of citizens in the labourprocess. It is assumed that this will be achieved by:71

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESincreased employability owing to development of quality human resources;promotion of entrepreneurship;improved ability of enterprises and their employees to adapt to the changing marketconditions;enforcing a policy of equal opportunities within the labour market.Improvement of employability will be of crucial importance with respect to careercounselling because in most cases it is directly connected with individual career planningand career management; the need to acquire additional vocational skills; continuedvocational training; and equipping the individual with the ability to operate in the labourmarket.It is therefore crucial to create a system of widely available career information and toimprove the quality and availability of counselling services. It is also vital that all relevantinstitutions and stakeholders are integrated more fully. This will increase the effectivenessand complementarity of such services.Guidance in the Education SectorWithin the Ministry of National Education and Sport, information and career guidanceservices are provided mainly by a network of 587 Psychological and PedagogicalCentres. 12 All centres are supervised by local governments (at the poviat level, i.e. themiddle tier of the local government structure, roughly corresponding to a district). In linewith their statutory tasks, the centres offer assistance to children and young people aged0–19 years. Around one in eight individuals from this age group receive direct specialistsupport from these institutions, in such areas as:early diagnosis and rehabilitation;counselling for teenagers (including preventing addictions);family counselling;help for disabled children and teenagers;career counselling.Thus in the 2000/01 school year the number of children and young people aged 0–19years was 10,629,745. The Psychological and Pedagogical Centres gave specialistsupport to 1,264,828 of these (11.9%) to 1,004,782 (9.45%) with a diagnosis, and to260,046 (2.45%) without one. 13Until January 2003 schools did not have teachers or other staff with a specificresponsibility for career education and guidance. According to the legal regulations, careerinformation and guidance services for all school students were to be provided by thePsychological and Pedagogical Centres. However, their staffing and equipment were notsufficient to provide adequate services for all who needed them.The Ministry of National Education and Sport regulation of 7 January 2003 on theorganisation and provision of psychological and pedagogical support in publickindergartens, schools and other educational institutions (Journal of Laws, 11/2003 item114) has now introduced a new role into Polish schools. At every level of education, eachschool may now employ a school career counsellor. This position is not obligatory, so itmay take some time for this new role to appear in schools all over the country. Priority isinitially being given to schools closest to the time of entry into the labour market. In smallerschools, the role may cover more than one school, or be combined with, for example, theteaching of entrepreneurship.12 Gra¿yna So³tysiñska, Career Guidance in the Polish Educational System. National Centre for VocationalTraining Support, Warsaw, 2002.13 http://www.cmppp.edu.pl72

ANNEXGuidance in the Labour Market SectorSince 2000 the employment services provided by the Ministry of Economy, Labour andSocial Policy have been largely devolved to provincial (voivodship) and district (poviat)levels. Information and career counselling services are now offered at both of these levels.At the first, basic level, all activities are carried out by approximately 460 careercounsellors working in the 373 poviat labour offices, which are supervised by higherlocal authorities called starostwa.The second level comprises career counsellors from the 51 Centres for CareerInformation and Planning of the voivodship labour offices, supervised by voivodshipMarshals (i.e. heads of provincial government; there are 16 voivodships). Thesecentres offer comprehensive professional career information and vocational counsellingservices. Their staff provide individual counselling services as well as informationrelating to career planning.Career counsellors employed in Public Employment Services (approximately 700counsellors across the country) offer assistance to unemployed people and other jobseekers in solving their career problems.In 2000 the National Forum for Vocational Guidance was established by the Task Force forTraining and Human Resources (BKKK), a non-governmental organisation responsible forPoland’s links with relevant European Union training programmes. Its main goal is toformulate consistent solutions in the field of vocational guidance in Poland. It was intendedby its founders to facilitate the exchange of experiences and ideas between experts in thisarea. This is expected not only to result in improved knowledge and skills, but also tofacilitate the development of the country’s vocational guidance system. The forum bringstogether representatives of central and local government, vocational and continuingeducation institutions, the Ministry of National Education and Sport, the Ministry ofEconomy, Labour and Social Policy, employer organisations, trade unions and vocationalcounsellors. Hitherto it has convened a series of ad hoc meetings; it is currently seeking toestablish a more formal structure, with a Programme Council and a Permanent ExpertsGroup.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses of the career information andguidance system in Poland, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:A strong core group of professional career counsellors, especially in the labour officesand the Psychological and Pedagogical Centres;Improved career information resources, including web-based resources;Active leadership from the Ministry of Economy, Labour and Social Policy, buildingupon the pioneering work of the former National Labour Office;The existence of a National Forum for Vocational Guidance.Weaknesses:Lack of career education and guidance expertise within schools;Weak links between schools and the world of work;A traditional view that career information must be mediated by professional staff ratherthan being directly available on an open-access basis;Lack of services for employed adults to encourage them to review and develop theircareer on a regular basis;Limited involvement of employers and trade unions in the development of careerguidance provision.73

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESThe main threat is that the lack of effective coordination, both horizontally between theMinistry of National Education and Sports and the Ministry of Economy, Labour and SocialPolicy, and vertically between the different levels of administration and self-government atnational, voivodship, poviot and gmina levels, together with a failure to use the potential ofthe National Forum for Vocational Guidance, could result in:fragmented development;ineffective use of public resources;inefficient duplication of effort;failure to address gaps in provision.The Way Forward:The provision by the National Strategy for Employment and Human ResourceDevelopment of an overarching strategy within which the development of stronger andmore coordinated career guidance provision can be set;The provision by the National Forum for Vocational Guidance to provide a catalyst forcoordinated strategic development across the career guidance field, on a lifelong basis;Recent initiatives to establish career education provision within the school curriculum;The new initiative to appoint school career counsellors in all lower and upper secondaryschools;The career bureaux being set up in many higher education institutions.W³odzimierz Trzeciak is former Director of the Methodological Centre for Career Information and Counselling of the NationalLabour Office, and is coordinator of the National Forum for Vocational Guidance. E-mail for correspondence:w_trzeciak@poczta.onet.plWojciech Kreft is a career counsellor and independent expert. He was the chairman of the organising committee of theInternational Congress of Education and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG), held in Warsaw from 29 to 31 May 2002. Heworks for The Polish Association of School and Vocational Counsellors and is a member of The European Commission’sExpert Group On Lifelong Guidance. E-mail for correspondence: w.kreft@perspektywy.pl74

ANNEXROMANIAMihai JigãuBACKGROUND total population*(in millions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average22.4 (2002)68% (2001)5 560 (2001)24% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 62.4% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)48.2% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 7.0% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)17.6% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 3.0% (2002) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate** (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)41.9% (2000/01)63.9% (2000/01)23% (2002)71% (2001)1.1% (2002)4.5 (2001)* although the 2002 census shows that the actual population figure is only 21.6 millions inhabitants, we have usedEurostat's population estimates for 2002 for reasons of comparability with other countries in this report** % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education or trainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General backgroundThe task of providing career information, guidance and counselling in Romania is sharedby the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Youth. There aresome private information, guidance and counselling services, but these focus mainly onselecting and placing personnel in what is generally a highly qualified and specialised labourforce sector. Recent initiatives include online vocational guidance services for adults.Data provided by the Institute of Educational Sciences and by the Ministries of Educationand Labour indicate that there are approximately 650 counsellors in educational settingsand 450 counsellors in labour market settings. A further 100 counsellors work in theinstitutional structures of other ministries, or are employed by associations and privatecompanies. Of a total of 1,200 counsellors, around 60% are aged between 25 and 40, withmore than 80% being female.There are some important legal instruments steering guidance and information services.Education Act No. 84/1995 regulates the information, guidance and counselling activitiesorganised by institutions that come under the Ministry of Education. Other legalinstruments regulate aspects relating to the Statute of the Psycho-Pedagogical AssistanceCentres, define the job description for guidance teachers and counsellors, and set out theregulations regarding the Organisation and Functioning of the Psycho-PedagogicalAssistance Centres and of the Inter-School Psycho-Pedagogical Assistance Offices.Some recent initiatives have reinforced career guidance in schools. These include theintroduction of counselling and guidance as a curricular area in the National Curriculum at75

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESthe pre-university level (with effect from the academic year starting 1998); the introduction,at the postsecondary level, of a new curricular area, vocational guidance and counselling(in the first year of the two-year course of study) and information and vocational guidance(in the second year) as an aspect of the VET Reform, funded by the EU under the Phareprogramme (VET RO 9405); the establishment in 1999 of a National Resources Centre forVocational Guidance (NRCVG) in the Euroguidance Network; the setting up of Informationand Vocational Counselling Centres within the framework of the National EmploymentAgency; the offer of a Master’s degree in counselling and guidance at RomanianUniversities (Bucharest and Cluj); and the establishment – thanks to co-funding by theRomanian Government and the World Bank – of a Master’s degree in public policy at theUniversity of Bucharest, with around 900 graduates taking their major in career informationand counselling. In addition to this, further training opportunities became available whenRomania joined the ACADEMIA Project, a European exchange programme for counsellorsadministered by the NRCVG.Guidance in the Education SectorInformation, guidance and counselling services have been offered in the education sectorsince 1991, when the first counselling centre for education staff, students and parents wasestablished. Today the education ministry network includes the Psycho-PedagogicalAssistance Centres (PPAC), of which there is one per county, and which are responsiblefor coordinating the activities of the Inter-School Psycho-Pedagogical Assistance Offices(ISPPAC). The latter are organised in schools that have more than 800 students, or inclusters of schools with smaller populations, and are funded from the state budget. Staffinvolved in guidance activities have their rights and duties set out in a special statute; theyare expected to work 40 hours per week, of which two to four hours are dedicated toteaching, and 18 hours to activities in the counselling office. Staff can also be involved inleading aspects of the counselling and guidance area of the curriculum. All staff involved inthe delivery of information, guidance and counselling services are required to have studiedpsychology, pedagogy, sociology and social work at university. In most cases, graduatestudies are followed by specialised training at the Master’s level, or other coursesorganised by universities within various programmes. However, such postgraduate trainingis not a prerequisite for obtaining a counselling position in the pre-university educationsector.Another branch of the education ministry network consists of counselling services offeredto higher education students and graduates through information and guidance centres,which are to be found in larger universities. Personnel employed in these centres includegraduates from the social sciences. A 2002 initiative launched the so-called ComplexExpertise Commissions, whose task it is to provide guidance services for students withdisabilities.Guidance in the Labour Market SectorThe information, guidance and counselling activities operated by institutions under thelabour ministry are regulated by Law No.145 of 1998 regarding the establishment,organisation and functioning of the National Employment and Vocational Training Agency(now the National Employment Agency). The Agency administers the network ofInformation and Vocational Counselling Centres that are located in all counties and majorcities. The target clientele of the centres are young graduates, unemployed people, andadults searching for employment, among others. The centres provide information regardingthe labour market and education and training routes, help clients draw up a personalityprofile, offer guidance to unemployed people and act as go-betweens with potentialemployers. They strive to establish supply–demand equilibrium in the labour market and toinstitutionalise social dialogue in the area of vocational placement and training. They alsoimplement vocational placement and training strategies. Guidance specialists employed76

ANNEXwithin the labour ministry have a higher education background; many are sociologists,legal experts, economists or engineers, but one also finds psychologists, pedagogues andsocial workers. A number of them have followed the public policy Master’s courses withinthe career information and guidance project, specialising in career counselling.Guidance for Young PeopleThe Information and Consultancy Centres for Youth, within the framework of the NationalAgency for Supporting Youth Initiatives, offer information and counselling in a variety ofareas in response to the interests and needs of young people between 16 and 26 years ofage. Themes include access to public information, mobility, distance education, the use ofICT, leisure time, the social rights of young people, vocational training andself-improvement, as well as educational and career guidance. These centres are to befound in each county, and have been operational since 1994. Specialists working in theMinistry of Health’s counselling network also have a higher education background, withsome having followed further training courses such as a Master’s degree in counselling.Aspects of personal counselling are offered within services that fall under the responsibilityof the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Health, but these are more broadly linked topersonal guidance and only tackle career guidance incidentally.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Romania, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:Romania has a well-established information, guidance and counselling system in theeducation and labour market sectors, and there is a generally positive perception of thecareer counsellors’ role;There are several print- and ICT-based materials and resources linked to careerguidance;A special research department in educational and vocational guidance in the Institute ofEducational Sciences exists;In the National Curriculum (at pre-university level) there is a special Counselling andGuidance Curricular Area;The field has benefited greatly from funding and expertise provided by the World Bank,as well as from projects that have been implemented within the framework of such EUprogrammes as Leonardo da Vinci, Phare and Socrates.Weaknesses:Despite co-funding from external agencies and the Romanian government, the field ofcareer guidance still suffers a deficit of human and material resources in relation to thedemand for such services;The lack of pre-service training in counselling and guidance in Romanian universities;There is insufficient communication and collaboration between the various servicesinvolved in the information, guidance and counselling field;Private career guidance services are still underdeveloped;The links between educational and vocational guidance, and between these serviceswith placement services, needs to be strengthened;While ICT is increasingly being utilised, its potential is not being sufficiently harnessed,and tends to focus on providing information;Career guidance for adults focuses mainly on placement;Counselling professionals lack networking at national, European and international level;The legislative framework is still insufficiently centred on priorities of guidance andcounselling, on clients’ demand and on the outcomes of the process.77

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESThe way forward:The elaboration of ethical standards and quality criteria for career counselling activities;The strengthening of collaboration between career counselling specialists from differentsectors;Continued involvement in international projects;The improvement of access through exploiting the potential of ICT in providingguidance, lifelong learning and professional training from a distance.Mihai Jigãu holds a doctoral degree in psychology, and is the Head of the Educational and Vocational Guidance Departmentat the Institute of Educational Sciences in Bucharest and the Coordinator of National Resources Centre for VocationalGuidance. He is the author of Career Counselling (2001), one of the reference materials in the field of career counsellingin Romania, as well as of a number of other books and articles. He is coordinator of various European projects and anational trainer in career counselling. E-mail for correspondence: jigau@ise.ro78

ANNEXSLOVAKIAStefan GrajcarBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average5.4 (2002)69% (2001)11 200 (2001)48% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 56.8% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)22.4% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 18.6% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)38.9% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 4.1% (2002) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)46.0% (2000/01)77.6% (2000/01)6% (2002)85% (2001)9.0% (2002)16.7 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003); OECDEducation at a Glance 2002; SiF Theme 3 13/2003; SiF Theme 4 8 and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundThe responsibility for career information, guidance and counselling services is shared byeducational institutions and authorities and Public Employment Services and is clearlydefined in several pieces of legislation. The key roles are played by the Ministry ofEducation and the National Labour Office. Within the private sector and other sectorsoutside state and public provision, career information, guidance and counselling servicesare offered only occasionally and do not play a significant role.Guidance in the Education SectorWithin the education sector the career information, guidance and counselling serviceshave quite a long tradition, since the institutional framework on which the present networkof stakeholders is based had its beginnings in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In fact itshistory is even longer this: in1928 the Central Counselling Bureau for Occupations and thePsychotechnical Institute were established in Bratislava. Guidance services are nowintegrated in the system of educational counselling, which consists of educationalcounsellors in primary and secondary schools, school psychologists and school specialpedagogists. These are specialists dealing with various special tasks in schools and schoolfacilities. Contexts in which guidance and counselling activities are carried out includeeducational and psychological counselling centres, special education counselling centresand child integration centres. None of these centres deals solely with career guidance orcounselling. Career information, guidance and counselling provision is the main activity ofeducational counsellors in primary and secondary schools, while in the case of educationaland psychological counselling centres and school psychologists it is more or less in abalance with other activities.79

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESEducational counsellors are to be found in all primary schools and in the majority ofsecondary schools (general, vocational and apprentice schools). Only 5–6% of all schoolshave school psychologists. Each of the country’s 79 districts has an educational andpsychological counselling centre offering services to children aged 3–5 years. Thecountry’s eight administrative regions cater for the guidance and counselling needs ofyoung people aged 15–19 years.Guidance in the Labour Market SectorCareer information, guidance and counselling services within the employment sector areprovided by the National Labour Office, the public employment service responsible foractive and passive labour market policy measures. Together with job mediation, careerinformation and guidance services are the most important tasks of the Labour Office, andthese two functions are clearly defined in the Employment Act.The National Labour Office delivers its services through 79 District Labour Offices, eightRegional Labour Offices and one Directorate General, with career information andguidance being the responsibility of the mediating and counselling departments of DistrictLabour Offices and Information and Counselling Centres of the Regional Labour Offices.The Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family is responsible for the development andimplementation of legislation and policies in the field of employment policy.Cooperation between the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs andFamily and the National Labour Office as the main stakeholders in labour market,employment policy, vocational education and training and all other related issues (includingcareer information, guidance and counselling services) is guaranteed through thegovernment and consultation procedures applied in the process of development of policypapers, pieces of legislation and other documents. No formal cooperation agreementbetween these three institutions is currently in force and coordination between labouroffices, schools and counselling centres is only informal and takes place mostly at locallevel.In relation to the future, several new and important initiatives have begun in both theeducation and employment sectors. They are also to some extent indirectly connected withcareer guidance and counselling and are expected to bring substantial positive changes inthis field. Among the most important of these initiatives are the National Action Plan onEmployment, the Sectorial Operational Plan on Human Resources Development, theNational Plan on Education and Training and the Memorandum on Lifelong Learning.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Slovakia, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:An established career counselling system in the education sector;A hierarchically structured system of guidance and counselling in employment services,in which different counselling approaches are practised, and in which there is aneffective in-house system of training for guidance and counselling staff;The existence of a Career Information Resource Centre as a central support for thecreation, development and dissemination of career information;Intense interest on the part of guidance and counselling practitioners in using newinformation and communication technologies in delivering services;Legislative support for career guidance and counselling;An information database on training opportunities and employment for graduates;The establishment of information sources in the National Labour Office network;80

ANNEXThe establishment of multinational cooperation within the development of schemes forthe training of guidance and counselling practitioners, for the development of guidancemethods, and for sharing good practice, thanks to Phare, Leonardo da Vinci, theEuroguidance network and EURES programmes;Collaboration with the public media in the dissemination of information relating tocareers and further education.Weaknesses:The lack of strategic development in the system of career information, guidance andcounselling, especially in terms of the articulation of long-term vision, and planning andmanagement at central, regional and local levels;The lack of finance and adequate instruments and equipment in information centres;The limited access to the career information and guidance services offered by the PES;The absence of specialised pre-graduate training of career counsellors in both theeducation and employment sectors, limiting the opportunities for on-the-job training forpractitioners from schools;The absence of a specialised information network for guidance and counsellingpractitioners;The absence of research in the career guidance field, and the lack of labour marketprospects for practitioners;The weak links between institutions participating in career guidance, as well asinadequate links between existing subsystems (schools and employment);A lack of sufficient awareness of the issues that need to be addressed in the careerguidance services in the education sector;The lack of recognition that career guidance and counselling is an active measure oflabour market policy;The absence of an integrated system of information on VET opportunities.The Way Forward:The development of a national strategy and action plans for the future provision ofintegrated career information, guidance and counselling services in all sectors and at alllevels;The establishment of favourable legislative support for the effective functioning ofdifferent forms of guidance and counselling services, particularly to encourage privatesector providers;The financing of guidance and counselling services from sources other than the statebudget or public sources, including funds that could be tapped from the EuropeanSocial Fund and from EU programmes;Increasing accessibility of services through the building of career information andcounselling centres that are closer to clients;The development of a consolidated database providing information on occupations andrelevant qualification requirements;The achievement of closer cooperation between guidance and counselling practitionersand companies;The use of ICT and the internet, and the development of appropriate software, in orderto help clients learn more about the world of work.Stefan Grajcar is the head of the Career Information Resource Centre of the National Labour Office, a public employmentservice. He began as a career counsellor, and then spent several years in research institutes dealing with theorganisation and management of counselling services in the education sector, and with the development of a careerinformation system for the employment services. Since the early 1990s he has been involved in various projects andstudies organised by ETF, ILO, and Phare. During the last few years he has played a leading role in the National LabourOffice, having responsibility for three Leonardo da Vinci projects targeting different aspects of career guidance andcounselling. He is also the co-editor of a handbook, The World of Work, for primary and secondary schools pupils(LOGOS, Bratislava 2000). E-mail for correspondence: stefan.grajcar@nup.sk81

ANNEXSLOVENIASaša NiklanoviæBACKGROUND total population (inmillions) population of working age(15–64) as a%oftotalpopulation GDP per capita(PPS Euro)asa%ofEU-15 average2.0 (2002)70% (2001)16 210 (2001)70% (2001)LABOUR MARKET INDICATORS employment rate (% ofpopulation aged 15–64) 63.8% (2001) employment rate of olderworkers (% of populationaged 55–64)25.5% (2001) unemployment rate (% oflabour force aged 15+) 6.0% (2002) youth unemployment rate(% of labour force aged15–24)15.7% (2001)EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGINDICATORS total public expenditure oneducation (as a%ofGDP) 5.6% (2000) participation rates ineducation (ISCED levels 1 to6) of young people aged15–24 percentage of uppersecondary students (ISCED 3)in vocational education early school leavers rate* (%) percentage of the populationaged 25–64 having attained atleast upper secondaryeducation participation rates of adultsaged 25–64 in educationand training (%) number of internet users(per 100 inhabitants)62.7% (2000/01)72.3% (2000/01)5% (2002)75% (2001)5.1% (2002)30.0 (2001)* % of 18–24 year olds with less than upper secondary education who are not participating in any education ortrainingSources: SiF Theme 3 25/2002 (First demographic estimates for 2002); Employment in Europe 2002; SiF Theme2 8/2003, (Quarterly Accounts – the GDP of the ACCs); Europa Website: Structural Indicators (May 2003);National source; Statistics in Focus Theme 3 19 and 20/2002 LFS Principal Results 2001; SiF Theme 3 13/2003;SiF Theme 4 8 and 17/2002 (Info Soc)General BackgroundVocational guidance in Slovenia has a long tradition, which began in the 1950s with theestablishment of Vocational Guidance Services in the Regional Employment Services. Themomentum was maintained throughout the 1960s and 1970s, when counselling serviceswere introduced in primary and secondary schools. Nowadays the Schools andEmployment Services are two of the major providers of counselling services. Theresponsibility for the financing of guidance lies with the Ministry for Education, Science andSport, which caters for guidance in education, and the Ministry for Labour, Family andSocial Affairs, which caters for guidance in the employment sector. In some cases the twoministries share the responsibility. There is no explicit coordinated policy for careerguidance in Slovenia, and no cross-sectorial coordination body exists.Guidance in the Education SectorCounsellors in schools provide a broad range of counselling services, including personal,social and vocational guidance for students. However, they also work with others, includingteachers, parents and school management.National Guidelines for School Counselling Services define the guidance programmes inprimary and secondary schools in Slovenia. These programmes – called ‘MinimalStandards for Guidance in Primary Schools’ and ‘Minimal Standards for Guidance inSecondary Schools’ – include various information activities, lessons on career-relatedissues (such as career development, further education and employment possibilities), workwith self-help guidance tools, psychological testing, individual career counselling and visitsto employers. The national programme is largely implemented by school counsellors with83

REVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN 11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESthe assistance of the Employment Service of Slovenia (ESS). The latter strives to increasethe information resources available for guidance, as well as providing guidance servicesthrough Centres for Information and Career Counselling, which offer the usual range ofservices and, increasingly, computerised self-directed guidance tools. Career counsellorsfrom the ESS have developed close and effective cooperative relationships with schools.The weakest element of career guidance in Slovene schools is career education, which stillhas a marginal position in the curriculum. It is possible that the situation will improve in thevocational education and training sector, where reforms are taking place. Universities andother institutions of higher education do not have specialised career counselling servicesor career counsellors. Some of these institutions carry out different guidance activities(including visits to potential employers) with the aim of establishing links betweeneducation institutions and organisations in the labour market. Because of the lack ofprofessional counselling services, student fairs play an important role.Over the past three years, centres for adult educational guidance have been establishedwithin a number of adult education and training centres.Guidance in Labour Market SectorVocational guidance has a long tradition in Slovenia’s employment services. Prior to 1996,the main target groups were students in primary and secondary schools. By themid-1990s, when unemployment had reached a peak of 15.3% (1993), the ESS hadshifted its focus to an older clientele, and a reform was launched in 1996 with the goal ofdeveloping new guidance services and methods suitable for adults, particularly those whowere unemployed. The number of counselling sessions with unemployed people iscurrently higher than with student client groups, and more resources are allocated to theformer than to the latter. Nevertheless, the ESS still retains responsibility for implementingaspects of the guidance programme in schools, and has contributed towards itsdevelopment over the years.The relatively new experience of offering guidance services to the unemployed hashighlighted the importance of two factors that determine the quality of service offered bythe ESS. These are the level of professional skills of career counsellors and their ability todevelop positive and collaborative relationships with client advisers. In attaining the lattergoal, teamwork has proved to be a very effective mechanism.Employers generally do not tend to offer career guidance to their employees, though itmust be said that in some cases, large and multinational enterprises do havewell-developed services.The following is an overview of strengths and weaknesses in the provision of careerinformation and guidance services in Slovenia, with some pointers for the way forward.Strengths:The extent of counselling services offered in schools;The career counselling services available through the employment services;The level of existing professional development of guidance personnel;The trend for more partners to show an interest in guidance, accompanied by anincreased willingness to participate in guidance-related activities and projects;The development of provision of educational guidance for adults;An emerging interest in career guidance among policy-makers.84

ANNEXWeaknesses:The lack of quality, specialised training and education in the field of career guidance;The fact that career education still has a marginal position in the present schoolcurriculum;The absence of a clear and coordinated guidance policy at national, regional and locallevels;The lack of career counselling services at the higher education level.The Way Forward:The number of organisations involved in guidance provision, development andpolicy-making has increased over recent years. This represents an important shift awayfrom the traditional view that guidance was the sole responsibility of the school and theemployment services. This new trend is grounded in a realisation on the part of manySlovenian citizens that lifelong learning has become very much a priority. The number ofprojects in the field of career guidance has increased substantially. Some of these projectsare funded by European programmes (Leonardo da Vinci, Phare), while other benefit fromnational funding. The consequence of this trend is that the need for coordinated policy iseven more visible than before. Coordinated strategic policy in the field of guidance wouldbring better dissemination of the results of the projects and a higher level of sustainability.In the past few years European policy has had a positive impact on the situation of careerguidance in Slovenia. The country has, for instance, placed career guidance among its keypriorities in national strategic documents (such as the National Employment Strategy andEuropean Social Fund-related documents). Policy-makers are consequently showing anincreasing interest in guidance, considering it to be an important active employment policymeasure and a mechanism for improving the effectiveness of vocational training. Thisrenewed interest represents both a challenge and an opportunity for guidance practitionersin Slovenia. A number of issues need to be addressed, however, if guidance services areto develop more successfully. These include the following:Clear career guidance policies should be developed;Career guidance should be afforded a more central position in Slovene schools;Career guidance as a profession should be more proactive in defining its role in thepresent and future situation in the labour market, and in developing its profession tomeet present and future needs;Quality education and training programmes for career counsellors should be developedto help counsellors to acquire the competences they need in order to cope withdemanding tasks.Saša Niklanoviæ is head of the Department for Vocational Guidance in Employment Service of Slovenia (ESS). He began asa career counsellor in the ESS, at the Regional Office in Ljubljana. He then led various projects in the field of vocationalguidance, including the introduction of job clubs in the ESS (1995), the reform of the guidance services of the ESS(1996–99), the establishment of the Vocational Information and Guidance Centre in Ljubljana (1997–99) and theestablishment of the NRCVG in Slovenia (1999). He also participated in a number of other projects that had as a goal thedevelopment of guidance methods. He is a member of the European Commissions’ Expert Group for Lifelong Guidanceand of the Board of Directors of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG). E-mailfor correspondence: sasa.niklanovic@ess.gov.si85

EUROPEAN TRAINING FOUNDATIONREVIEW OF CAREER GUIDANCE POLICIES IN11 ACCEDING AND CANDIDATE COUNTRIESLuxembourg: Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities2003 – 88 pp. – 21.0 x 29.7 cmISBN 92-9157-349-3

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