The mnemonic keyword method: The effects of bidirectional retrieval ...

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M. Wyra et al. / Learning and Instruction 17 (2007) 360e371 369 students learning Italian. As was the case in that study the positive impact of learning is strongest for recall following the initial learning occasions. The positive slope across the multiple occasions used in the current study is noteworthy given other research described earlier that has shown decline in recall when a smaller number of recall occasions has been used. There was a significant impact of the retrieval training on recall score compared to that associated with the standard keyword training. Again the size of the benefit from retrieval training was as of practical significance. When compared with the traditional keyword training, reports of which give most emphasis to encoding, the relatively simple explicit training in use of the keyword procedure for retrieval was associated with successful recall of not only definitions (FWR) but also with successful recall of Spanish words (BWR). The fact that the impact of the retrieval training occurred for both forward and backward recall is also important because it indicates that students gained benefit from this additional training for both receptive and productive vocabulary use. The difference in level of recall in forward and backward directions mirrors that found in previous research (Ellis & Beaton, 1993). Ellis and Beaton (1993) suggest that backward recall is more complex because there are ‘‘many more competing active paths in production [backward recall] than in reception [forward recall].’’ (p. 549). It is not clear from their description what these authors meant by ‘active paths’. Examination of the descriptions of retrieval processes involved in forward and backward directions suggests some ways in which the demands on the learner could be different in the two directions. We base this argument on the analysis of the forward and backward retrieval processes shown in Fig. 2. We think that the number of associations is relatively similar in both directions of recall. The learner has to retrieve an image of the definition (in backward recall, see Fig. 2 step 1B) or an image of the keyword (in forward recall, see Fig. 2 step 2F). Each task involving native language words would potentially stimulate comparable number of activations. Alternatively, Ellis and Beaton suggest that the strictness of scoring of acceptable responses is likely to act to disadvantage recall performance in the backward direction. In Fig. 2 the central row of boxes identifies phases of representation and the arrows in both directions indicate broad processes that bring about changes in representation. Thus, as described in the forward path legend at the top of the figure, process 1F involves scanning of the foreign word to search for and select the keyword that was used during encoding. Other process descriptions in the forward direction and those in the backward direction are given in the respective legends in the Fig. 2. The model set out in Fig. 2 suggests that the number of competing active paths would be the same for the forward and backward recall. In FWR demand on the student in terms of the number of possible paths that could be activated would seem to be greatest in steps 2F, 3F and 5F. For BWR, steps 1B, 2B and 5B would also involve high demand FORWARD PATH 1F – scanning FW for keyword (KW), generating and/or searching, selecting 2F – searching for pictorial image/s of KW 3F – searching for interaction (as per encoding and retrieval training conditions), generating and/or searching, selecting 4F – selecting the pictorial image of definition from the (as per encoding and retrieval training conditions) 5F – interpretation of image to recall the definition 1F 2F 3F 4F 5F FOREIGN WORD KW IMAGE OF KW IMAGE OF INTERA CTION IMAGE OF DEFINITION DEFINITION apio 5B ape 4B 3B 2B 1B celery BACKWARD PATH 1B – searching for pictorial image of definition, generating and/or searching, selecting 2B – searching for image of interaction (as per encoding and retrieval training conditions) 3B – selecting the pictorial image of keyword (KW) (as per encoding and retrieval training conditions) 4B – interpretation of the image of KW to recall the image of the spelling of KW 5B – searching for or generating, selecting the foreign word Fig. 2. Retrieval phases and broad processes involved in forward and backward directions.
370 M. Wyra et al. / Learning and Instruction 17 (2007) 360e371 associated with making a selection from a potentially large number of alternatives. However, in the typical keyword situation, where recall is required across relatively short periods of time, the number of possibilities that need to be scanned in steps 2F, 3F, 5F, 1B and 2B would seem to be reduced. This reduction is argued to arise from the fact that the interactive images have been set up recently in training and so may be in a relatively high state of activation. The same argument does not appear to be applicable to step 5B. When the students get to this point they must use the keyword to scan their FL lexicon. Likely of most importance at this step for novice learners of the FL is that there are relatively few words that are strongly established in the FL lexicon, so that the keyword does not act as a strong cue for identification of the FL word. This analysis provides an alternative to that of Ellis and Beaton (1993) who suggested that there is a greater number of associations activated by the native language definition relative to the number activated by presentation of a foreign-language word so that a sort of fan effect (Anderson, 2000) weakens the backward link. Of course both analyses are speculative at the moment and need to be examined in further research. The second major point of interest involved the impact of learners’ ability to form images on recall in the keyword method. The Ability to Make Images questionnaire designed for this study has been used to measure the ability to make images in a broader sense than the frequently used VVIQ and it has been found that students who have high rated ability to make images outperformed the students with low rated ability to make images in both forward and backward recalls. Although the size of the effect associated with AMI rating is relatively small, it is of interest here that the more general rating of ability to image emerged as a stronger predictor than did the more commonly used VVIQ. The results observed here add to the research findings that show that the keyword method is a useful procedure for acquisition of vocabulary in FL learning. In particular the findings associated with the treatment effect observed here suggest that if keyword method training does not give emphasis to use of the procedure at time of retrieval it will not maximise its impact on both forward and backward recall. Acknowledgements This research was supported by a grant from the Australian Research Council. We acknowledge the cooperation of the principals, teachers and students of the schools who participated in the project. Appendix 1. The ability to make images questionnaire (AMI) Image quality Not at all Vaguely Some of it Most of it Everything as in a movie 1 2 3 4 5 When someone tells you or reads to you a story do you see in your mind what happens in the story? When you read a story do you see in your mind what happens in the story? Imaging frequency Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 1 2 3 4 5 When someone tells you or reads to you a story do you see in your mind what happens in the story? When you read a story do you see in your mind what happens in the story? Do you like to imagine when reading? Do you like to imagine when listening? Are you a dreamer? Do you like to imagine when watching? Do you like to imagine when doing nothing/daydreaming?
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