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Scandinavian History in the Viking Age Votive deposits The most notable examples of votive deposits from the Viking age are probably the small gold foils or gullgubber found at many excavations of rural and urban sites; see also (K145 ff.). For the widespread votive deposits in bogs of the early Iron age, see (D20 ff.) and: [K140] P.V. Glob, The bog-people: Iron age man preserved, transl. R. Bruce-Mitford (1969; repr. 1998) [UL 598:3.b.95.2; repr. 1999.10.272]; the classic survey of Iron-age bog deposits [K141] F. Ström, ‘Bog corpses and Germania, ch. 12’, (K8):223-39 On the theories surrounding the development of the tradition: [K143] J. Thérus, Ideologi och religion i järnålderns samhälle: teori och polemik i modern nordisk arkeologidiskurs (2000) [ASNC] (E.s.) Amulets [K145] S. Horn Fuglesang, ‘Viking and medieval amulets in Scandinavia’, FV 84 (1989), 15-27 [K146] G.L. Novikova, ‘Iron neck-rings with Thor’s hammers found in eastern Europe’, FV 87 (1992), 73-89 [K147] N.S. Price, ‘Pagan amulets and cult objects from the black earth: interim report on finds from the 1990 excavations’, (N283):70-78 [K148] M.K. Zeiten, ‘Amulets and amulet use in Viking age Denmark’, AA 68 (1997), 1-74 [K149] I.-M. Back Danielsson, ‘Engendering performance in the late Iron age’, CSA 7 (1999), 7-20 [K150] M. Watts, ‘Kings or gods? Iconographic evidence from Scandinavian gold foil figures’, (D28):173-83 Magic and shamanism The practice of magic and shamanism is a tricky one; for an interesting if speculative discussion of its possible role in a major historical event, see (L72). For a recent archaeological perspective on the subject, see (K87). [K155] P. Buchholz, ‘Shamanism: the testimony of Old Icelandic literary tradition’, MS 4 (1971), 7-20 [K156] G.S. Poulsen, ‘The complementarity of magic in Nordic mythology and in archaeological sources’, (K8):168-79 [K157] J.M. Jochens, ‘Old Norse magic and gender: Þáttr Þorvalds ins víðf²rla’, SS 63 (1991), 305-17; on seiðr [K158] C. Tolley, ‘V²rðr and gandr: helping spirits in Norse magic’, ANF 110 (1995), 57-75 [K159] B. Solli, Seid: myter, sjamanisme og kjønn i vikingenes tid (2002) L. CHRISTIANITY The conversion of Scandinavia to Christianity seems to have been a long and convoluted process. Beginning with the earliest missions of the eight and ninth centuries, what might be called ‘Christian’ cults and customs spread slowly across Scandinavia before being settled in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Both the conversion and the growth of the Church in mediaeval Scandinavia are included here together, largely because they are indistinguishable in the ‘missionary phase’ which lasted well into the twelfth century. An understanding of the background to these various missions, as well as comparative evidence of the fate of Christianity in other pagan regions, is essential for this topic, which although of prime importance is often irritatingly undersourced in terms of written documents. For the general background, see: [L1] W. Ullmann, A short history of the Papacy in the Middle ages, corr. repr. (1974) [UL 70:3.c.95.14] [L2] R. Fletcher, The conversion of Europe: from paganism to Christianity, 371-1386 AD (1997) [UL 62:1.c.95.54] [L3] C.M. Cusack, Conversion among the Germanic peoples (1998) [UL 60:8.c.95.79] The conversion The study of the conversion of Scandinavia has become a growth industry in recent years, and hence there is a vast amount of material to plough through. For initial guidance, see the handbooks in (A), also 111
Scandinavian History in the Viking Age (L2) chap. 11: ‘Scandinavians abroad and at home’, and (L3) chap. 6: ‘Christianity in the North’. To save space, only more recent specific contributions to the debate(s) tend to be included here. [L5] C. Fell, ‘From Odin to Christ’, (A13):172-93 [L6] P. Sawyer, ‘The Christianisation of Scandinavia’, (A60) vol. 5 (1986), 23-37 [UL L592.c.25.5] [L7] A.-S. Gräslund, ‘Pagan and Christian in the age of conversion’, (A49):81-94 [L8] B. Sawyer et al., (edd.), The Christianization of Scandinavia: report of a symposium held at Kungälv, Sweden, 4-9 August 1985 (1987) [UL 62:46.c.95.12], includes several articles plus lots of useful discussion [L9] R.B. Finnestad, ‘The study of the Christianisation of the Nordic countries: some reflections’, (O60):256-72 [L10] G. Steinsland, ‘The change of religion in the Nordic countries: a confrontation between two living religions’, CM 3 (1990-92), 123-35 [L11] B. Nilsson, (ed.), Kontinuitet i kult och tro från vikingatid till medeltid, Projektet Sveriges kristnande 1 (1992) [UL 62:5.c.95.21], incl. B. Nilsson, ‘Till frågan om kyrkans hållning till icke-kristna kultfenomen: attityder under tidig medeltid i Europa och Norden’, 9-47 (E.s.); A. Hultgård, ‘Religiös förändring, kontinuitet och ackulturation/synkretism i vikingatidens och medeltidens skandinaviska religion’, 49-103 (E.s.) [L12] P. Foote, ‘Historical studies: conversion moment and conversion period’, (O72):137-44 [L13] P. Beskow and R. Staats, Nordens kristnande i europeiskt perspektiv: tre uppsatser, Occasional papers on medieval topics 7 (1994) [UL 9004.c.1288] [L14] J. Stevenson, ‘Christianising the northern barbarians’, (O76):162-84 [L15] P.M. Sørensen, ‘Religions old and new’, (A22):202-24 [L16] L. Abrams, ‘History and archaeology: the conversion of Scandinavia’, Conversion and Christianity in the North sea world, St John’s house papers 8, ed. B.E. Crawford (1998), 109-28 [UL L911:15.c.20.8] [L17] J.V. Sigurðsson, Kristningen i norden (2003) [L18] A.-S. Gräslund, Ideologi och mentalitet – om religionsskiftet I Skandinavien från en arkeologisk horisont, OPIA 29 (2001) [UL 595:01.b.9.29] [L19] J. Staecker, ‘The mission of the triangle; the christianisation of the Saxons, west Slavs and Danes in a comparative analysis’, Archaelogical review from Cambridge 17:2 (2000). 99-116 For the response to Christianity and motivations of certain social groups: [L20] B. Sawyer, ‘Women and the conversion of Scandinavia’, Frauen in Spätantike und Frühmittelalter: Lebensbedingungen, Lebensnormen, Lebensformen, ed. W. Affeldt (1990), 263-81 [UL 502:2.c.95.399] [L21] L. Abrams, ‘Kings and bishops and the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian kingdoms’, (O78):15-28 On conversion narratives in general: [L22] J.M. Pizarro, ‘Conversion narratives: form and utility’, (A61f):813-32 [L23] B. Sawyer, ‘Scandinavian conversion histories’, (L8):88-110 [L24] R. Mazo Karras, ‘God and man in medieval Scandinavia: writing—and gendering—the conversion’, Varieties of religious conversion in the middle ages, ed. James Muldoon (1997), 100-14 [UL 60:8.c.95.73] [L25] H. Janson, ‘Adam of Bremen and the conversion of Scandinavia’, Christianizing peoples and converting individuals, edd. G. Armstrong and I. Wood. International medieval research, 7 (2000), 83-88 [UL 60:8.c.200.4] Regional studies For each country these items should be complemented with those from the individual sections (D-I). The fundamental contemporary written sources include Rimbert (B72), Adam (B73), diplomatic material (B717 ff.), and runic inscriptions (B800 ff., C90 ff.). 112
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