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Scandinavian History in the Viking Age ‘Níð’ verse [C180] T.L. Markey, ‘Nordic níðvísur: an instance of ritual inversion?’, MS 5 (1972), 7-18 [C181] B. Almqvist, Norrön niddiktning: traditionshistoriska studier i versmagi. II.1-2: Nid mot missionärer; senmedeltida nidtraditioner, Nordiska texter och undersökningar 23 (1974) [UL 752:01.c.3.17] (E.s.) [C182] J.M. Pizarro, ‘On níð against bishops’, MS 11 (1978-79), 149-53 Kingship and government The development of what can be termed ‘royal government’ is one of the most striking developments in the late Viking age, but the precise interpretation of how its various aspects developed is heavily debated. For sacral kingship see (K75 ff.); for the cults of royal saints (L235 ff.). For issues surrounding royal succession in the late Viking age, see (D41) and (D126):5-22 for Denmark in differing periods, (E100 ff.) for Norway, (F8) for Sweden. A broad survey can be found in (A33), chap. 4: ‘Authority and administration; chiefs and kings’. [C190] J.S. Martin, ‘Some aspects of Snorri Sturluson’s view of kingship’, Parergon 15 (1976), 43-54 [C191] J. Hines, ‘Kingship in Egils saga’, (O66):15-32 [C192] S. Norr, To rede and to rown: expressions of early Scandinavian kingship in written sources, OPIA 17 (1998) [ASNC] The aristocracy and royal officers The earliest form of aristocracy in Scandinavia can only really be identified through issues such as landholding (C112), control of trading centres (N140 ff.), and ostentatious displays of status through burials (M300 ff.) and the like. In the later Viking age, runestones (C90 ff.) come to play some role in this, but it is also posited that some aristocratic groups to identify themselves by allegiance to a new code of royal authority. For a ground-breaking study, see (D6) and below (C210). [C200] C. Krag, ‘Årmannen [Ármaðr]’, NHT 61 (1982), 105-25 (E.s.) [C201] F. Herschend, Livet i hallen: tre fallstudier i den yngre järnålderns aristokrati, OPIA 14 (1997) [ASNC] [C202] F. Herschend, The idea of the good in late Iron age society, OPIA 15 (1998) [ASNC] For studies of vocabulary and possible foreign influences: [C205] D. Hofmann, Nordische-Englische Lehnbeziehungen der Wikingerzeit, Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana 14 (1955) [UL S752:01.b.1.10] [C206] J. Lindow, Comitatus, individual and honor: studies in North Germanic institutional vocabulary, University of California publications in linguistics 83 (1976) [UL 779.b.35.70] Thegns and drengs The role and status of the figures identified in runic inscriptions and place-names as thegns and drengs has come under particular focus recently, due to attempts to identify these figures as royal agents in Denmark and south-western Sweden in particular, and so as constituent members of the king’s hirð or court retinue. See (C202):54-72, 130-36; (C95), chap. 5: ‘Society and status’; and: [C210] S. Aakjær, ‘Old Danish thegns and drengs’, APS 2 (1927-28), 1-30 [C211] A. Christophersen, ‘Drengs, thegns, landmen and kings: some aspects on the forms of social relations in Viking society during the transition to historic times’, MLUHM n.s. 4 (1981-82), 115-34 [C212] J.P. Strid, ‘Runic Swedish thegns and drengs’, Runor och runinskrifter: föredrag vid Riksantikvarieämbetets och Vitterhetsakademiens symposium 8-11 september 1985, KVHAA konferenser 15 (1987), 301-16 [UL 763.c.98.33] [C213] J. Jesch, ‘Skaldic verse and Viking semantics’, (O72):160-71 [C214] J. Jesch, ‘Skaldic and runic vocabulary and the Viking age: a research project’, (A51):294-301 [C215] M. Syrett, ‘Drengs and thegns again’, SBVS 25 (1998-2001), 243-71 Military service and the leidang As noted above (C65), it is widely believed that the right to demand military service was among the earliest royal privileges in Scandinavia. This finds expression in the late Viking age in the form of the 67
Scandinavian History in the Viking Age leidang (modern Danish leding), which seems to have represented a military force that could be levied by kings and other local rulers. Although the term appears in court poetry from the late tenth century onwards, the leidang is however basically a mediaeval privilege, and there has been extensive debate about its functions in the Viking age. [C220] R. Malmros, ‘Leding og skjaldekvad: det elvte århundredes nordiske krigsflåder, deres teknologi og organisation og deres placering i samfundet belyst gennem den samtidige fyrstedigtning’, ANOH 1985, 89-139 (E.s.) [C221] N. Lund, ‘The armies of Swein forkbeard and Cnut: leding or lið?’, ASE 15 (1986), 105-18 [C222] M.G. Larsson, Hamnor, husbyar och ledung, Institute of archaeology, University of Lund, report series 29 (1987) [Haddon] (E.s.) [C223] L.E. Fauerholdt-Jensen, Vikingernes Danmark: den sømilitære Ledingsorganisations adminstrative Inddeling og de danske Bispedømmer o. 1140 (1993) [UL 9001.d.5848] [C224] N. Lund, ‘Danish military organisation’, (B102a):109-26, and ‘If the Vikings knew a leding— what was it like?’, (A51):100-05 [C225] N. Rodger, ‘Cnut’s geld and the size of Danish ships’, EHR 110 (1995), 392-403 [C226] N. Lund, Lið, leding og landeværn: hær og samfund i Danmark i ældre middelalder (1996) (E.s.) [C227] D.G.E. Williams, ‘The dating of the Norwegian leiðangr system: a philological approach’, NOWELE 30 (1997), 21-25 [C228] B. Varenius, ‘The retinue and the ship: an archaeo-sociological study of Scandinavia at the turn of the last millenium and the following centuries’, CSA 7 (1999), 173-82 Land-divisions and administration The earliest forms of administration in Scandinavia are similarly often thought to be military in origin (C220 ff.). From the pre-literate Viking period, place-names are an invaluable tool in identifying manors and other central places, see (C70 ff.). Particular attention has focussed on place-names in Huseby or ending in -tuna, which show a striking correlation with mediaeval royal sites. The wider use of placenames to address the question of how the various land-divisions such as herreds and hundares of mediaeval Scandinavia came into being is an extremely complicated issue; a classic study is: [C230] S. Tunberg, Studier rörande Skandinaviens äldsta politiska indelning (1911) [UL Uc.7.244] For further guidance, see the relevant articles in KLNM (A70) and on place-name studies more generally (B840 ff.). On central names: [C231] K. Calissendorff, ‘Place-name types denoting centres’, Early medieval studies 3, AArkiv 40 (1971), 2-12 [C232] T. Andersson, ‘The origin of the tuna-names reconsidered’, (O62):197-204 Denmark [C235] S. Aakjær, ‘Land measurement and land valuation in medieval Denmark’, Scandinavian economic history review 7 (1959), 115-49 [C236] J. Kousgård Sørensen, ‘Toponymic evidence for adminstrative divisions in Denmark in the Viking age’, (O30):133-41 [C237] B. Jørgensen, Stednavne og administrationshistorie, Navnestudier udgivet af Institut for Navneforskning 20 (1980) [UL 498:01.b.1.20] (E.s.) [C238] A. Andrén, ‘Städer och kungamakt: en studie i Danmarks politiska geografi före 1230’, Scandia 49 (1983), 31-76 (E.s. 159-60) Norway [C240] Claus Krag, ‘Landskapsnavn på -land og -rike’, NHT 50 (1971), 341-56 (E.s.) [C241] T. Andersson, ‘Hringaríki, Ranríki, Raumaríki: till diskussionen om ordet rike i gamla nordiska ortnamn’, SOS 1976, 56-83 Sweden For central Sweden in particular, cf. (F55 ff.). 68
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