focal point for describing and integrating these keystrategic elements.• Top management discussions to arrive at a drivingforce bring to the surface issues that must be resolved ifan organization is going to arrive at an effective strategystatement. An approach that allows top management tostop short of this will facilitate agreement, but will alsoresult in a general statement of strategy that is no moreuseful than those previously illustrated.• Every organization has a momentum that carries it ina certain direction. This momentum is generated by thedriving force. Unless the driving force is recognized, attemptsto change this direction will be futile. You mustknow from what you are changing. The driving force providesthe basic means for thinking about alternative futuresand what each might mean in terms of products,markets, capabilities, and return.• The concept of driving force also has great value intracking the competition. Since there generally is no wayto know the stated strategy of your competitors, assumingthey have one, simply observe their actions to determinetheir driving force and then project what their futurecourses of action might be.ABOUT THE AUTHORSBenjamin B. Tregoe, Jr., is chairman of the board of directorsand chief executive officer of Kepner-Tregoe, Inc., aninternational management education and organization developmentfirm located in Princeton, New Jersey. Formerlyassociated with the Rand Corporation, Dr. Tregoe and hiscolleague, Charles H. Kepner, Ph.D., developed the Kepner-Tregoe Rational Process – the application of cause-effectlogic to management activities.John W. Zimmerman is senior vice-president of the Kepner-Tregoe organization, where his responsibilities include newconceptual research and various aspects of corporate businessdevelopment. Over the last five years he has specializedwith Dr. Tregoe in the development of a program tohelp chief executive officers clearly determine the futurenature and direction of their businesses.From: Benjamin B. Tregoe and John W. Zimmerman, “StrategicThinking: Key to Corporate Survival,” Management Review 68, no. 2(1979): 8-14. Used with permission.The rate of change and the complexity of today’sworld make strategic thinking essential to survival. However,the vehicle that organizations generally have used tocope with the future – long-range planning - is in manyways primarily responsible for stifling their ability to surviveand triumph over the challenges ahead. Long-rangeplanning is killing strategic thinking.Strategic thinking must be separated from and precedelong and short-range operational planning. Strategicthinking must result in a statement of strategy that is specific,simple, and clear enough to provide a framework forthe determination of future products, markets, capabilities,and return. The driving force is the key to developingsuch a statement.The chief executives we know voice an increasingsense of urgency about the importance of clear strategicthinking and about their own role in the strategy formulationprocess. For this urgency to be translated into effectiveaction, top management must devote its most seriousand incisive thinking to strategic issues.32
12.5 Crowdsourcing Systems on the WebBy Anhai Doan, Raghu Ramakrishnan, & Alon Y. HalevyOBJECTIVES:16. Identify four challenges that a crowdsourcing system must address.17. List the dimensions used to classify crowdsourcing systems.18. Define the roles that humans can play in a crowdsourcing system.19. Name some common crowdsourcing systems found on the Web.20. List strategies that crowdsourcing systems can use to recruit and retain users.Crowdsourcing systems enlist a multitude of humans tohelp solve a wide variety of problems. Over the pastdecade, numerous such systems have appeared on theWorld-Wide Web. Prime examples include Wikipedia,Linux, Yahoo! Answers, Mechanical Turk-based systems,and much effort is being directed toward developingmany more.As is typical for an emerging area, this effort has appearedunder many names, including peer production, user-poweredsystems, user-generated content, collaborative systems,community systems, social systems, social search,social media, collective intelligence, wikinomics, crowdwisdom, smart mobs, mass collaboration, and humancomputation. The topic has been discussed extensively inbooks, popular press, and academia. 1,5,15,23,29,35 But thisbody of work has considered mostly efforts in the physicalworld. 23,29,30 Some do consider crowdsourcing systemson the Web, but only certain system types 28,33 or challenges(for example, how to evaluate users 12 ).This survey attempts to provide a global picture ofcrowdsourcing systems on the Web. We define and classifysuch systems, then describe a broad sample of systems.The sample ranges from relatively simple wellestablishedsystems such as reviewing books to complexemerging systems that build structured knowledge basesto systems that “piggyback” onto other popular systems.We discuss fundamental challenges such as how to recruitand evaluate users, and to merge their contributions.Given the space limitation, we do not attempt to be exhaustive.Rather, we sketch only the most important aspectsof the global picture, using real-world examples. The goalis to further our collective understanding—both conceptualand practical—of this important emerging topic.It is also important to note that many crowdsourcing platformshave been built. Examples include MechanicalTurk, Turkit, Mob4hire, uTest, Freelancer, eLance,oDesk, Guru, Topcoder, Trada, 99design, Innocentive,CloudCrowd, and [Crowd Flower]. Using these platforms,we can quickly build crowdsourcing systems in many domains.In this survey, we consider these systems (that is,applications), not the crowdsourcing platforms themselves.CROWDSOURCING SYSTEMSDefining crowdsourcing (CS) systems turns out to be surprisinglytricky. Since many view Wikipedia and Linux aswell-known CS examples, as a natural starting point, wecan say that a CS system enlists a crowd of users to explicitlycollaborate to build a long-lasting artifact that is beneficialto the whole community.This definition, however, appears too restricted. It excludes,for example, the ESP game, 32 where users implicitlycollaborate to label images as a side effect whileplaying the game. ESP clearly benefits from a crowd ofusers. More importantly, it faces the same human-centricchallenges of Wikipedia and Linux, such as how to recruitand evaluate users, and to combine their contributions.Given this, it seems unsatisfactory to consider only explicitcollaborations; we ought to allow implicit ones as well.The definition also excludes, for example, an Amazon’sMechanical Turk-based system that enlists users to find amissing boat in thousands of satellite images. 18 Here,users do not build any artifact, arguably nothing is longlasting, and no community exists either ( just users comingtogether for this particular task). And yet, like ESP,this system clearly benefits from users, and faces similarhuman-centric challenges. Given this, it ought to be considereda CS system, and the goal of building artifactsought to be relaxed into the more general goal of solvingproblems. Indeed, it appears that in principle any nontrivialproblem can benefit from crowdsourcing: we candescribe the problem on the Web, solicit user inputs, andexamine the inputs to develop a solution. This systemmay not be practical (and better systems may exist), but itcan arguably be considered a primitive CS system.33
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14.1 Strategic Air Power: Fulfillme
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you did not rely on strategic bombi
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14.4 Basic Air Force DoctrineAF Doc
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earthquake-stricken Haiti. The worl
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perspective. Airmen do not divide u
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Command and ControlCommand and cont
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14.5 Should the US Maintain the Nuc
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form of human government.” 20 Dem
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obtainable goal. See the Global Zer
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15CHAPTER 15ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
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15.1 Organizational CultureBy Doria
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Review. This action strives to unco
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gram will serve and then having the
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Many years of working with change p
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At the least, the areas of concern
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15.4 Developing an Innovative Cultu
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CONCLUDING THOUGHTSIn an ever-chang
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global issues. Businesses that poss
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— Sees the big picture—the shif
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16CHAPTER 16STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION
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16.1 Principles of Strategic Commun
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16.2 The Art of NegotiationBy Brend
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16.3 Negotiating Effectively Across
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hidden areas can act as cultural ho
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25 Mitchell R. Hammer, “Chapter 1
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tural, socioeconomic, and psycholog
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for the win-win," during which time
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interests and, at worst, as a gun s
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Public diplomacy is surely about mu
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But public diplomats do not have th
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Photo courtesy of the familyThe LEA
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THE CADET OATHI pledge that I will