The mnemonic keyword method: The effects of bidirectional retrieval ...
The mnemonic keyword method: The effects of bidirectional retrieval ...
The mnemonic keyword method: The effects of bidirectional retrieval ...
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M. Wyra et al. / Learning and Instruction 17 (2007) 360e371<br />
361<br />
For those whose first language is English, the standard <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong> for acquiring new foreign-language vocabulary<br />
involves a two-stage process: generation <strong>of</strong> an English word, the <strong>keyword</strong>, that is similar in sound or appearance<br />
to the new FL word; and development <strong>of</strong> an interactive image involving that <strong>keyword</strong> and the definition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
new word. For example, to learn that apio (Spanish) means celery (English), a learner could choose the English word<br />
‘‘ape’’ as a <strong>keyword</strong>. <strong>The</strong>n the learner might create an interactive image <strong>of</strong> an ape carrying a huge bunch <strong>of</strong> celery. For<br />
<strong>retrieval</strong> <strong>of</strong> the definition when given the FL word, it is commonly suggested that the processes involved in the encoding<br />
procedure be adapted along the following lines: the FL word is examined for presence <strong>of</strong> a <strong>keyword</strong>; a search is<br />
made for images involving the <strong>keyword</strong>; and any image generated is scanned to identify the most prominent feature<br />
(Carney & Levin, 1998; Ellis & Beaton, 1993). Such <strong>retrieval</strong> is <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as receptive or forward recall. If the<br />
direction <strong>of</strong> recall was to be from the definition to the FL word (productive or backward recall), the <strong>retrieval</strong> procedure<br />
would need to be further adapted to access an image <strong>of</strong> the definition and then to identify a component <strong>of</strong> the image<br />
that would suggest a <strong>keyword</strong> that might then be used to cue <strong>retrieval</strong> <strong>of</strong> the FL word.<br />
1.1. <strong>The</strong> <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong> at time <strong>of</strong> <strong>retrieval</strong><br />
It is difficult to find evidence in reports <strong>of</strong> previous <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong> studies indicating that explicit <strong>retrieval</strong> training<br />
has been given to learners. In most reports on the <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong> it is the steps involved in encoding that are given<br />
most attention.<br />
Recently, Crutcher and Ericsson (2000, 2003) identified two models <strong>of</strong> <strong>retrieval</strong> that could be operative during<br />
recall <strong>of</strong> the definition <strong>of</strong> FL words that had been learned using the <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong>. In the direct access model <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>retrieval</strong> it is proposed that <strong>retrieval</strong> occurs through accessing <strong>of</strong> a simple associative link between the FL word<br />
and the definition, without the involvement <strong>of</strong> the mediational <strong>keyword</strong>. In contrast, in the mediational model <strong>retrieval</strong><br />
results from accessing <strong>of</strong> the <strong>keyword</strong> mediator that links the FL word and its definition. Using SpanisheEnglish vocabulary<br />
items Crutcher and Ericsson (2000) found that the evidence available from accuracy, latency and verbal report<br />
data supported the mediational model <strong>of</strong> <strong>retrieval</strong> when moderate amounts <strong>of</strong> practice used in most <strong>keyword</strong><br />
research is provided. When the amount <strong>of</strong> practice given to the vocabulary pairs was substantially increased, the pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> recall performance was more compatible with ‘‘a process in which the English equivalent is directly accessed<br />
from the Spanish word with no intermediate working memory steps’’ (p. 1312).<br />
<strong>The</strong> results <strong>of</strong> the Crutcher and Ericsson research provide support for the description <strong>of</strong> <strong>retrieval</strong> processes involving<br />
<strong>keyword</strong>s and images suggested by Carney and Levin (1998) and Ellis and Beaton (1993). Under typical <strong>keyword</strong><br />
training conditions, which do not involve large numbers <strong>of</strong> practice trials, the <strong>keyword</strong> mediators can be predicted to<br />
act as cues for <strong>retrieval</strong> <strong>of</strong> the definitions. <strong>The</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> this evidence suggested that it would be <strong>of</strong> interest to see if<br />
the impact <strong>of</strong> the <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong> training could be enhanced by providing more attention to the use <strong>of</strong> the <strong>keyword</strong><br />
procedure at time <strong>of</strong> <strong>retrieval</strong>. To this end we set out to compare the <strong>effects</strong> <strong>of</strong> a standard <strong>keyword</strong> training condition<br />
with one in which students were given additional training in use <strong>of</strong> the <strong>keyword</strong> procedure at time <strong>of</strong> <strong>retrieval</strong>. On the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> the evidence available from Crutcher and Ericsson (2000) we predicted that further <strong>retrieval</strong> training would<br />
increase the level <strong>of</strong> recall beyond that associated with the typical <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong> training in which the major<br />
emphasis was on the encoding procedure. Compared with the typical encoding training we expected that practice<br />
in adaptation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>keyword</strong> elements for <strong>retrieval</strong> would increase the influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>keyword</strong> mediators and that<br />
this would impact positively on recall performance.<br />
1.2. Ability to make images<br />
A second issue <strong>of</strong> concern in this paper was the influence <strong>of</strong> individual differences in students’ ability to make<br />
images in the <strong>keyword</strong> <strong>method</strong>. Imaging is a process in which individual differences are predicted to be influential.<br />
Kosslyn, Van Kleeck, and Kirby’s (1990) theory <strong>of</strong> processing subsystems represents visual imagery as involving<br />
high-level processes that use ‘‘stored information to reconstruct the appearance <strong>of</strong>, reinterpret, and possibly anticipate<br />
the consequences <strong>of</strong> transforming an object.’’ (p. 42). In this theory four imagery abilities are proposed: those involved<br />
in generation, transformation, inspection and maintenance <strong>of</strong> the image. Individual differences are predicted in each <strong>of</strong><br />
these abilities, arising from individual differences in the underlying processing subsystems. Kosslyn et al. (1990)<br />
argued that their experimental results provide strong support for the predictions generated from this model. Individual