Boundary activities and readiness for ... - Projekti-Instituutti
Boundary activities and readiness for ... - Projekti-Instituutti
Boundary activities and readiness for ... - Projekti-Instituutti
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Theoretical background<br />
Rainey, 2006). Top management acceptance <strong>and</strong> support is not selfevident,<br />
but it may need to be actively achieved by the core change team<br />
members (Stjernberg & Philips, 1993). To ensure senior management<br />
support, project management literature has emphasized the role of a<br />
project or a program owner (or sponsor or director), who “owns” the project<br />
<strong>and</strong> is ultimately responsible <strong>for</strong> its success (e.g. Kloppenborg et al., 2006).<br />
The role of the owner is especially crucial in project or program initiation,<br />
ensuring a proper foundation <strong>for</strong> the ef<strong>for</strong>t <strong>and</strong> aligning the project or<br />
program goals with the wider business interests (ibid.).<br />
The importance of a supportive <strong>and</strong> receptive organizational atmosphere<br />
<strong>for</strong> the success of change has been recognized (Beer & Walton, 1987;<br />
Feldman, 1986). Some types of organizational culture have been<br />
characterized as more receptive towards change. For example, the<br />
traditional public sector culture <strong>and</strong> values have been described to inhibit<br />
radical change ef<strong>for</strong>ts (Dixon et al., 1998; Harrow & Willcocks, 1990).<br />
Feldman (1986), on the other h<strong>and</strong>, argues that organizational culture is a<br />
source rather than an obstacle to change. Although some argue that change<br />
processes are only likely to succeed if they fit with the organization’s<br />
current culture (Bruch et al., 2005; Cunningham & Kempling, 2009),<br />
others have viewed culture as the target of change, discussing culture<br />
change programs (e.g. Gill, 2003). The manageability <strong>and</strong> changeability of<br />
organizational culture has also been widely questioned (Parker & Bradley,<br />
2000). Since organizational culture is described as enduring, organizational<br />
climate or atmosphere may be a more useful concept in terms of<br />
introducing change in organizations, defined as a more temporary<br />
employee feeling about the organization (Smeltzer & Zener, 1993). The<br />
change advocates are encouraged to actively create a favorable atmosphere<br />
<strong>for</strong> change by their actions (Bam<strong>for</strong>d & Daniel, 2005; Marks, 2007).<br />
Mobilizing change<br />
The third category of success factors involves a set of recommended actions<br />
<strong>for</strong> successful management of change. These actions are not restricted to<br />
the early stage of change, although they have been identified as important<br />
tactics already during change initiation. Firstly, participative or<br />
empowering approaches are often recommended <strong>for</strong> planning change<br />
ef<strong>for</strong>ts. Radical change in particular is said to require significant<br />
cooperation among the key stakeholders (Nutt & Backoff, 1993). A common<br />
view is that trans<strong>for</strong>mation cannot be m<strong>and</strong>ated, but it requires<br />
involvement from all concerned (Kimberly & Bouchikhi, 1995).<br />
Correspondingly, Bam<strong>for</strong>d (2006) describes how managers should be<br />
facilitators rather than implementers of change. Earlier research on<br />
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