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Scandinavian History in the Viking Age N. TRADE AND TOWNS The significance of Viking-age trade for social, political, and religious developments is now well appreciated; it provided not only for extended and deep-rooted contacts with the outside (especially Christian) world, but also helped to fuel the growth of an aristocratic elite that came to dominate and thrive upon the traffic in luxury goods. Trade For the Pirenne hypothesis, that the incursions of the Arabs into the Mediterranean in the seventh and eighth centuries forced Europe to look north for its trading contacts: [N1] H. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne (1939) [UL 532:3.c.95.15] [N2] R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the origins of Europe: archaeology and the Pirenne thesis (1983) [UL 532:15.c.95.26] Viking-age commerce Surveys of trade links in the pre-Viking age are best approached through the general handbooks in (A) and the detailed studies of Iron-age Denmark in particular (D20 ff.). Aside from a growing organisation of commercial activities, it is the extension in the range and quantity of goods carried that tends to mark off Viking-age trade from the traffic of the preceding period. [N5] C. Blindheim, ‘Commerce and trade in Viking age Norway: exchange of products or organized transactions?’, NAR 15 (1982), 8-18 [N6] P. Sawyer, ‘Ohthere and Viking age trade’, (B106a):43-55 [N7] C. Blindheim, ‘Internal trade in Viking age Norway’, Untersuchungen zu Handel und Verkehr der vor- und frühgeschichtlichen Zeit in Mittel- und Nord-europa. 4: Der Handel der Karolinger- und Wikingerzeit, Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen 156, edd. K. Düwel et al. (1987), 758-72 [UL P500.b.5.183] [N8] U. Näsman, ‘Sea trade during the Scandinavian Iron age: its character, commodities, and routes’, (M103):23-40 [N9] L. Hedeager, ‘Warrior economy and trading economy in Viking-age Scandinavia’, JEA 2:1 (1994), 130-48 [N10] M. Bäck, ‘No island is a society: regional and interregional interaction in Central Sweden during the Viking age’, (O80):129-61 For the notion of ‘peace’ as a prerequisite to trading, see (I91). Foreign contacts Foreign contacts are illuminated by the studies above and above all by the artefacts found in Scandinavia itself. Burial finds (M300 ff.) and urban excavations (N170 ff.) in particular are a useful source for such material. The North sea It is now widely recognised that Scandinavian links across the North sea have a far longer pedigree than the Viking age, and these connections seem to have been paramount not only in the beginning of the western Viking age (C35 ff.) but also in the establishment of early commercial centres such as Ribe (N185 ff.); for the artefacts, see (N30 ff.). [N15] E. Bakka, ‘Scandinavian trade relations with the continent and the British Isles in pre-Viking times’, Early medieval studies 3, AArkiv 40 (1971), 37-51 [N16] J. Hines, The Scandinavian character of Anglian England in the pre-Viking period, BAR British series 124 (1984) [UL L474.b.85.115], plus ‘The Scandinavian character of Anglian England: an update’, (M355):315-29 [N17] B. Weber, ‘Norwegian exports in Orkney and Shetland during the Viking and middle ages’, (O70):V,159-67 The Baltic (and beyond) Scandinavian links across the Baltic were also extensive before, during, and after the Viking age; most of the relevant material is to be found in (J10 ff.). 133
Scandinavian History in the Viking Age [N20] S.-O. Lindquist, (ed.), Society and trade in the Baltic during the Viking age: papers of the VIIth Visby symposium held at Gotlands Fornsal, Gotland’s Historical Museum, Visby, August 15th-19th, 1983, Acta Visbyensia 7 (1985) [UL 531:01.c.28.7], incl. P.H. Sawyer, ‘Birka, the Baltic and beyond’, 165-70 [N21] U. Näsman, ‘Trade and communication in the Baltic from the fourth to the eighth century A.D.’, (O70):V,131-36 [N22] J. Callmer, ‘Exchange and trade in the Baltic region and beyond ca. 600-1000’, (O70): V,137-43 [N23] M. Mägi-Lôugas, ‘On the relations between the countries around the Baltic as indicated by the background of Viking age spearhead ornament’, FV 88 (1993), 211-21 [N24] I. Jansson, (ed.), Archaeology east and west of the Baltic: papers from the second Estonian- Swedish archaeological symposium, Sigtuna, May 1991, Theses and papers in archaeology n.s. A:7 (1995) [UL 592:6.b.95.16] For the continuing contacts in the twelfth century: [N27] E. Christiansen, The Northern crusades: the Baltic and the Catholic frontier 1100-1525 (1980) [UL 589:4.c.95.31] Foreign artefacts Insular Insular artefacts from the British isles are found widely scattered across Norway, but are particularly significant for Norway (E10 ff., E20 ff.); for English coins, see (N95 ff.). [N30] E. Bakka, Some English decorated metal objects found in Norwegian Viking graves: contributions to the art history of the eighth century A.D., Årbok for Universitetet i Bergen, humanistisk serie 1963:1 [UL P500.b.171.15] [N31] E. Bakka, ‘Some decorated Anglo-Saxon and Irish metalwork found in Norwegian graves’, (A43):32-40 [N32] C. Blindheim, ‘A collection of Celtic (?) bronze objects found at Kaupang (Skiringssal), Vestfold, Norway’, (A46):9-27 [N33] C. Blindheim, ‘Trade problems in the Viking age: some reflections on insular metalwork found in Norwegian graves of the Viking age’, (O30):166-76 [N34] D. Liversage, ‘An unpublished Irish grave group from Norway’, AA 54 (1983), 147-51 [N35] E. Wamers, ‘Some ecclesiastical and secular insular metalwork found in Norwegian Viking graves’, Peritia 2 (1983), 277-306 [N36] E. Wamers, Insularer Metallschmuck in wikingerzeitlichen Gräbern Nordeuropas: Untersuchungen zur skandinavischen Westexpansion, Offa-Bücher 56 (1985) [UL S570:01.b.12.55] [N37] E. Wamers, ‘Insular finds in Viking age Scandinavia and the state formation of Norway’, (O82):37-72 Slavic For more general surveys of imports from the Slavic regions of eastern Europe, see also (J10 ff., N20 ff.). These important contacts were significant for various aspects of the Viking economy, particularly pottery, but are relatively underrepresented in English-language scholarship. [N40] M. Andersen, ‘Westslawischer Import in Dänemark etwa 950 bis 1200: ein Übersicht’, Zeitschrift für Archäologie 18 (1984), 145-61 [N41] J. Callmer, ‘Slawisch-skandinavische Kontakte am Beispiel der slawischen Keramik in Skandinavien während des 8. und 9. Jahrhunderts’, (N311):654-74 Imports from further east Artefacts from the Byzantine empire and Islamic caliphates tend to be rather more restricted in number and distribution; the chief exception is the vast hoards of dirhams, see (N60 ff., N110 ff.). The largest concentrations are to be found in the major trading centres, particularly Birka (N280 ff.). [N45] I. Hammarberg et al., Byzantine coins found in Sweden, Commentationes de nummis saeculorum IX-XI in Suecia repertis n.s. 2 (1989) [UL 492:01.b.8.2] [N46] I. Jansson, ‘Wikingerzeitlicher orientalischer Import in Skandinavien’, (N311):564-647 134
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