ANALELE UNIVERSITÄÅII DIN ORADEA - Departamentul de ...

UNIVERSITATEA DIN ORADEA 

DEPARTAMENTUL DE GEOGRAFIE, TURISM 

ŞI AMENAJAREA TERITORIULUI 

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂłII 

DIN ORADEA 

Seria GEOGRAFIE 

TOM XXI 

Nr. 2/2011 (December) 

Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea

UNIVERSITATEA DIN ORADEA 

DEPARTAMENTUL DE GEOGRAFIE, TURISM ŞI AMENAJAREA TERITORIULUI 

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂłII 

DIN ORADEA 

Seria GEOGRAFIE 

TOM XXI 

Nr. 2/2011 (December) 

Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂłII DIN ORADEA, SERIA GEOGRAFIE 

ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA, GEOGRAPHY SERIE 

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The review is issued under the aegis of The University of Oradea, 

Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning and The Territorial Studies and Analyses Centre 

Editor-in-Chief: Alexandru ILIEŞ, Gheorghe MĂHĂRA 

Associate Editors: Nicolae JOSAN, Rodica PETREA 

Assistant Editors: Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Ribana LINC 

Scientific Board: 

Liviu APOSTOL, “Al.I. Cuza” University of Iaşi (Romania) 

Dan BĂLTEANU, member of Romanian Academy, Institut of Geography of Bucharest (Romania) 

Milan BUFON, “Primorska” University of Koper (Slovenia) 

Huhua CAO, University of Ottawa (Canada) 

Jean-Paul CARRIERE, University of Tours (France) 

Doriano CASTALDINI, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy) 

Nicolae CIANGĂ, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) 

Adrian CIOACĂ, “Spiru Haret” University of Bucharest (Romania) 

Pompei COCEAN, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) 

Sterie CIULACHE, University of Bucharest (Romania) 

Olivier DEHOORNE, University of Antilles and Guyanne (France) 

Carmen DRAGOTĂ, Institut of Geography of Bucharest 

Allessandro GALLO, "Ca' Foscari" University of Venice (Italy) 

Floare GRECU, University of Bucharest 

Lisa Butler HARRINGTON, Kansas State University 

Ioan IANOŞ, University of Bucharest (Romania) 

Corneliu IAłU, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iaşi (Romania) 

Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ, University of Oradea (Romania) 

Ioan Aurel IRIMUŞ, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) 

Saşa KICOSEV, University of Novi Sad, Serbia 

Vladimir KOLOSSOV, Russian Academy of Science of Moscow (Russia) 

Gabor KOZMA, University of Debrecen (Hungary) 

Ionel MUNTELE, “Al.I. Cuza” University of Iaşi (Romania) 

Martin OLARU, West University of Timişoara (Romania) 

Tadeusz PALMOWSKI, University of Gdansk (Poland) 

Elisa PASTORIZA, Universidad Nacional de Mardel Plata (Argentina) 

DănuŃ PETREA, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) 

Nicolae POPA, West University of Timişoara 

Maria RĂDOANE, “Ştefan cel Mare” University of Suceava (Romania) 

Maria Luisa RODRIGUEZ, University of Lisboa (Portugal) 

Stephane ROSIERE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, France 

Valeriu SAINSUS, Academy of Economic Science of Chişinău (Rep. of Moldova) 

Marcu STAŞAC, University of Oradea (Romania) 

Istvan SULI-ZAKAR, University of Debrecen (Hungary) 

Karoly TEPERICS, University of Debrecen (Hungary) 

Dallen J. TIMOTHY, Arizona State University, United States of America 

Laurent TOUCHART, Université d’Orléans (France) 

Alexandru UNGUREANU, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iasi 

Petru URDEA, West University of Timişoara (Romania) 

Luca ZARRILLI, University of Pescara-Chieti (Italy) 

Christoph WAACK, Regional Geography of Institut of Leipzig (Germany) 

Jan WENDT, University of Gdansk (Poland) 

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The responsibility for the content of the articles belongs to the author(s). 

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ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409

C O N T E N T S 

SKI ACTIVITY IN WESTERN PART OF SOUTHERN CARPATHIANS. CASE STUDY: STRAJA SKI 

AREA 

Mircea VOICULESCU, Florentina POPESCU, Alexandru ONACA, Marcel TÖRÖK-OANCE 

(Art#212101-553) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO INVENTORY AND ASSESSEMENT OF THE GEOMORPHOSITES IN 

CĂLIMANI NATIONAL PARK. CASE STUDY: 12 APOSTLES GEOLOGIC RESERVE 

Ioan BÂCA 

(Art#212102-547) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 

PERSPECTIVES IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE TERRACES OF THE DANUBE WITHIN THE OLTENIA 

PLAIN (ROMANIA) 

Sandu BOENGIU, Sorin AVRAM, Alina VLĂDUł 

(Art#212103-528) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 

THE FOEHN WINDS IN NORTHERN OLTENIA. 18.08.2008 CASE STUDY 

Anişoara IRIMESCU 

(Art#212104-538) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 

ASPECTS REGARDING THE RIME PHENOMEN IN DEVA AREA 

Cristina Diana BRĂDĂU 

(Art#212105-543) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 

COMMUNITY’S ADAPTIVE CAPACITY DUE TO COASTAL FLOODING IN SEMARANG COASTAL 

CITY, INDONESIA 

Muh Aris MARFAI, Dyah R. HIZBARON 

(Art#212106-536) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 

DOWNSTREAM VARIATION IN PARTICLE SIZE: A CASE STUDY OF THE TROTUŞ RIVER, 

EASTERN CARPATHIANS (ROMANIA) 

Dan DUMITRIU, Daniel CONDORACHI, Mihai NICULIłĂ 

(Art#212107-527) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 

SEASONAL STUDY WITH INTERPRETATION OF THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER 

POND IN REFERENCE TO QUALITY ASSESSMENT: A CASE STUDY 

Hemant PATHAK, Deepak PATHAK, Sudhir Nagesh LIMAYE 

(Art#212108-548) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION TERRITORIAL DISPARITIES IN THE TIMIŞ 

PLAIN 

Bianca MITRICĂ, Irena MOCANU 

(Art#212109-542) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE ASSOCIATION OF FESTUCO DRYMEJAE- 

FAGETUM FROM LĂZĂRENI HILLS (NORTH-WESTERN ROMANIA) 

Laura Mariana LACATOŞ (HERMAN), Grigore Vasile HERMAN 

(Art#212110-532) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 

GENESIS AND DYNAMICS OF A GEO-DEMOGRAPHIC SINGULARITY. A CASE STUDY - THE 

GIPSY COMMUNITY OF TOFLEA (BRĂHĂŞEŞTI COMMUNE, GALAłI COUNTY) 

Ionel MUNTELE, Raluca HOREA-ŞERBAN 

(Art#212111-533) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

THE VILLAGES FROM SALAJ IN THE EASTERN PART OF JIBOU LOCALITY – DEMOGRAPHIC 

POTENTIAL - 

Oana - Andreia PUIA 

(Art#212112-534) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 

COMMUNITIES BETWEEN PRESERVATION AND DISAPPEARANCE: THE DEMOGRAPHIC 

HAZARD IN BEIUS LAND 

Claudiu FILIMON, LuminiŃa FILIMON 

(Art#212113-551) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 

DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC VULNERABILITIES WITHIN THE SUBURBAN AREA OF TÂRGU 

JIU 

Daniela ZAMFIR, Cristian BRAGHINĂ, Cristian TĂLÂNGĂ 

(Art#212114-556) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 

THE EFFECTS OF POPULATION AGING ON RURAL AREAS. CASE STUDY: THE SARATEL 

HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN (BUZAU SUBCARPATHIANS) 

Ilinca-Valentina STOICA 

(Art#212115-531) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEMOGRAPHICAL DYNAMICS IN AREAS OF URBAN INFLUENCE. CASE 

STUDY: INFLUENCE AREA OF RÂMNICU VÂLCEA CITY 

Constantin Cristian DRĂGHICI, Daniel PEPTENATU, Daniel Radu PINTILII, Cristina MERCIU, Loreta 

Andreea CERCLEUX 

(Art#212116-541) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 

WAYS OF MANAGING THE URBAN - RURAL INTERFACE. CASE STUDY: BUCHAREST 

Ilinca-Valentina STOICA, Cristian TĂLÂNGĂ, Cristian BRAGHINĂ, Daniela ZAMFIR 

(Art#212117-555) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 

SPORTS AND LEISURE TIME TOURISM – A WAY OF REVITALISING EMERGENT SPACES FROM 

THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF BUCHAREST 

Radu - Daniel PINTILII, Florentina - Cristina MERCIU, Daniel PEPTENATU, Andreea - Loreta 

CERCLEUX, Cristian Constantin DRĂGHICI 

(Art#212118-539) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 

INTERNAL TOURISM MOVEMENT AND THE MAIN ROMANIAN TOURIST DESTINATIONS (THE 

PERIOD 1990 - 2008) 

Alexandru ILIEŞ, Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ, Cezar MORAR, Ioana JOSAN 

(Art#212119-546) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 

ASPECTS REGARDING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN THE 

APUSENI NATURAL PARK (ROMANIA) 

Ribana LINC, Stelian NISTOR, David TURNOCK 

(Art#212120-552) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 

MEANS OF CABLE TRANSPORTATION. AN INFRASTRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF THE 

GEOGRAPHICAL LANDSCAPE OF ALBAC - ARIEŞENI TERRITORIAL SYSTEM 

Maria GOZNER, Ştefan BAIAS 

(Art#212121-545) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 

USING GIS MODELING AND THE DAC STATISTIC TO ANALYZE THE SUSTAINABILITY OF 

DEVELOPMENT IN IALOMIłA HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN 

Ioan IANOŞ, Alexandru-IonuŃ PETRIŞOR 

(Art#212122-535) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 

GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNALS PUBLISHED IN ROMANIA - 2011 

Dumitru RUS 

(Art#21212923) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOURISM ON THE IADULUI VALLEY 

Ribana LINC 

(Art#212224) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

Analele UniversităŃii din Oradea – Seria Geografie Year XXI, no. 2/2011 (December), pp. 159-171 

ISSN 1454-2749, E-ISSN 2065-1619 Article no. 212101-553 

SKI ACTIVITY IN WESTERN PART OF SOUTHERN CARPATHIANS. 

CASE STUDY: STRAJA SKI AREA 

Mircea VOICULESCU ∗ 

West University of Timisoara, Department of Geography 

4 V. Pârvan Av., 300312, Timisoara, Romania, e-mail: voicu@cbg.uvt.ro 

Florentina POPESCU 


4 V. Pârvan Av., 300312, Timisoara, Romania, e-mail: florentina19ro@yahoo.com 

Alexandru ONACA 


4 V. Pârvan Av., 300312, Timisoara, Romania, e-mail: ducuonaca@yahoo.com 

Marcel TÖRÖK-OANCE 


4 V. Pârvan Av., 300312, Timisoara, Romania, e-mail: torok@cbg.uvt.ro 

Abstract: The present paper is dedicated to the presentation of the ski potential of one of the 

most famous ski domain in the Southern Carpathians - the Straja ski area. It is located in the 

southeastern part of the Retezat - Godeanu range, on the northern slope of the Vâlcan 

Mountains. Straja ski area is endowed with a relentless tourist flow drawn by the scenic beauty 

of the winter landscape, by its specific amenities and facilities and by the considerable low 

prices of cable transportation and accommodation. The present analysis starts with a quantitative 

evaluation of the terrain factors by creating the hypsometric, slope and aspect models but also of 

the climatic variables. It is followed by an account of its cable transportation facilities, Straja 

having 7 cable transportation lines, serving 6 ski trails, each different in size, vertical drop, 

surface, degree of difficulty, carrying capacity and some other services they offer such as night 

skiing. Furthermore we have also presented the cable transportation functioning periods, which 

are well correlated with the presence and persistence of the snow layer, this being an important 

indicator of the management of the ski activities. 

Key words: ski activities, Straja ski area, Southern Carpathians, Vâlcan Mountains 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Skiing activities represent very important attributes of winter tourism, being at the same 

sport activities, generating an entire industry within mountain areas (Agrawala, 2007; Hudson, 

2002, 2004), which is one of the most spectacular forms of tourism (Booth and Cullen, 2001; 

Heberlein et al., 2002; Jeanneret, 2001; Godde et al., 2000; Yang et al., 2009). 

In the Romanian Carpathians and especially in the Southern Carpathians, skiing activities 

are in full spatial expansion and development of the its specific infrastructure (MPTVP, 2009; 

∗ Corresponding Author 

http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm

160 Mircea VOICULESCU, Florentina POPESCU, Alexandru ONACA, Marcel TOROK-ONACE 

MPDTN, 2010). The Straja ski area started developing as a ski destination after 1990, reaching 

today the status of one of the most attractive ski area in the Southern Carpathians, where alpine 

skiing and backcountry skiing can be practiced (SDML, 2008). 

From the point of view of tourist taxonomy, Straja was considered initially a genuine tourist 

nucleus (łigu, 2001). Today, Straja is a very important resort of local interest, according to H.G. 

1122/2002 (PATZVJ, 2003) and reached regional importance. Moreover, Straja is also considered 

in the National Mountain Tourism Development Plan - Superski în CarpaŃi, second edition (Lege 

nr. 418/2006 din 16/11/2006; SDDMVJ, 2008). 

The purpose of this paper is to present the natural potential of the Straja ski area, its present 

infrastructure and its development perspectives. 

STUDY AREA 

Straja ski area is located in the Southern Carpathians, in the southeastern part of the Retezat 

- Godeanu range, on the northern slope of the Vâlcan Mountains (figure 1). They are oriented in a 

WSW - ENE direction and are located between the upper Motrului Valley and the Jiului Gorges, 

with a length close to 50 km and a width of 18 - 20 km (Muică, 1995). The geographic borders of 

these mountains are well expressed by the relief through strong level oscillations at the limit 

between the steep slopes of the Vâlcan Mountains and the smooth interfluves towards the 

subcarpathians part of Oltenia region in the south and the Petroşani Depression in the north, but 

also through transversal deep valley which separates them from the western and the eastern 

mountain masses (Geografia României, III, CarpaŃii Româneşti şi Depresiunea Transilvaniei, 

1987; Velcea and Savu, 1983; Muică, 1995). 

Straja is the generic name of the area situated on the northern slope of the Vâlcan 

Mountains, above the small town of Lupeni, under the peak bearing the same name at the motheastern 

boarder of these Mountains, with a declared tourist and sportive activity. 

The ski area is bordered in the north by the Petroşani Depression, i.e. by the town of 

Lupeni, in the east by the line connecting the Sohodol and Baleia rivers, on the southern side by a 

fraction of main the ridge, where the Straja Peak - 1868 m (figure 1), the Mutu Peak - 1737 m, the 

Verde Peak - 1627 m, the Gura Plaiului Peak - 1579 m and the Vârful lui Frate Peak - 1524 m are 

lined up and in the west by the interfluve separating the Braia and Tunsului rivers. 

Figure 1. Location of Vâlcan Mountains and Straja Peak 

(Source: photo by Voiculescu, 2009) 

Straja is located in the Hunedoara county (being administrated by the municipality of 

Lupeni), but also within the Vâlcan Mountains, due to the fact that Straja is also an entrance point 

to theses mountains; the ski trails number 3.11 and 12 (Popescu, 1979) go towards the main ridge, 

making the connection towards east and west with other trails.

Ski Activities in Wenstern Part of Southern Carpathians… 161 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The main features of mountain resorts to be analyzed and compared are the natural factors, 

especially the ones related to terrain and the climatic factors, having the major concern directed 

towards snow - duration of the snow layer, depth and the economic conditions related to 

infrastructure and capitalization of wither-sport produce. 

Therefore we have used a 30 m resolution Aster DEM to depict the thematic maps 

concerning the terrain analysis important for ski resorts: altitude, slope and aspect (Török-Oance, 

2001 - 2002). As for the analysis of the climatic factors we have used the data provided by the 

Parâng weather station. 

RESULTS 

Terrain features 

The terrain factor is an essential element serving the principle of providing high quality 

natural background for the winter - sport tourism (Jamieson and Johnson, 1998; McClung and 

Schweizer, 1999; Schweizer and Jamieson, 2001; łigu, 2001). 

Figure 2. DEM (on the left side) and hypsometric map (on the right side) 

Figure 3. Declivity map (on the left side) and aspect map (on the right side)


The most important factors that need to be studied within the terrain analysis are: altitude, 

slope, and aspect, to which we can add plane and profile curvature as well. For terrain analysis we 

had first generate the digital elevation model (DEM), from which we have derived the 

hypsometric, slope and aspect models (figure 2 and figure 3), using ArcGIS Software. 

Altitude bares two connotations: absolute altitude (of the ski area) and vertical drop. High 

altitude ski area are not characteristic for the Romanian ski area landscape, excepting Sinaia ski 

area (from Bucegi Mountains) and Bâlea ski area (from Făgăraş massif) both located at over 2000 

m altitude. In terms of vertical drop, to be able to consider a ski area for a future or existing resort 

the vertical drop has to integrate within these values: 400 - 1600 m (Peterson, 2005). Directing our 

attention towards our areas of interest we can realize that form the altitudes’ point of view, the 

Straja ski area is located within the range of 1800 m and 800 m, measuring a vertical drop higher 

than 1000 m, being very well integrated into Petterson’s principle (2005). This prerequisite 

condition is fulfilled if we consider the possibility of going downslope until Lupeni, where the 

bottom station of the chairlift is located. 

Slope is a defining parameter for ski area for it separates the type of ski trails for different 

category skiers. Penniman (1999, pp. 36) separates the skiers into two large categories: skiers who 

are users of skies or snowboards or other gravity propelled recreational devices whose design and 

function allow users a significant degree of control over speed and direction on snow and 

beginners, whom he categorizes as: those individuals whom use one or another of these devices for 

the first time or who possess marginal abilities to turn or stop on slopes with an incline greater 

than 20%. It is fair to say that these are quite different one from the other and also use different 

reporting units (% and °), therefore, today, there are accepted different classifications. There are 

numerous classifications of ski trails and of skiers alike. Therefore, some researchers (Borgersen, 

1977, quoted by Penniman, 1999; Gaylor and Rombold, 1964; Tremper, 2001) separated the skiers 

into 3 large categories, and allocated very tight classes of declivity for them: beginners or novice, 

intermediates, advanced or expert (table 1) or according to Blanchère scale (Tremper, 2001), 

moderate skiers, good skier and very good skier (table 2). 

Erickson, 1992 

(quoted by Penniman, 1999) 

Table 1. Slope gradient criteria 

Borgersen, 1977 

(quoted by Penniman, 1999) 

Trail code Skier ability Grade max Trail code Skier ability Grade max Trail code 

easier 

more 

difficult 

most 

difficult 

basic beginner 

basic intermediate 

no 

description 

15% 

8.5° 

24% 

13.5° 

50% 

26.5° 

(no code) 



beginner 

intermediate 

advanced 

extreme no description (no value) (no code) expert 

20% 

11.5° 

35% 

19° 

55% 

29° 

80% 

39° 




Gaylor and Rombold, 1964 

Skier 

ability 

novice 

intermediate 

expert 

Grade max 

20% 

11.5° 

34% 

18° 

35% 

(.5° 

>35% 

>19° 

Skier ability 

moderate skier 

good skier 

very good skier 

Table 2. Blanchère scale 

(Data source: Tremper, 2001) 

Caracateristics 

a skier of moderate ability capable of secure stem turns, off-piste, in all condition, on 

slope of 25°-30° 

able to make controlled turns of snow on slopes of 30°-35°. able to descend short 

steeper pitches and handle difficult snow 

able to ascend and descend on skis sustained and exposed slopes that most people can 

only climb up with axe and crampons. these are slopes in excess of 45o requiring a 

high level of skill and experience, to say nothing of courage.


At the highest altitudes, the slopes surpass 30° - 35°, in the middle of the ski area slopes 

have values of 25° - 30°, but also there are areas with slopes between 15° - 20° (figure 3). To 

emphasize the role of the slope when classifying skiers we have drawn two profile line along side 

two ski trails (figure 4 and figure 5). It is easily noticed that 1st profile is consistent with a trail 

addressing skiers with abilities of descending trails with high speeds, while the 2nd profile is 

consistent with a trail which can be undertaken by both advanced and medium skiers. 

Figure 4. Location of two profile line along side two ski trails 

Figure 5. Longitudinal profiles of two ski trails 

In terms of aspect, most slopes are oriented towards north, north-west and west (figure 3), 

which are highly favorable for skiing activities. The radiation of the sun controls snow surface 

temperature more than air temperature (Tremper, 2001) and plays a very important role affecting 

snow instability and degree of humidity (McClung and Schaerer, 1993).


CLIMATIC ANALYSIS 

The other fundamental natural factors are the climatic ones with a major focus on snow 

(Jamieson and Johnson, 1998; McClung and Schweizer, 1999; Schweizer and Jamieson, 2001; 

łigu, 2001), where literature states that in order to have an economic efficient resort, it is 

necessary to have 120 days of snow - covered ski area (łigu, 2001), or other researchers have the 

opinion that if in seven out of ten winters there is snow covering of at least 30 cm on at least 100 

days between 1 December and 15 April (Becken and Hay, 2007, pp. 38; Besancenot, 1990; Freitas, 

2005; Hall and Higham, 2005) it is the place of a safe investment. For the synthetic climatic 

analysis of the Straja ski area we have used the data registered by the close-by Parâng 

meteorological station, in the interval of 1961 - 2007. 

Temperature plays an essential role because it denotes the type of precipitations (figure 6). 

The mean multiannual average is of 3.4oC. As of the month of December, the mean temperature 

becomes negative and remains this way until March. Thermal regime influences the type of 

precipitations, liquid or solid, number of days with snowfall (figure 6) and implicitly the depth and 

duration of the snow cover (figure 6). 

Figure 6. Variation of temperature (on the left side), a number of days with snowfalls and number of days 

with snow cover (on the right side), at Parâng weather station 

between 1961 - 2007, average multiannual values 

As soon as October, the first days with snowfall are registered, so that in November the fist 

snow layer takes shape. Snow falls until the month of May, but the snow cover, being conditioned 

by temperature, only lasts up to April and rarely up to May. In this context, we need to mention 

that he earliest fist day with snowfall was registered to be the 03.08 and the latest fist day with 

snow fall was 12.11. Continuing the same idea we need to mention that the earliest last day with 

snowfall was registered to be 16.04 and the latest last day with snowfall 19.07. Therefore the 

longest period of the snowfall interval was of 312 days and the smallest of 255 days (Bogdan, 

2008). Furthermore we need to mention that the average duration of the snowfall interval is of 93.7 

days and the average duration of the snow cover is of 131.1 days (Bogdan, 2008). 

SKI INFRASTRUCTURE 

At the beginning of the years 2000, at Straja there were one chairlift and two ski lifts (łigu, 

2001). Today there are 7 homologated ski trails (tabelul 3, figure 7 and figure 8) with a total length of 

9074.5 m which cover a surface of de 143,750 sqm. The ski trails are homologated (as stated in the 

Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a Microregiunii Valea Jiului, 2008). Even though all the ski trails are 

located on the northern side of the Vâlcan Mountains, they are differentiated according to the local 

topography. Therefore they differ in size and covered surface (figure 8). As for the degree of difficulty, 

50% of the ski trails are easy, 16.6% medium and 33.3% difficult. Only one ski trail, Telescaun which 

insures the connection of the highest parts of the ski area and the town of Lupeni, has a shared degree of 

difficulty between medium (80%) and difficult (20%), therefore being dedicated to skier with high 

technical abilities. We need to mention that 3 of the ski trails have night lighting that insures their 

lengthy operation hours which can be noticed in the schedule of the cable transportation facilities.

Nr. 

crt. 


Table 3. Caracteristics of the ski trails 

(Data source: Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a Microregiunii Valea Jiului, 2008) 

Name of the 

homologated 

ski trails 

Trail lenght 

(m) 

Degree of difficulty 

Vertical 

drop (m) 

Surface 

(m²) 

Night 

skiing 

1. 1,2 Constantinescu 1741.5 easy 364 45000 yes 

2. 1,2 Lupului 519 difficult 163 32500 no 

3. 1,2 Mutu 1269 medium 320 10000 yes 

4. 1,2 Sfântu Gheorghe 700 easy 144.5 26000 no 

5. 1 Platoul Soarelui 405 easy 51 27000 yes 

6. 1 Canal 1400 difficult 180 3250 no 

7. 1 Telescaun 3200 

medium (80%), 

difficult (20%) 

593 - no 

1 - ski trails homologated (Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a Microregiunii Valea Jiului, 2008) 

2 - ski trails homologated according to Ministerul Turismului din România 

Figure 7. Ski trails of the Straja ski area 

(Source: Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a Microregiunii Valea Jiului, 2008)


Figure 8. Length of ski trails (on the left side) and surface covered by the trails (on the right side) 

The highest density of users is noticed on the Constantinescu and Mutu ski trails 

(figure 9) due to their considerable length and their medium degree of difficulty. Another ski 

trail very much used is the Platoul Soarelui (figure 10) due to its easy degree of difficulty, 

where tourists come to learn to ski. The Lupului and Canal ski trails (figure 10) are used only 

by skiers with high technical abilities. 

Figure 9. Constantinescu ski piste (on the left side) and Mutu ski piste (on the right side) 

(Source: photos by Voiculescu, 2009) 

Figure 10. Platoul Soarelui ski piste (on the left side) and Canal ski piste (on the right side) 

(Source: photos by Voiculescu, 2009) 

Cable transportation has developed over time and space as a response to gradually rising tourist 

demands. If until 2001 there was only one means of cable transportation which served various trails and 

had a length of 1.45 km, with a capacity of 650 pers / hour (łigu, 2001), thereafter the situation improved 

considerably. Presently, there are 6 ski lifts, with a total length of 4671 m and which now serve all the ski 

trails of the Straja ski area. Transport time is reduced and the operation hours are differentiated in 

accordance the facilities of each ski trail, especially with the night skiing facilities (table 4).


Name of 

lift 

Ski lift 1 

Ski lift 2 

Ski lift 3 

Table 4. Caracteristics of ski lifts 

(Data source: Strategia de dezvoltare durabilă a Microregiunii Valea Jiului, 2008) 

Ski trail served 

Lupului, Mutu 

Constantinescu 

Platoul Soarelui 

Mutu, Lupului, Canal 




Sfântu Gheorghe 


Length 

(m) 

Vertical 

drop (m) 

Transport 

duration 

(min.) 

Capacity 

persons/hour 

519 163 4 675 

905 260 5 780 

952 180 5 840 

Ski lift 4 Sfântu Ghorghe 650 145 5 424 

Ski lift 5 

Ski lift 6 



Mutu 



1260 198.6 4 600 

385 102 4 520 

Schedule 

09.00- 

02.00 

09.00- 

17.00 

09.00- 

24.00 

09.00- 

17.00 

09.00- 

24.00 

09.00- 

24.00 

The transport capacity rose in the last few years, having values between 424 pers / hour and 

840 pers / hour, the highest values being reached by the Constantinescu, Sfântu Gheorghe ski trails 

which are the lengthiest and the most used by tourists. The smallest values are registered by the 

Lupului ski trail which is relatively short, but at the same time the most difficult and by the Platoul 

Soarelui which is again a short ski trail, but this time the easiest as well (table 3). 

Table 5. Ski lift demands 

(Data source: DocumentaŃie Primăria Lupeni, 2005) 

Number ski lift Demand (%) 

1 2 

2 22 

3 30 

4 5 

5 18 

6 23 

Figure 11. Demand dynamics for the ski-lifts 

(Source: DocumentaŃie Primăria Lupeni, 2005)


Ski lift demands according to DocumentaŃie Primăria Lupeni (2005) differ in accordance 

with their degree of usage (table 5, figure 11). The highest demand (30%) is without out a doubt 

for the ski lift no 3, placed at the eastern end of the ski area, holding the advantage of transporting 

tourists towards the highest areas of the domain. 

Table 6. Ski activities record 

(Data source:according to DocumentaŃie Primăria Lupeni, 2005) 

Winter season Month Ski lift 

November did not work 

December 1,2 

January 1,2 

1999 - 2000 

February 1,2,3 

March 1,2,3 

April did not work 


December 1,2 

2000 - 2001 

January 1,2 


March 1,2,3 



December 1,2 

2001 - 2002 

January 1,2 


March 1,2,3 



December 1 

2002 - 2003 

January 1,3 


March 1,2 



December 1,2,3,4,6 

2003 - 2004 

January 1,2,3,4,6 

February 1,2,3,4,6 

March 1,2,6 



December 1,2,3,4,5,6 

2004 - 2005 

January 1,2,3,4,5,6 

February 1,2,3,4,5,6 

March 1,2,3,6 

April 1,2,3,6 

High demands (23%, respectively 22%) are directed to the ski lift no 6, respectively no 2, 

accessible at the entrance in the ski domain. Small demand is directed towards the ski lift no 1 

(2%), due to the fact that it serves the Lupului ski trail, which is the most difficult, destined for 

advanced skiers only and respectively towards ski-lift no 4 (5%), due to its lowest location and 

lack of snow at the beginning and at the end of the season. Even though the winter season is 

considered to be entailed in the November-April interval, skiing activities take place in the 

December-April interval, when the snow has the required characteristics for the skiing activities. 

Their intensity is determined by snowfall and implicitly by the existence and the depth of the snow


layer. The municipality of Lupeni, which is responsible for the administration of the Straja ski 

area, has created an interesting record of the ski activities in the interval 1999 - 2005 

(DocumentaŃie Primăria Lupeni, 2005) (table 6). 

After analyzing this record we have determined some interesting aspects with regard to the 

usage dynamics of the ski-lifts in the November-April interval: 

- the months of November and April coincide with the beginning, and the end of the season 

respectively, therefore are not suited for skiing activities, except for the year 2005 when 4 ski lifts 

were still in usage in the April; 

- the months of February and March are characterized by a high frequency of winter sport 

activities, when the snow layer has a considerable depth and when at least 2 - 3 ski lifts operational; 

- in the same idea we need to mention that in the winter of 2003 - 2004 in February and 

March, 5 lifts were functioning, while in the winter of 2004 - 2005 all ski lifts were operational in 

the same monthly interval, which is a clear indicator of the large quantities of snow and of the 

favorable depth of the snow layer for skiing; 

- in the winters of 2003 - 2004 and 2004 - 2005 a high usage of the ski lifts was recorded: 5 

of them in the December - February interval, respectively 6 for the same interval in the winter of 

2004 - 2005 and 4 ski - lifts for both winters in the March-April interval. 

DISCUSSION 

If in the beginning of the years 2000, the Straja ski area had great potential to achieve the 

required numbers for the specific indicators (Qt / Qp, where Qt - pers/hour, Qp - capacity of cable 

transportation; Lt / Nl, where Lt - total length of the transportation lines, Nl - no of 

accommodation beds; Qt / Nl şi Lp / Nl, where Lp - ski trail length) for the tourist nucleus status, 

presently most of these have been achieved (table 7): 

Nr. 

crt. 

Table 7. Characteristic of the ski trails including the optimum carrying capacity (Qt) 

Name of the 

homologated 

ski trails 

Trail lenght (m) 

Width 

(m) 

Vertical drop 

(m) 

Degree of 

difficulty 

Qt 

(persons) 

1. Constantinescu 1741.5 50 364 easy 435 

2. Lupului 519 40 163 difficult 120 

3. Mutu 1269 50 320 medium 345 

4. 

Sfântu 

Gheorghe 

700 30 145 easy 105 

5. Platoul Soarelui 405 60 102 easy 150 

6. Canal 1400 8 260 difficult 40 

Total 4239.5 1195 

The carrying capacity is calculated having in view the vertical drop, the width of the ski 

trail and especially important is the difficulty category of the ski trails. It defines how many 

persons can be at the same time on that particular trail without inconveniencing each other. 

Without considering the trail under the chairlift where the carrying capacity is rather impossible to 

calculate due to the fact that it belongs to two category types, there can be 1195 skiers on the ski 

trails of Straja. Here there can be added the persons riding the ski lift at the same time. 

Without counting the benefits of the chairlift there are over 4.2 km of ski trails over the altitude 

of 1200 m, which is highly important considering the fact that there are the one mostly used (table 5) 

and the fact that most of the season they are the beneficiaries of natural snow, and also if we compare 

them to the 2001 retaliation (łigu), when there were 1.95 km of ski trail, we realize the improvement. 

Furthermore if we take into consideration the evaluation criteria of the attractiveness of this 

ski area, according to łigu (2001), we can conclude the following: 

- the degree of accessibly to the ski area has improved due to the fact that in addition to the chairlift 

the road which connects the town of Lupeni with the resort of Straja was asphalted on a length of 9.3 km; 

- the natural tourist potential is outstanding serving as guarantee for the tourist market;


- the ski area is endowed with features which enables tourists to practice alpine skiing, 

snowboarding and backcountry skiing; 

- the accommodation capacity has improved as well, through the emergence of new 

locations as a result of private local investors, but also through the improvement of the degree of 

comfort - some of the existing chalets being classified; 

- if 10 - 15 years ago, the length of the trails was a weak point, today it became a point of 

attractiveness, due to its present size; 

- the existence of 7 cable transportation lines insure an efficient access to all trails; 

- the length of the trails are better correlated with the accommodation capacity, still in weekends 

and in peak season on some of the trails there are uncomfortable agglomerations of skiers; 

- in the same peak-season the hourly flow of the cable transportation capacity is overrun. 

Even though this is beyond our purpose, we could mention that during the summer season 

there are different activities that can be practiced in the Straja area: rest, walks, berry picking. The 

tourist demand of the Straja ski area is characterized by an effective and sustained national demand 

according to łigu (2001). Unfortunately the international demand is still very low. Considering the 

potential demand, it follows the pattern of the effective one. 

CONCLUSIONS 

It is without a doubt that Straja represents one of the most dynamic and most important ski area 

of the Southern Carpathians, being integrated from a taxonomical point of view as a tourist resort. It has 

a tremendous natural potential, having sheltered and relatively long slopes, and of 4 - 5 months of snow 

each year. Due to its location in the western part of Southern Carpathians, Straja ski area is attractive to 

tourists from the din Banat and Transylvanian Regions, as much as to the ones coming from the 

southern and eastern part of Romania, a reality which we have observed on location. 

Complementing the alpine skiing activities, the Straja ski area is the perfect place for tourist 

that want to learn how to ski and also the perfect place to enjoy the snow and other winter 

activities such as snowboarding, ski touring, snow-mobiles rides which are specific to mountain 

areas characterized by skiing activities, according to Hudson (2002). It is remarkable the fact that 

in the last few years, the degree of attractiveness has improved due to the emergence of new ski 

lifts but also due to the improvements of the skiing conditions (more facilities, better grooming). 

Having in view that Straja ski area is integrated in the larger Parâng - Retezat region, 

declared by the Romanian Ministry of Tourism and Regional Development as a national tourism 

interest area (PIDULJH, 2008), we can therefore underline the attention that is directed towards 

this particular area, especially that according to PIDULJH (2008), the region that Straja is 

integrated in is annually visited by 500,000 tourists. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The research for this paper was supported by National University Research Council 

(CNCSIS - UEFISCSU), Romania, project number PNII - IDEI 1066/2009, Creation of the data 

base and thematic maps for the ski areas in the Southern Carpathians using GIS. Analysis, up to 

date evaluation and prognosis within the global climatic changes perspective. 

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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online 

August 29, 2011 November 28, 2011 December 12, 2011



CONTRIBUTIONS TO INVENTORY AND ASSESSEMENT OF THE 

GEOMORPHOSITES IN CĂLIMANI NATIONAL PARK. CASE STUDY: 

12 APOSTLES GEOLOGIC RESERVE 

Ioan BÂCA ∗ 

„Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj Napoca, Faculty of Geography, BistriŃa Extension, 

Andrei Mureşanu Street, 3-5, BistriŃa, Romania, e-mail: john_grimo@yahoo.com 

Abstract: Contributions to inventory and assessment of the geomorphosites in Călimani 

National Park. Case study: 12 Apostles Geologic Reserve. The 12 Apostles Geomorphosite is 

located in the National Park Călimani, on the north-eastern border of the Călimani caldera, 

and its geological reference object is 12 Apostles Geologic Reserve, IVth category according 

to IUCN. The geomorphosites include several residual rock formations, shaped in volcanic 

conglomerates, presenting phytomorphic (mushrooms), zoomorphic (lizards, dragons), and 

anthropomorphic (historical figures, apostles etc.) physiognomies, with a high touristic 

attraction. Therefore, the geomorphosite is a major regional tourist attraction, integrated in 

tourist circuits in the Călimani Mountains. Starting from these premises, this paper aims the 

evaluation of this geomorphosite in terms of scientific, aesthetic, ecological, cultural and 

economic value, and to establish its global value, an extremely important parameter for future 

strategies, and for preservation and tourism exploitation. This approach was based on rich 

literature and methodology regarding inventory and evaluation of geomorphosites, applied to 

the particularities of this area. The results are particularly relevant, emphasizing the 

importance of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite within the Călimani National Park. 

Key words: geomorphosite, geologic reserve, geoheritage, geotourism, Călimani Mountains, 

Călimani National Park, IUCN 

* * * * * * 

FOREWORD 

The last decade witnessed intensified concerns about inventory and assessment of the 

geomorphosites and geosites as landforms with scientific, aesthetic, ecologic, economic and 

cultural value from human perspective (Panizza and Piacente, 1993; Panizza, 2001; Panizza and 

Piacente, 2003; Pralong, 2005; Pralong and Reynard, 2005; Reynard and Panizza, 2005; Reynard 

et al., 2009a; Reynard et al., 2009b; Ilieş and Josan, 2009); elements of biodiversity and human 

creations complement the assets of a particular region that can be exploited through tourism 

activities (Marthaler, 2003). 

At European level, numerous works in this field have been published; for Romania, we can 

mention studies by teams of researchers from the Faculty of Geography of the Oradea University 

(Ilieş and Josan, 2009), from the Faculty of Geography of the Bucharest University (Comănescu et 



Contribution to Inventory and Assessement of the Geomorphosites… 173 

al., 2009; Comănescu and Dobre, 2009; Comănescu and Nedelea, 2010), and from the Faculty of 

Tourism Geography from Bistrita (Bâca, 2011; Bâca and Schuster, 2011). 

This paper, as part of the project „Inventory and assessment of the geomorphosites from 

Călimani National Park” initiated by the Faculty of Tourism Geography from the Babeş-Bolyai 

University Cluj-Napoca, intends to submit to analysis one of the most relevant geomorphosite in 

this area, namely 12 Apostles Geologic Reserve, which is a particularly attractive target, included 

in tourist circuits from this Carpathian sector. 

WORK METHODOLOGY 

In preparing this study, several methodological stages were followed: 

- consulting the literature regarding this geomorphosites (Naum and Butnaru, 1969; Naum, 

1970; Naum, 1974; Naum and Butnaru, 1989); 

- processing tourism information and the existing literature and articles from various tourist 

websites (www.alpinet.ro, www.turismland.ro, www.inromania.info, www.dordeduca.ro, 

www.vatradornei.net, www.lasuceava.ro, www.panoramio.com); 

- consulting existing literature regarding inventory and evaluation of various 

geomorphosites (Panizza and Piacente, 1993; Reynard, 2006); 

- conducting field research, implementation of inventory and evaluation sheets for the 12 

Apostles geomorphosite, according to international methodology. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

STUDY AREA 

The Călimani National Park is located in Călimani Mountains, covering an area of 24,041 

hectares and was established by Law no. 5 / 2000 and Government Decision no. 230/2003 

(figure 1). It is classified as a protected area of IInd category according to IUCN, and its main 

purpose is to protect ecosystems, and recreation. 

Figure 1. Geographic position of the Călimani Mountains in Romania

174 

Ioan BÂCA 

The main points of interest in the park are the Scientific Reserve of Juniper trees with 

Pinus cembra - IUCN category Ia, with an area of 384.2 ha, the Iezer Lake Reserve - Category IV 

of IUCN, with an area of 322 ha, and he Geologic Reserve 12 Apostles, category IV of IUCN, 

with an area of 200 ha. 

12 Apostles Geologic Reserve is located in the north-eastern part of Călimani National Park, on 

the northwest border of the Călimani caldera (the segment Tămău – Pietrele Roşii – 12 Apostoli – 

Lucaciu – Cerbu), at an altitude of 1770 m in an area of maximum visibility, which dominates the 

valleys of Negrişoara (Little Black) and Neagra (Black River), tributary to the Dorna river (figure 2). 

Figure 2.The location of the 12 Apostles geomorphiste in the Călimani National Park 

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES 

The 12 Apostles geomorphosite consists of several residual rock formations, detached by 

differential erosion from the mass of volcanic agglomerates which form the border of Călimani 

caldera. This caldera was formed by the collapse of few stratovolcanos which existed here in the 

Pliocene, and who have built around their a huge volcano-sedimentary plateau which extends 

between The Gorge of BistriŃa Ardeleană and Dornelor Depression to the North, Drăgoiasa-Bilbor- 

Secu depressions to East, Mureşului Valley to South, Şieului Valley and BistriŃa Ardeleană Valley 

to West (Naum, Butnaru, 1989; Geografia României, 1987). The edifice of caldera is distinguished 

by very large in size, having a diameter of 10 km and a depth of 500-800 m, which ranked first in 

the arc of the Oriental Carpathians Neogene eruptive arch. The border of caldera is maintained 

between 1700 m and 2000 m, culminating in the Pietrosu Peak (2100 m), and North-eastern part of 

it was pierced by the Neagra Şarului River. 

The volcanic activity was particularly complex in this sector and manifested in explosive, 

efuzive and intrusive forms, thereby generating specific products: piroclastic flows, andesitic an 

dacitic lava flows and andesitic and dioritic intrusive bodies. 

Emptying the magmatic reservoir in late pliocene and the intensity of terminal eruptions 

caused the collapse of the system of joint cones and shaping the caldera, which was modelade by 

fluvial, glacial and periglacial processes in the following period.


Therefore, the detailed morphology of the caldera is distinguished by systems of valleys 

and ridges, secondary volcanic craters (Pârâul Calului, Iezerul Călimanului, RăŃiŃiş, Pietricelu), 

intrusive massifs (Negoiu Românesc), glacial cirques (Pietrosu, ReŃiŃiş, Bradu Ciont, Negoiu 

Unguresc), crionival semifunnels and residual forms carved on volcanic agglomerates (needles, 

towers, pillars, apostles, walls, etc.) (figure 3). 

Figure 3.Geomorphologic sketch of Călimani caldera 

1-the border of caldera; 2-structural surfaces; 3-structural ridge; 4-glacial cirques; 5-crionival semifunnel; 6- 

catchement area; 7-ridge; 8-fluvial slopes; 9-rivers; 10-village; 11-12 Apostles geomorphosite 

The rock formations of 12 Apostles geosite have heights from 3 to 12 m, phytomorphic 

(mushrooms), zoomorphic (lizards, dragons), anthropomorphic (apostles, characters) and amorphic 

physiognomies, allowing their separation into three megalithic sectors (figure 4): 

1) Lucaciu sector, with scattered rock formations around Lucaciu peak (1770 m); 

2) 12 Apostles sector, with residual formations distributed around the Munceilor peak (1775 m); 

3) Piciorul Hârlei sector, with scattered rocks on the southeast flank of the caldera, in the 

Neagra Şarului Valley. 

In terms of physiognomy and aesthetic features, the formations with zoo- and 

anthropomorphic look received suggestive names, which gives personality to the geomorphosite 

and a high degree of attractiveness (Naum and Butnaru, 1989). Thus, in the Lucaciu sector there is 

a rock formation named Green Lizard, while in the 12 Apostles sector, following groups can be 

separated (figure 5): 

- the group Moşul (Old Man) and Mucenicul (The Martyr); 

- the central group, with the most representative rocky formations (Ramses, Godzila, Nefertiti, 

The Marshal, The Camel); 

- the group Ursoaica cu puii (Mother Bear with Bear Cubs); 

- the group Străjerul (The Watchman). 

A detailed analysis of these rock formations highlights a number of relevant 

geomorphological features on attractive and evolutionary levels. 

Thus, there are isolated rocks and groups of rock cliffs, bordered by slopes, with niches, steps 

and shelves carved on its facade, and talus at their base, resulted through the processes of fragmentation 

and removal of the wall rock. The rocks of the Central Group of 12 Apostles sector are sometimes 

separated by narrow passages (crevice), which gives a spectacular configuration to the geomorphosite.

176 

Ioan BÂCA 

Figure 4. The localisation of The 12 Apostles geomorphosite on the Călimani caldera and the 

geomorphologic map 

1-residual ridge; 2-fluvial slopes; 3-peaks; 4-rocky formations; 5-rivers; 6-rural settlements; 7-the area of the 

geomorphosite 

Figure 5. The areal distribution of the rocky formations from the 12 Apostles geomorphosite


CULTURAL CONNOTATIONS 

In addition to their suggestive physiognomy, the rock formations from 12 Apostles 

geomorphosite have an important cultural dimension, with mythical and historical background, 

specific also for a number of geomorphosites in the Romanian Carpathians (Brill, 1974; Sârbu, 

2009). This cultural dimension of the geomorphosite is briefly described by the Călimani National 

Park website (www.Călimani.ro) as follows: 

The 12 Apostles Statuary Complex and the neighbouring Lucaciu peak invoke the 

testimony of magic and mythic events descended from ancient Dacian culture, reshaped over time 

in the form of Romanian Orthodox faith. Climbing mountains and ceremonial events held 

during the summer solstice, known in local language „Moşii de la Călimani” (The Elders 

from Călimani) or „Moşii de Sânpetru” (The Elders of Saint Peter), originate in the ancient 

Dacian worship of the sun, tree and fire, with the cult of ancestors as central element. 

The transfer from the solstice-celebrating Dacian tradition to the Christian Orthodox Rite 

gave rise to the celebration of the 12 Apostles, which had got in time a strong patriotic overlay, 

becoming The Nedeia from Călimani (The Celebration from Călimani). During the celebration of 

the 12 Apostles on June 29, a lot of people from surrounding areas follow established trails to 

Lucaciu peak, to attend the great meeting. The sacred fire, which first separated crowd from 

divinity at evening hours, now purifies the offerings for the souls of those passed away. The 

stories were born, song and dance accompanied the Romanians separated by the peaks of 

Călimani Mountains, but united by faith, language and nation. 

Historical and geographical context caused a distinct evolution of the people around the 

Călimani, as they lived separated from one point in time at the border of three provinces: Ardeal, 

Bucovina and Moldova. In such circumstances, the celebrations from 12 Apostles and Lucaciu 

appear as real moments of struggle for national unity. It seems that the last celebration took place 

under a condition of unbearable restrictions imposed by occupation authorities in 1914. 

Historian Nicolae Densuşianu (2002) constructed the hypothesis that these megalithic figures 

from Călimani and the whole area of the Carpathians would be the work of ancient Pelasgians, and that 

they would have been made in honour of some deities (The Sphinx from Bucegi Mountains, the rocky 

formations from Ciucaş Mountains, etc.). Although this view seems fantastic, the intervention of 

ancient populations on rock formations shaped by natural processes is not to be excluded. 

Another proof of the cultural-historical value of 12 Apostles geomorphosite are the 

megalithic engravings discovered in 1987 on Paltin Valley, near the village of Gura Haiti, which 

apparently was part of a dolmen set type (Naum and Butnaru, 1989), erected by populations 

living here in prehistoric times. Whichever the truth, the fact that the rocky formations of the 

12 Apostles Geologic Reserve quicken the imagination of scientists and visitors point once 

again the cultural value of the geomorphosite. 

EVALUATION OF THE GEOMORPHOSITE 

After establishing the theoretical and methodological framework, a detailed field research 

has been undertaken, during which various geomorphologic features were charted, such as the 

configuration of rocky formations, present-day geomorphological processes, the impact of human 

intervention on the relief etc. The final step consisted in creating the evaluation sheets for the 

geomorphosite, defining the inventory and evaluation of the scientific, ecological, aesthetical, 

cultural and economic dimensions of the geosite, basing on relevant criteria. For each criterion, a 

score between 0 and 1 was appointed, with steps of one quarter of a point, resp. 0 = nothing, 

0.25 = low, 0.50 = high and 1.00 = very high. After each criterion was noted, the global value 

was calculated by summing the points and dividing the result to the total number of criteria. 

Due to the scientific and cultural importance of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite, a complex 

evaluation has been implemented, basing on an inventory file suggested by Reynard (2006), with 

necessary adaptations. The results of this process are represented in the tables 1 to 6.

178 

Ioan BÂCA 

Table 1. Scientific value of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite 

(Data source: after Reynard, 2006, whit adaptations) 

Criteria Evaluation Score 

Integrity 

Anthropogenic activities undertaken in this area (deforestation, 

grazing, tourism) have not particularly affected the integrity of 0.75 

the megalithic complex 

Representativeness 

12 Apostles Geological Reserve is representative for the 

Călimani National Park 

1.00 

Uniqueness 

By position, structure and configuration, the 12 Apostles 

geomorphosite is unique within the Călimani Mountains 

1.00 

Paleogeographic value 

The area of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite is a geological 

sequence of space-time modelling of the Călimani caldera 

1.00 

The geomorphosite provides information about residual 

Educational value landscape shaped by differential erosion processes on volcanic 

conglomerates 

1.00 

Scientific value 

By geological structure and geomorphological features, the 12 

Apostles Geologic Reserve is an scientifically important 

objective 

0.95 

Table 2. Ecologic value of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite 

(Data source: after Reynard, 2006, with adaptations) 


Ecological influence 

With its features, the 12 Apostles geomorphosite support the 

development of specific ecosystems (rocky, grassland, forest) 

1.00 

Vulnerability 

Tourist flows and camping activities could affect the 

ecosystems 

0.50 

Ecological value 

12 Apostles geomorphosite provides natural support for the 

development of specific ecosystems in coniferous forests of 

the mountain 

0.75 

Table 3. Aesthetic value of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite 



Visibility 

The geomorphosite is visible from great distances and 

provides maximum visibility over the surrounding landscape 

1.00 

The rocky formations are distributed in 6 groups, with heights 

Contrast, vertical 

of 3-12 m; the show anthropogenic-zoo-phytomorphic forms, 

development and 

and by their altimetric position they are arranged on three 

space structuring 

levels 

1.00 

Cromatic diversity 

Alternation of grey rocks with green open meadows and dark 

green of the coniferous forests 

0.75 

Aesthetic value 

Through the configuration of its rocky formations, the 12 

Apostles geomorphosite is characterised by a high aesthetic 

level 

0.91 

Table 4. Cultural value of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite 



Religious and 

symbolic 

importance 

Mythical and magical ceremony events related to the Dacian 

population rites about the summer solstice to worship the sun, 

the trees and the fire. 

Christian holidays during summer solstice, such as Călimani 

Sânpetru celebration, Nedeia of Călimani, 

Moşii din Călimani, Moşii de Sânpetru, Nedeia din Călimani. 

Near the geomorphosite lies the 12 Apostles hermitage 

1.00


Historical 

importance 

Literary and 

artistic importance 

Cultural value 

Habsburg Empire border. 

On the 12 Apostles-Lucaciu ridge, fortifications of World War 

I-II (trenches) are preserved 

The Rocky formations of 12 Apostles geomorphosite are 

mentioned in many works of belletrist tourism, as well as on 

travel websites 

By its position, structure and configuration, the 12 Apostles 

geomorphiste was since ancient times a place of worship and 

pilgrimage and a source of inspiration for various literarytourism 

works 

0.75 

1.00 

0.91 

Table 5. Economic value of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite 

(Data Source: after Reynard, 2006, with adaptations) 


Accessibility 

Forest roads and marked tourist trails from Poiana 

Negrii, Neagra Şarului and Gura Haitii 

0.75 

Present recovery The 12 Apostles Geological Reserve is a major 

and attractive objective from the 

geomorphological Călimani National Park integrated in tourism circuits of 

1.00 

interest this area 

Present recovery 

and cultural and 

historical interest 

Legal protection 

and utilization 

restrictions 

Equipment and 

services 

Economic value 

Place of pilgrimage during the celebration, on June 29, 

of the 12 Apostles Convent 

1.00 

Protected area, IV-th category IUCN 1.00 

There are no tourist facilities in this area. 

Accommodation can be arranged at the 12 Apostles 

Hermitage and in traditional farms in the surrounding 

villages 

The geomorphosite 12 Apostles is an important tourist 

attraction, but economically not sufficiently utilised 

0.25 

0.8 

Global value 

Potential threats 

Management 

measures 

Table 6. Synthesis 

The 12 Apostles Geologic Reserve represent an important attractive objective in 

the Călimani National Park, supporting various tourist activities (trekking, hiking, 

biking, ecotourism, cultural and educational tourism) 

Climbing activities can affect the rock formations and gully erosion processes may 

cause gully erosion on tourist trails 

It requires a strategy of access, placement of public signposts, resting places and 

scenic points and the development of promotional materials 

CONCLUSIONS 

The 12 Apostles Geologic Reserve is an area-type geomorphosite, which, in addition to 

the scientific dimension, is characterized by significant aesthetic, cultural and historical 

connotations, enhancing its tourism attractiveness. 

The global value of the geomorphosite, obtained by adding other values 

(Sci+Eco+Sce+Cult+Econ/5), is high, and indicates its importance within the Călimani 

National Park, situation requiring protective measures and appropriate strategies for tourism 

utilisation (table 7).

180 

Ioan BÂCA 

Scientific 

value 

Ecological 

value 

Table 7. Global value of the 12 Apostles geomorphosite 

Scenic value 

Cultural value 

Economic 

value 

Global 

value 

0.95 0.75 0.91 0.91 0.8 0.864 


The present work represents a part of the research results processed in order to inventory 

and evaluate the geomorphosites within the Călimani Natural Park and to elaborate the visiting 

strategy for this site, initiated by the Faculty of Tourism Geography from BistriŃa. 

The author acknowledge to anonymous reviewer for their thoughtful suggestions and comments. 

REFERENCES 

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study: Bistricior massif, Analele UniversităŃii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, XXI, 1; 

Bâca I., Schuster E. (2011), Listing, evaluation and touristic utilisation of geosites containing archaeological artefacts. 

Case study: Ciceu Ridge (Bistrita-Nasaud County, Romania), Revista Geografica Acadêmica, v.5, n.1, pp.5-20; 

Brill T. (1974), Legende geografice româneşti, Ed. Pentru Turism, Bucureşti, p.175; 

Comănescu L., Nedelea Al., Dobre R. (2009), Inventoring and evaluation of geomorphosites in the Bucegi Mountains, 

Studii şi cercetări de geografie şi protecŃia mediului, 8, pp.38-43; 

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The Ceahlău National Park, GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, Year II, No.1, Vol.3, pp.86-96; 

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scientific evaluation and tourist perception, Area, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 406–416; 

Densuşianu, N., (2002), Dacia preistorică, Ed. Arhetip, Bucureşti, p.95 

Ilieş D., Josan N. (2010), Geomorfosituri şi geopeisaje, Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea; 

Marthaler M. (2003), Le memoire de la Terre cache derriere les panoramas, Geomorphologie et tourism, Lausanne; 

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Sport, Bucureşti; 

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anul XIX, pp.67-75; 

Naum T. (1974), EvoluŃia geomorfologică a masivului vulcanic Căliman în Pliocen şi Cuaternar, în „Buletinul ŞtiinŃific”, 

seria B, Insitutul Pedagogic din Baia Mare, pp.42-76; 

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Panizza M., Piacente S. (2003), Geomorfologia Culturale, Pitagora Editrice, Bologna; 

Panizza M. (2001), Geomorphosites: Concepts, methods and examples of geomorphological survey, in Chinese Science 

Bulletin, 46, pp. 4-6; 

Pralong J. P. (2005), A method for assessing tourist potential and use of geomorphological sites, Géomorphologie: relief, 

processus, environnement, 3, pp. 189-196; 

Pralong J. P., Reynard E. (2005), A proposal for the classification of geomorphological sites depending on their tourist 

value, Il Quaternario, 18 (1), pp. 315-321; 

Reynard E. (2005), Gemorphosites et paysages, Gemorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement; 

Reynard E., Panizza M. (2005), Geomorphosites: definition, assessment and mapping. An introduction, Géomorphologie : 

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publié, 8 pages. – http://www.unil.ch/igul/page17893.html; 

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geomorphosites in the Trient Valley (Switzerland), Valutazione e promozione di geomorfositi culturali nella Valle 

del Trient (Svizzera), Mem. Descr. Carta Geol. d’It., LXXXVII, pp. 181-189; 

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August 04, 2011 November 02, 2011 November 30, 2011



PERSPECTIVES IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE TERRACES OF THE 

DANUBE WITHIN THE OLTENIA PLAIN (ROMANIA) 

Sandu BOENGIU ∗ 

University of Craiova, Geography Department, 

Al. I. Cuza No 13, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: sboengiu@central.ucv.ro 

Sorin AVRAM 


Al. I. Cuza No 13, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: asorin@clicknet.ro 

Alina VLĂDUł 


Al. I. Cuza No 13, Craiova, Romania, e-mail: vladut_alina@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The present paper aims at rendering the evolution of the morphologic, climatic, and 

hydrographical events registered starting with the end of the Romanian till the Holocene. All the 

aforementioned events led to the formation of the terraces of the Danube along the sector Gura 

Văii - the mouth of the Olt River. By the end of the Romanian, within the Oltenia Plain, the 

continental phase that brought to the formation of the present landforms began. The 

development of the terrace plain occurred on the background of the deterioration of the 

piedmont structure that was located along the Carpathian-Balkan curvature. The start of the 

destruction of the piedmont structure coincides with the formation of the Danube course and the 

development of its hydrographical system. The erosion of the piedmont structures and the 

development of a terrace plain functioning as a depression occurred on the background of the 

Pleistocene climatic oscillations, of the rightward deviation of the Danube, and of the lowering 

of the base level. Thus, it appeared the Danube Valley the width of which reached even 48 km 

and the depth 180 m, with a terrace system that corresponds to the main palaeogeographic 

coordinates. All these analysed events and transformations that are rendered by means of GIS 

lead to the reconstruction of the formation stages and allow a synchronization of the 

morphologic, climatic, and hydrographic stages. 

Key words: Terraces, GIS, Oltenia Plain 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The South of Romania is crossed by the Danube River. The paleogeographic evolution led to 

the development of a wide plain on the left of the river, called the Romanian Plain or the Lower 

Danube Plain. There can be noticed the following genetic types of plains - piedmont plains, 

subsidence plains, terrace plains, and tabular plains, which are generally distributed on longitudinal 

alignments. The western side, starting with the area where the Danube River flows out of the Defile, 

at the Iron Gates up to the Olt River, is called the Oltenia Plain (figure 1). It presents 75% terrace 



182 

Sandu BOENGIU, Sorin AVRAM, Alina VLĂDUȚ 

plains (Geografia României, 2005) and only 25% of its surface was not modelled by the river still 

displaying the features of the piedmont plain (Leu - Rotunda and Drănic - SălcuŃa Fields). 

Figure 1. The hypsometrical map of the Oltenia plain 

The Oltenia terrace plain is an erosion and accumulation depression, entirely developed under 

the action of the Danube, the southern limit following its lowest part (Boengiu, 2000). The erosion of 

the piedmont structures and the formation of a terrace plain that functioned as a depression occurred on 

the background of the Pleistocene climatic oscillations, of the rightward deviation of the Danube, and of 

the lowering of the base level. Thus, presently, in Oltenia, it was proven the presence of eight 

discontinuously developed terraces (Geografia Văii Dunării Româneşti, 1969) (figure 2). Yellowishreddish 

loess and loess-like deposits cover the upper terraces, while the lower terraces and the 

floodplains present sands and dunes. 

The analysis of the position of the Danube terraces within Oltenia, their link to the terraces 

of the Jiu and the Olt rivers, made by many researchers brings us to the conclusion that the 

evolution of this river is, at least to a certain extend, determined not only by the neotectonic 

movements (which imposed the development of the terraces only on the left of the Jiu River and 

on the right of the Olt River), but also by the Quaternary eustatic modifications, induced by the 

succession of many glacial and interglacial stages. 

The rising from Leu - Rotunda is due to the Passadena neotectonic phase, when ‘the Riss- 

Wurm red clays located within Schiau anticline indicate a folding during the Middle Pleistocene’ 

(Saulea, 1967), phase that has to be taken into account in the analysis of the terraces of the 

Danube, which can be correlated with the terraces of the Olt and of the Jiu rivers. 

The Romanian research in the field continues to use the Alpine chronology (that referring to 

glaciations) in order to correlate the age of the terraces. The relative altitude of terraces, the characteristics 

of the sediments, and the age of fossils (paleonthological method) still represent the main methods for 

terrace dating. Absolute dating, based on paleomagnetic data, Th/U or luminescence dating, were used for 

establishing the age of the terraces of the Danube in Hungary (Pécsi, 1973, 1959).

Perspectives in the Analysis of the Danube Within the Oltenia Plain (Romania) 183 

Figure 2. Map of the Danube terraces within the Oltenia Plain 

(Source: after Geografia Văii Dunării Româneşti, 1969)

184 


The dating of the terraces located within Wien basin was achieved according to the 

thickness of sediments, namely the depth of the lower horizon and the height of the terrace tops. 

From the granulometric point of view, older deposits are finer than the younger ones, which 

display larger dimensions of the sediments (Pfleiderer, 2008). The features of each terrace have 

also been analysed according to the local trend of geomorphologic modelling conditioned of not 

by tectonic faults, as well as by the base level. 

In Vojvodina region, Serbia, in the sector Vukovar-Belgrade, sediments dating based on 

magnetic susceptibility (MS), which was also correlated with the stratigraphy of the marine isotope 

(Markovic et al, 2009). The thickness of the analysed deposits generally reached 40 m and there was 

noticed low concentration of magnetic minerals in loess and high concentration in paleosols. The 

interpretation by means of rubification index and rock magnetic record of these data allowed the 

reconstruction of the paleoclimatic fluctuations during five glacial and interglacial cycles. 

The literature abunds in recent studies about the climatic and tectonic control for the formation 

of terraces, sediments analysis as well as dating of terrace or adjacent deposits (Gibbard, 2004; 

Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger, 2005; Jakab, 2007; Bridgland, 2007, 2008; Gábrisa, 2007; Buggle, 2009). 

DATA AND METHODS 

Starting from the evolution of the valleys developed in sedimentary deposits due to the 

rapid lowering of the base level, we used quantitative data, as well as verifications for the terraces 

developed on the background of the Quaternary climatic oscillations in analogous cases. The 

premises for the GIS analysis of the Danube Valley, located between the Defile and its confluence 

with the Olt River, are the linear and lateral erosion of the sediments of Carpathian-Balkan origin 

induced by certain neotectonic movements or by the change of the base level imposed by the 

climatic oscillations. The geological data indicated by the boreholes made along the Oltenia Plain 

correspond to Pelletier model only in the immediate proximity of the mountainous area, in all the 

other cases sedimentation being controlled by marine transgressions and regressions and by the 

alluvia discharge of the hydrographical systems from the region (Enache, 2008). 

Thus, the complexity of the terraces genesis determined us to take into account many models 

and try to eliminate by means of analysis those models that are not adequate in the case of the Danube. 

For the sector located between the Danube Defile and Corbului Islet-Stîrmina Hill, the accepted model 

for the formation of the terraces is the one described by Pelletier (Pelletier, 2008). These terraces are 

induced by the alternance of the sedimentation - drainage process, which means that when the alluvial 

fan is under formation, the drainage is not concentrated, while during the periods characterized by 

climatic cooling and lowering of the base level, the flow is concentrated along certain channels 

(increase of the bottom erosion). Thus, it results lateral alluvia are no longer directly influenced by 

drainage becoming terraces; the process repeated as the base level oscillated. The channeling of the 

river along a single bed functioned as a local base level for the hydrographical systems installed on the 

newly formed terrace. Along the sector between Stîrmina and the confluence of the river with the Olt 

River, from Pelletier model, we must take into account only the relation between the slow flow, 

characterized by very wide meanders during warm periods when the base level raised, and the intensive 

bottom erosion registered during climatic cooling periods when the base level decreased. 

The used satellite images are taken by Landsat 7, NASA for the Balkan region. We also 

used orthophotoplans at the scale 1:5,000 for the regions where the limits are not characterized by 

large variations of level. Thus, the first stage of the research was the georeferenciacion of the 

satellite images and of the aerophotograms, as well as of the lithological (scale 1:200,000), 

geomorphologic (Geografia Vaii Dunarii Romanesti, 1969), hydrogeological (scale 1:50,000), and 

topographical (scale 1:25,000) maps. The overlapping of the cartographic documents allowed the 

precise identification of the limits between the terraces and of the eventual contradictions, which 

were solved by means of local altitude determinations and boreholes. On the base of the satellite 

images, we worked according to Pelletier model when trying to correlate the terraces through the 

analysis of the torrent processes installed there and of the average altitude, they are located at.


DISCUSSIONS 

The relation between the eustatic movements registered within the Black Sea and the 

glacial and interglacial stages is a starting point in the analysis of the period when the Danube 

River built its terraces in the south of Oltenia (Badea, 2000). This relation might be explained by 

the fact that when the eustatic level of the Black Sea raised and, of course, that of the lake located 

at the south of the Carpathians, due to the thawing of the glaciers and heavy rainfalls registered 

during the interglacial stages, the advancement of the river stopped and there occurred a more 

intense divagation within the floodplain (Boengiu, 2009). During the glacial stages, as the climate 

was dry and the surface flow diminished, there occurred an eustatic lowering of the Black Sea and 

of the extra-Carpathian lake, which affected the extension of the Danube’s riverbed and led to the 

intensification of vertical erosion. Consequently, the Danube left the former floodplain that 

remained as a new terrace compared the new riverbed. 

The classical dating of the terraces of the Danube in the studied sector made reference to 

the chronology of the Alpine glaciers. Thus, we used the correlation Global Chronostratigraphical 

Correlation for the last 2.7 million years, 2010, achieved by University of Cambridge, University 

of Utrecht, International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), Stratigraphy and Chronology, 

International Union of Geological Sciences. 

Starting from the hypothesis that the 8 th terrace (T 8 ) of the Danube, with a relative 

altitude of 140 - 170 m, represented the first floodplain of the Danube during the Pre-Günz 

stage (MIS 16, 620 - 680 ka) and then it was cut during Günz glacial stage (Marković et al, 

2009), it results that the 7 th terrace (T 7 ) with a relative altitude of 110 - 115 m functioned as a 

floodplain during Günz - Mindel interglacial stage, being cut in Mindel stage (MIS 13 - 15, ka 

455 - 620). Günz glacial stage occurred by the end of the Upper Pleistocene (St. Prestian); in 

the South of Romania, there was registered a temperate continental climate and the Black Sea 

was in a lacustrine stage, its shore being located eastwards of its present position (Ciauda 

phase). The first formed terrace generally does not present alluvia. At the beginning of the 

Middle Pleistocene, there occurred Günz - Mindel interglacial stage; on the background of a 

warm and dry climate with seasonal differences, red clays formed. The Black Sea maintained 

its level (Post-Ceauda phase) and the Danube widened its floodplain. It followed Mindel 

glacial stage, when the climate got colder, the level of the Black Sea decreased (Paleo-Euxinic 

phase) allowing the deepening and the formation of a new terrace. 

The 8 th and 7 th terraces are located only west of the Jiu River more precisely to the area 

were the Baboia Stream and the DesnăŃui River flow out of the piedmont (Geografia Văii 

Dunării Româneşti, 1969). 

The 6 th terrace (T 6 ), with a relative altitude of 90 m, functioned as a floodplain during Mindel - 

Riss interglacial stage and developed during Riss glacial stage (MIS 6, ka 130 - 200). In the second part 

of the Middle Pleistocene, there occurred Mindel - Riss interglacial stage, when climate acquired 

Mediterranean aspects and the basin of the Black Sea was subject to a transgression (Uzulnar phase). 

Under these circumstances, lateral erosion exerted by the Danube increased and the river extended its 

floodplain. By the end of the Middle Pleistocene, it occurred Riss glaciation, climate got colder and the 

line of the shore withdrew due to the regression registered during the Middle Euxinic period. 

Consequently, the Danube increased its vertical erosion. 

The 5 th terrace (T 5 ), with a relative altitude of 70 - 75 m, appeared as a large floodplain 

during Riss-Würm interglacial stage. It formed during Würm 1 glacial stage (MIS 5e [7, 9?], ka 

110 - 130). The Upper Pleistocene starts with Riss - Würm interglacial stage; on the background of 

a temperate climate, there occurred a new transgression of the Black Sea (Karangat phase), the 

Danube carried huge amounts of alluvia and increased its lateral erosion. The last glacial stage, 

Würm 1, when the climate got periglacial, is characterized by the occurrence of a new regression 

registered during the Neo-Euxinic phase; the river deepened its course. 

The 4 th terrace (T 4 ), with a relative altitude of 50 m, functioned as a floodplain during the 

warm Würm 1 - Würm 2 interglacial stage. It developed through the deepening of the riverbed

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during Wurm 2 glacial stage (MIS 4 - 5 a - d, ka 40 - 110). By the middle of the Upper Pleistocene, it 

started the old Black Sea phase, characterized by a general transgression with slow stagnation periods 

(CoteŃ, 1957). During Würm 1 - Würm 2 stage, climate became temperate there occurred a 

transgression, and implicitly a divagation, while during Würm 2 climate became periglacial. 

The 6 th , the 5 th , and the 4 th terraces appear along all the sectors of the Oltenia Plain, but not 

after the confluence of the Danube River with the Argeş River. 

The 3 rd terrace (T 3 ), with a relative altitude of 27 - 35 m, formed the Danube floodplain in Würm 2 

- Würm 3 interstage; it was left as the riverbed lowered during Würm 3 glacial stage (MIS 2 - 3, ka 12 - 

40). The 2 nd terrace (T 2 ) of 13 - 27 m and the 1 st terrace (T 1 ) of 8 - 13 m, which are wider and continue east 

of the Olt River, appeared during the post-glacial stage (MIS 1, ka present day - 12). By the end of the 

Upper Pleistocene, the Black Sea evolved towards the present features; the anaglacial and cataglacial 

stages Würm 2 - Würm 3 and Würm 3 induced slow regressions and transgressions, while during the 

tardiglacial and postglacial, the shoreline evolved from -35 (-80) m towards the present position. 

RESULTS 

In the case of old terraces, geomorphologic processes display an increased intensity, while 

in the case of very old terraces, these processes led to their total destruction; the action of erosion 

on terraces can be noticed in the satellite image from figure 3, where T4 appears more fragmented 

than T3 within Severin Depression, which comes to support this theory. As the age of the terraces 

decreases, from the Middle Pleistocene (T5, T4) till the Upper Pleistocene or even Holocene (T3, 

T2, T1), the tops of the terraces get more intact (Enciu, 2007). Using the method of relative dating 

of the terraces age proposed by Hsu and Pelletier, one may correlate the succession of the terraces, 

especially of those that are more recent, as they preserve, in most of the cases, their top intact. 

Surface and altitude are the data necessary to apply the calculation formula (Pelletier, 2004): 

Considering the solution of the data series and replacing h(x, t) = h 0 , we have in the formula: 

H (x, t) = extension of the degradation of the terrace top within the surface (x) and in time (t) 

h o = initial surface 

The facility of obtaining the data necessary for the determination of the relative age with the 

help of the aforementioned formula, in GIS system, is easily identifiable as the measurement of the 

surface of the terrace tops and of the extension of the surface affected by torrents may be achieved on 

satellite images, orthophotoplans, as well as by local mapping with the total station (equipped with a 

GPS); then, the acquired data are also evaluated in the same geographic information system. 

Thus, through regressive erosion, the torrent fragments the scarp of the terrace and 

penetrate towards its top. The surface of the terrace tops in the case of the Danube along the 

analysed sector and the data introduced in the model for kt are 40, 60, 100... 3,200 sqm, and the 

length of the terrace 2L = 200 m. The threshold when the extension of the torrent determines the 

complete destruction of the terrace is kt≈200 sqm; thus, in the integral ∫cos x dx = sin x + C if we 

consider cos de x = decrease of the altitude of the top/ decrease of the surface of the terrace top 

and sin de x = time increase, then one may notice that the height of the terrace laniary decreases in 

time, relation expressed by means of the integral cos x dx + sin x + C, where cosx represents the 

decrease of the terrace altitude according to sin x, which represents time. Thus, in the case of T4 

and T3 within Severin Depression, according to the torrents installed on T4, kt presents a value of 

200 sqm for kt, while for T3, kt is 60 sqm. Consequently, T4 is at least twice older than T3. Once kt 

values are established for the representative samples for each of the 8 terraces, we may achieve their 

correlation also by taking into account the length of the torrents according to the formula α= √kt.


Figure 3. Reconstruction of the terraces of the Danube within Severin Depression 

according to the altitude of the terrace tops 

Analysing the numerical model (SRTM, 90 m, from 2004), it comes out that the situation 

is even more complex; for example, in Severin Depression, according to the map rendered in 

Geografia Vaii Dunarii Romanesti, on the left of the Topolnita River, there is located T 4, which 

presents an extended and less fragmented top, while on the right, after the local terrace of the 

river that crosses this depression there appears only T 3, T4 being absent. 

The altitude from the numerical model (figure 4) indicates that T4 is fragmented. In this 

case as well, there might be some discussions-the fragmentation might have been achieved by 

the Danube through meanders and, thus, T4 would be separated to the level T3 from the river 

course or the fragmentation might be of later origin induced by different erosion processes. With 

regard to the right side of the Topolnita River, where we should have had two terrace levels 

(local and T3 of the Danube), the situation rendered by the numerical model indicates that T3 is 

more withdrawn from the axe of the valley, due to the Topolnita River, which replaced the scarp 

of T3 through its local terrace (the upper level) (figure 4). 

As we have mentioned before, Severin Depression also rises a series of correlation 

problems. According to the achieved profile, it comes out that on the left of the river, besides T4, 

there also develops a level that might be attributed to T3 (using the altitude correlation), as the 

difference of altitude between the Topolnita Flood plain and the top of the terrace that might be 

generated by the Danube River reaches 30 m. 

Of course, there cannot be excluded the possibility that this local terrace of the river, 

would have been induced by the change of the base level or climatic oscillations. Regarding the 

right side, the correlation of the altitudes with the possible T3 located on the left of the 

Topolnita emphasizes the fact that this is more withdrawn and that the floodplain of the 

Topolnita River appears at a lower level (figure 4).

188 


Figure 4. Topographical profile within Severin Depression, achieved after SRTM 40 m 

The utilization of GIS, besides helping us create the models of erosion and correlation of 

the terraces according to the torrents installed on the terraces of the Danube, also allowed the 

achievement of a series of profiles within the areas that displayed certain problems with regard to 

the location of the limits. We also achieved transversal profiles, which, on the base of the 

extensions of the program ArcGis (Spatial Analyst, 3D Analyst), may render the succession of the 

terraces or, if it is the case, their lack in the established succession. Thus, through the option of 

creating the graphs according to the elevation model achieved by Shuttle Radar Topography 

Mission in 2004, the profile line was modelled in steps for each modification of altitude in order to 

obtain a better correlation of the terraces (figure 5). 

Figure 5. Topographical profile no. 1 

By correlating the data obtained on the base of the profiles, satellite images, and the main 

cartographic product in terms of the Danube terraces (Geografia Văii Dunării Româneşti, 1969), 

we noticed a series of non-concordances. 

Thus, as we may notice from figure 5, the succession of the levels in the analysed sector is 

T5 and, according to the aforementioned volume, there would follow T6 on the same alignment. 

However, the altitude of the area indicates that there should be a terrace lower than T5 or that on 

T5 (from this sector) the level of the sediments (at the level of the lateral levee) is much higher 

than on T6 or that there appears a series of dunes. 

The west-east succession of the terraces is rendered in figure 6, which present an erosion 

outlier (T5) that has on its both sides T4; it is thus obvious that the meanders of the river eroded 

the material and the continuity of T5 was no longer preserved. 

Figure 7 renders a new succession of the Danube terraces within a perimeter of the Oltenia 

Plain where the floodplain destroyed T1; T2 remained due to the aeolian sediments carried in the 

area. T3 and T4 are reduced and fragmented by the hydrographical system installed on subsequent 

valleys (Boengiu, S., 2000). Within this sector, T7 appears for the last time on the Danube Valley, 

at the contact with the northern piedmont region (Stroe, 2003).



The creation of the digital product DEM, using ArcGis 9.2 on the base of the topographical 

maps and GPS surveys, allowed us a better determination of the elevation that helped us correlate 

the terraces according to the relative and absolute altitudes of the terrace tops. DEM-s also enabled 

us to analyse these terraces from the morphologic point of view as, according to the sedimentary 

deposits, it resulted that certain terraces present a higher altitude mainly due to the eolian deposits, 

which formed after their initial development. 


The interpolation between the altitude (altitudes determined by means of GPS) and the 

piezometric level (the hydrogeological maps 1:50,000) DEM-s allowed us to locate the contact 

area between two successive terraces. In this contact area, in most of the cases, there also appear 

springs, the presence of which was also certified in the field. We mention that the GPS 

measurement were achieved by means of a NAUTIZ X7 device, which supplies values in real time 

and has an error of 2 - 3 cm both on vertical and horizontal directions. The measurements were 

made in WGS84 projection system and then the values were transformed such that they matched 

the projection system Stereografic 70, as the Romanian maps are achieved in this last system. 

On the base of the correlation between the phreatic level and the altitudes/depths they are 

located at, numerical modeling (figure 8) allows us notice that, in most of the cases, the discontinuity of 

the morphologic slope and sometimes even of the phreatic aquifers at the limit between terrace levels 

and, on certain sectors, between terraces and floodplains, is induced by the presence of some 

impermeable layers below the aquifers, which are former erosion levels of the Danube (Badea, 2000). 

Thus, the isopieses map, as equipotentials of the piezometric surface, expresses the morphology of a 

phreatic horizon and indicate the slope and the flow direction emphasizing the level of the impermeable 

layer, the flow altitude at the moment when the respective terrace developed. 

The results obtained for the interpretation of the chronology of terraces on the base of the 

geomorphologic, lithological, and pedological aspects may be further used in case there are no 

possibilities of absolute dating. There are some problems that may appear when using traditional 

methods, as Ruszkiczay-Rudiger et al. observed (Ruszkiczay-Rudiger et al, 2005). The deepening 

of the longitudinal profile may be induced by a continuous tectonic rising or / and the influence of

190 


the climatic fluctuations upon rainfall amounts and sedimentation rate. The depositing of 

sediments may be considered a consequence of the increase of the solid flow or of the decrease of 

the flow speed (Burbank and Anderson, 2001). The deterioration of the terraces due to meander 

formation / lateral erosion make the determination of their age be quite imprecise if we resume 

only to altitudes. The granulometry of the sedimentary deposits is not identical for the same 

horizon and making correlations among lithostratigraphical columns is difficult. 

Figure 8. Modelling of the terraces of the Danube according to the average altitude of the terrace tops 

(Source: Geografia Văii Dunării Româneşti) 

CONCLUSIONS 

By analysing the dependence of the terraces of the Danube between Gura Vaii and the Olt 

River, it results a good correlation between climatic oscillations and the formation of the respective 

terraces, if we admit that, during the interglacial stages the river got slower, formed meanders within 

a large floodplain (Pleniceanu and Boengiu, 2001), while during the glacial stages, due to the severe 

reduction of the surface flow and of the base level, vertical erosion intensified and the riverbed 

deepened. The main idea resulting from the studies achieved at international level is that the number 

of terraces did not exclusively conditioned by interglacial periods. There should be also taken into 

consideration the oscillations of the base level and neotectonic movements. 

Through the digitization of the map published in Geografia Vaii Dunarii Romanesti we 

could start the reconstruction of the genesis of the terraces by correlating this cartographic product 

with the other models and interpolations in order to obtain the most accurate product possible. The 

digitization of the map achieved in Stereo 70 projection and then the introduction of the attributes 

for the relative altitude of the terrace tops allowed their block modelling enabling an optimal 

visualization of the succession of terraces. The evaluation of the extension of torrents within the 

terrace tops may also be considered a method for estimating terrace age (we consider that a terrace 

is older if the torrential valleys as more extended, both in terms of length and surface) 

The reconstruction and exact correlation according to the altitude of the terraces could be achieved 

on the base of the extension Spatial Analyst and ArcScene of 3D interpolation, by means of which we 

were able to model the terraces in 3D, as blocks. We also were able to follow the southwards withdrawal 

of the riverbed according to the altitude the former riverbeds of the Danube used to be located at.


The cartographical and geomorphologic interpretation of the terraces of the Danube along 

the analysed sector allowed us to get aware of the fact that the methods used so far for dating and 

classifying terraces are empirical. Consequently, it is quite necessary to start using absolute dating 

methods, such as TH/U and luminescence, paleomagmatic dating etc. 

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Seria geografie, nr. 3, Bucureşti, p. 15-18; 

Boengiu S. (2000), Morphostructural and morphocronological considerations concerning the BălăciŃa Piedmont and the BlahniŃa- 

DesnăŃui Plain, Analele UniversităŃii din Craiova, vol. III, Seria Geografie, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, p. 33-38; 

Boengiu S., Avram S. (2009), BălăciŃa piedmont. A model of formation and evolution, Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, nr. 

53, Suppl.3, Berlin-Stuttgart, p. 85-95; 

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from IGCP 449 Quaternary International, article in press; 

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temporal paleoclimatic trends in Southeastern/Eastern European loess-paleosol sequences Quaternary 

International 196, p. 86-106; 

Burbank D. W., Anderson R.S, (2001), Tectonic Geomorphology, Wiley-Blackwell, London U.K; 

CoteŃ P. (1957), Câmpia Olteniei, Editura ȘtiinŃifică, Bucureşti, p. 35; 

Enache C. (2008), Geologia Olteniei, Editura Universitaria, Craiova; 

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and climatic changes during the Quaternary: a review and new synthesis, Quaternary Science Reviews 26, p. 2758-2782; 

Gibbard P., van Kolfschoten T. (2004), The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs, Chapter 22 In Gradstein, F. M., Ogg, James G., 

and Smith, A. Gilbert (eds.), A Geologic Time Scale 2004 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 441-453; 

Jakab S. (2007), Chrono-toposequences of soils on the river terraces in Transylvania (Romania), Catena 71, p. 406-410; 

Marković S.B, Hambach U, Catto N, Jovanović M, Buggle B., Machalett B, Zoller L, Glaser B, Frechen M. (2009), Middle 

and Late Pleistocene loess sequences at Batajnica, Vojvodina, Serbia, Quaternary International 198, p. 255-266; 

Pécsi, M. (1959), Formation and Geomorphology of the Danube Valley in Hungary (in Hungarian with German summary), 

Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, p. 346; 

Pécsi M. (1973), Geomorphological position and absolute age of the Lower Paleolithic site at Vertesszolos, Hungary, 

Foldrajzi Kozlemenyek, 21, p. 109-119; 

Pelletier J. (2008), Quantitative Modeling of Earth Surfaces Processes, Edit. Cambridge University Press, New York; 

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Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 101, p. 81-87; 

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Geografie al Academiei Române, T.VII-2000, București; 

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movements in the central Pannonian Basin: A review of chronologic data along the Danube River, Hungary, 

Tectonophysics 410, p. 157-172; 

Saulea Emilia (1967), Geologie istorică, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti; 

Stroe R. (2003), Piemontul BălăciŃei. Studiu de geomorfologie, Editura MondoRo, București; 

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*** (2005), Geografia României, vol. V, Editura Academiei Romane, p. 141. 


May 23, 2011 July 27, 2011 August 22, 2011



THE FOEHN WINDS IN NORTHERN OLTENIA. 

18.08.2008 CASE STUDY 

Anişoara IRIMESCU ∗ 

National Meteorological Administration, Bucureşti-Ploieşti Avenue, Bucureşti, Romania, 

e-mail: anisoara.irimescu@meteoromania.ro 

Abstract: In Romania, foehn winds are short-time atmospheric phenomena of low-to-medium 

intensity, which do not appear always in the weather station-performed observations. Such 

situations require additional data to provide a larger and dynamic picture in comparison with 

the punctual information sent by stations. This paper aims to capture, present and analyze the 

characteristic parameters of northern Oltenia foehn winds, in the Carpathian-Balkan Internal 

Curvature. Herein, it is shown a typical foehn situation revealed by weather stations and also 

by satellite images (MSG), atmospheric radio soundings and numerical modeling. 

Key words: foehn, northern Oltenia, climatic parameters, satellite images, atmospheric radio 

sounding, regional climatic model RegCM3 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The Foehn, according to the World Meteorological Organization definition (1992), is a 

wind warmed and dried by descent, in general on the lee side of a mountain. It can occur any time 

of the year, but it is seen more often in winter and spring function of local circulation. Foehn 

winds depend on small-scale topographic features, although they require also adequate conditions 

on a larger scale than the regions wherein they occur. 

The region of interest is located in South-Western Romania between the rivers Danube and 

Olt and the Carpathian-Balkan Internal Curvature’s orographic barrage (figure 1). In 2007, 

Candrea putted into the GIS environment the geographical limits using the „Geomorphological 

units” (scale 1:800, 000) of Posea and Badea, 1984. 

The northern Oltenia foehn is a small-scale phenomenon closely connected to the 

topographic features. In this regard a very fine measurement network is necessary to capture the 

phenomenon. In such context, METEOSAT8 (MSG) images have become a needed tool, given 

their fine temporal resolution (15 minute). 

Regional Climatic Model RegCM3 output data for 23 altitude levels were also used, 

mostly for the active surface level (similar to station-recorded meteorological parameters) and 

the vertical levels related to the boundary layer and the lower troposphere (Kiehl at al., 1996; 

Ramanathan and Downey, 1986; Slingo, 1989; Dickinson et al., 1993; Giorgi at al., 1993). 



The Foehn Wind in Northern Oltenia. 18.09.2008 Case Study 193 

Unlike data recorded at weather stations (spaced more than 50 km apart), this model’s outputs 

build up a unique database that describes 3-D meteorological parameters at a much higher 

resolution (10 km). 

Figure 1. Location of the study area 

AVAILABLE DATA 

To identify and characterize a foehn in the interest region a number of data types have been used: 

- synoptic maps; 

- radio sounding data; 

- meteosat Second Generation (MSG) images; images received every 15 minutes enable a 

temporal analysis of fast-developing meteorological events (the National Meteorological 

Administration archive); 

- regional Climatic Model RegCM3 output data. 

Standard climatologic analyses are mostly based on punctual data recorded by weather 

stations (the National Meteorological Administration archive) and include such parameters as air 

temperature, relative humidity and precipitation. 

DATA ANALYSIS 

To mark out the north Oltenia foehn, the quality of being representative was chosen as 

criterion for the 18 September 2008 situation. 

Synoptic Analysis 

Before this phenomenon, on 17 September 2008, 12 UTC, the synoptic situation over 

Europe was characterized by the presence of an Azores anticyclone centered on the North Atlantic, 

ridge extended north-east, while East Europe was under the influence of the East-European

194 


anticyclone that developed westward over the Scandinavian Peninsula, wherein the Scandinavian 

anticyclone was present. A baric low was interposed between these anticyclones areas, over the 

British Isles, in relation to a second low centered west of Portugal. The Mediterranean cyclone 

developed in the Eastern Mediterranean, extending its direct influence over Romania. It moved 

fast eastward so that at 18 UTC it was already centered over the Eastern Black Sea region. 

On 18 September 2008, 00 UTC, the low centered over the British Isles disintegrated 

and the whole continent was under the dominance of an anticyclonic regime resulted from a 

merge between the Azores anticyclone and the East-European one. South-East Europe (the 

Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea regions) was under the influence of the Mediterranean 

cyclogenesis (there were two cyclones in the Black Sea area). At 06 UTC, the North Europe 

anticyclonic belt extended southward a ridge that, in its motion along this trajectory, moved 

south-eastward the cold front of the cyclone centered over the Black Sea (figure 2). This 

situation continued over the next hours. 

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of air pressure (Mean Sea Level Pressure) at 18.09.2008, 06 UTC 

(Source: www.wetter3.de) 

Analyzing the satellite data information 

In this context, the air masses came from north in the area of interest, which is clearly 

shown also on satellite images. Keeping watch over the evolution and motion of cloud 

systems on the 17 - 18.09.2008 METEOSAT8 images, it was found out the time when these 

systems changed direction (17 UTC) from south-west to north. It was also noticed the clear 

skies area is associated with the action of cloud-dissipating foehn (figure 3). This was a very 

large area. The above mentioned evolution continued throughout 18.09.2008. For this analysis 

there were used false-color images (product 018, R=WV6.2-WV7.3; G=IR9.7-IR10.8; 

B=WV6.2), to facilitate identification / detection.


Figure 3. Evolution in time of cloud systems over the region of interest, 18.09.2008: 

a) 00:00 UTC, b) 01:00 UTC, c) 02:00 UTC, d) 03:00 UTC, e) 04:00 UTC, f) 05:00 UTC, g) 06:00 UTC, h) 

07:00 UTC, i) 08:00 UTC 

(Source: data processed after MeteoRomania Archive) 

Analyzing the radio soundings 

On 18.09.2008, 00 UTC, this sounding revealed the presence of a colder sector and lower 

relative humidity at the Bucharest Station in comparison with the previous day, from ground level 

up to 1500 m altitude. Winds blew from south-east a few hundreds of meters from ground level 

and from north-east up to 3000 m altitude (figure 4). 

Conditions changed at 12 UTC (figure 5): 

- ground - level air temperatures were higher than a day before (there was recorded an 

increase in air temperature over the first 800 m while the equipotential temperature had a similar 

evolution only for the first 200 meters); 

- relative humidity reached lower values than a day before from ground level to 5,000 

meters and above; 

- wind direction changed from the preceding radio sounding: south-westerly over the first 

150 meters and westerly up to and beyond 10,000 meters. 

Analyzing the meteorological data 

On 18 September 2008, air temperatures had the following features: 

- a typical diurnal evolution at each analyzed station (Caransebeş, Târgu Jiu, Craiova and łarcu); 

- moderate diurnal amplitudes on the windward versant (1.4°C...2.1°C at Caransebeş and 

łarcu, respectively) and more intense ones on the lee side (12.7°C at Târgu Jiu) as well as across 

the plains (10.0°C at Craiova);

196 


- the thermal step between 06 UTC and 08 UTC was more marked across the Târgu Jiu 

depression as against the plain areas - Craiova Station (figure 6). 

Figure 4. Atmospheric radio sounding on 

18.09.2008, 00 UTC - Bucharest Station 


Figure 5. Atmospheric radio sounding on 

18.09.2008, 12 UTC - Bucharest Station 


Figure 6. Air temperature evolution on 18.09.2008 


An analysis of the relative humidity data showed that: 

- on the windward versant (Caransebeş), this parameter topped 80% throughout the day and 

100% on the crest (łarcu); 

- on the lee side (Târgu Jiu) as well as in the plains (Craiova) these values ran down to 40% 

at 11 UTC (figure 7); 

- from 10UTC to 21UTC, relative humidity at Târgu Jiu was lower than at Craiova. 

A comparative analysis concerning air temperature and relative humidity revealed the 

presence of a foehn, which was highlighted by the fact that between 10 and 21 UTC, while 

temperatures were comparable, relative humidity was lower at Târgu Jiu than at Craiova, within 

different physical-geographical conditions.


Figure 7. Relative humidity evolution on 18.09.2008 


On the windward side, cloud formations brought on light atmospheric precipitation 

(1 - 10 mm), while on the lee side their absence caused a lack of precipitation (figure 8). 

Figure 8. Spatial distribution of atmospheric precipitation on 18-19.09.2008 

(Source: MeteoRomania Archive) 

Numerical Modeling 

By using the Regional Climatic Model RegCM3, there were analyzed the parameters 

connected to foehn action, grouped as follows: active surface-related parameters (2-m air 

temperature, 10-m wind speed and direction, distribution of precipitation); parameters 

derived from a vertical scan of the atmosphere (vertical air motion - upward / downward, air 

temperature, wind speed and direction, derivative of temperature).

198 


The first lead is given by the evolution in time of active surface-related temperature, 

wind speed and direction. After analyzing these parameters, it was noticed an increase in 

temperature of about 1.5°C (figure 9, empty circle), winds from north (figure 9, full circle) 

with intensifications of at least 2.5m / s (figure 9, full quadrate) from 00UTC to 03UTC. 

Therefore, the first two criteria to identify a foehn were met. 

Figure 9. Evolution of temperature differences between the two reference regions (empty circle), 

meridional flow (full circle) and wind speed (full quadrate) on 18.09.2008 


To mark out the above mentioned features, it was analyzed the space distribution of these 

parameters at model-related times (three hours for the active surface and six hours for the vertical 

evolution). So, at 06 UTC, on the active surface level there were several warmer areas in the 

region of interest (a 2°C difference in relation to the adjoining environment), winds from north and 

higher speeds beyond the mountain obstacle (figure 10). 

At 15 UTC, the warmer surfaces were still present and wind speed kept its 06 UTC features 

(figure 11). As it can be noticed, winds blew mostly from north across Romania, which can also be 

seen by analyzing the synoptic maps. 

The analysis by vertical sections was focused on the following parameters: temperature, vertical 

motion of air (vertical velocity omega), wind speed and direction, and derivative of temperature. The first 

three were analyzed for five longitudinal profiles between 46°N and 43°N, while the derivative of 

temperature ( ∂ T / ∂z 

) was calculated for latitude profiles ranging between 23°E and 24°E. The vertical 

section-measured air temperatures for 23°E longitude show a difference of 6°C between the lee side and 

the windward one (up to 950 hPa). The warming process on ground level reached a high between 44.6 and 

45.0°N, while wind speeds were highest a few latitude degrees to the north (figure 12).


Figure 10. Spatial distribution of air temperature, wind speed and direction at 18.09.2008, 06 UTC 


Figure 11. Spatial distribution of air temperature, wind speed and direction at 18.09.2008, 15 UTC 

(Source: data processed after MeteoRomania Archive)

200 


Figure 12. Distribution of air temperature (colored contour) and wind speed and direction (vector), 

18.09.2008, 06UTC (vertical section, 23°E longitude) 


Figure 13. Vertical velocity omega (colored contour), wind speed and direction (vector), 18.09.2008, 06UTC 

(vertical section along 23°E longitude) 

(Source: data processed after MeteoRomania Archive)


Figure 13 shows the vertical motion by vertical velocity omega dP/dt*10 -3 Pa/s, where the 

negative values stand for upward motions and the positive ones for downward motions. On 23°E 

longitude, ascending air reached maximum speed at 45.6°N latitude, while the descending 

motion started at 45.4°N latitude and got highest speeds at 45.2°N latitude, followed by a new 

ascending motion (mostly above the ground level, while on ground level it could be noticed only 

around 44.6°N latitude) and again by a new descending one. 

Afterwards, these waves could be found only in altitude, which highlights the undulatory 

motions of air when an obstacle is crossed – the Scorer-Klieforth theory (Atkinson, 1981). Taking 

into account the topography of the model, it can be noticed that, at this longitude the greatest 

heights are located on 45.35°N latitude. Therefore, air ascends on the windward side, while the 

descending motion occurs right after the crest is reached. It should be emphasized that the 

horizontal movement of air reaches highest speeds along the sectors of downward motion, from 

North-North-West. Above 45.9°N latitude, winds blow West-North-West on the first horizontal 

levels, tending to go round the mountain. 

The North-North-West direction prevails along the entire height of the section. 

The last element to analyze was the distribution of precipitation over the active surface. 

At 06 UTC, precipitation fallen during the previous three hours reached 20-30 mm north of 

45.5°N latitude, on the windward side of the mountain, while on the lee side there were not 

recorded any precipitation amounts (figure 14). 

Figure 14. Distribution of atmospheric precipitation on 18.09.2008, 06 UTC 


CONCLUSIONS 

The intensity of foehn winds in the area of interest is significantly diminished as this 

area is located inside the curvature formed by the Carpathians and the Balkan Mountains. 

Foehn winds here have not the intensity of those in the Alps, whose effect is much more 

increased by the higher altitudes and a perpendicular orientation in relation to the more humid 

air masses, as against the Southern Carpathians case.

202 


As the program of observations and measurements is getting shorter and some weather 

stations are liquidated, the features of foehn winds will be marked out and analyzed using the 

regional climate model RegCM3 results (with high space-time resolution: 10 km and 3 hours for 

the active surface and six hours for the vertical evolution), atmospheric radio sounding and 

satellite images, which add to the climatic information. 

From a synoptic point of view, the presence of fully developed cyclones in the Black Sea 

region and the anticyclonic belt of Northern Europe generated favorable conditions for foehn 

winds to occur on 18.09.2008 in the area of interest. 

Every analyzed element confirmed the occurrence of foehn winds on 18.09.2008, which 

developed in the well known manner. 

The features of the 18.09.2008 foehn winds are marked out by the following observations: 

- air temperatures in the vertical section differed by up to 6°C between the two versants of 

the Southern Carpathians within the area of interest, the highest ground-level warming having 

occurred between 44.6 – 45.0°N latitude; 

- relative humidity of air was recorded with differences of 40% between the lee side (Târgu 

Jiu Station) and the windward side (Caransebeş Station); 

- wind speed from North-North-West reached highs along the sectors of downward motion, 

the most intense gusts having been recorded upstream the area of highest warming; 

- precipitation on the windward side of the mountain reached up to 20-30 mm, while on the 

lee side they were absent; 

- upward and downward motions (vertical velocity omega) provided information regarding 

the presence of undulatory motions (waves) on the lee side. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author would like to thank: Dr. Mihaela Caian for her help in running the numerical 

models and data analysis assistance [PC 6 Cecilia Project – Assessment of the impact and 

vulnerability to climate change in Central and Eastern Europe, within which very fine scale (10 

km) climatic numerical simulations were performed]; Dr. Carmen Sofia Dragotă and Prof. Univ. 

Dr. Octavia Bogdan for their helpful comments on the paper. The author acknowledges also to the 

anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful suggestions and comments. 

REFERENCES 

Atkinson B. W. (1981), Meso-scale atmospheric circulation, Academic Press, London, 494 p; 

Candrea B. (2007), Cercetări privind utilizarea mijloacelor moderne pentru caracterizarea factorilor fizico-geografici, 

Rezumatul tezei de doctorat, mss, Universitatea Transilvania Braşov; 

Dickinson B., Beier P. (2006), Quantifying the influence of topographic position on cougar (Puma concolor) movement in 

Southern California, USA, The Zoological Society of London, Journal of Zoology 271, pp. 270-277; 

Giorgi F., Marinucci M. R., Bates G. T. (1993), Development of a second generation regional climate model (RegCM2). 

Partea I: Boundary layer and radiative transfer processes, Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, pp. 2794–2813; 

Kiehl J. T., Hack J. J., Bonan G. B., Boville B. A., Briegleb B. P., Williamson D. L., Rasch P. J. (1996), Description of the 

NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM3), NCAR Tech. Note NCAR/TN-420+STR, 143 pp; 

Posea Gr., Badea L. (1984), UnităŃile de reflief (regionarea geomorfologică), hartă color sc. 1:750 000, Editura ŞtiinŃifică 

şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti; 

Ramanathan V., Downey P. (1986), A nonisothermal emissivity and absorptive formulation for water vapor, J. Geophys. 

Res. Atmospheres, 91, pp. 8649-8666; 

Slingo A. S. (1989), A GCM parameterization for the shortwave radiative properties of water clouds, J. Atmos. Sci. 46, pp 1419-1427; 

*** (1992), DicŃionar Meteorologic InternaŃional, OrganizaŃia Meteorologică Mondială; 

*** Baza de date climatice, AdministraŃia NaŃională de Meteorologie (09.2008); 

*** Arhiva de imagini satelitare MSG, AdministraŃia NaŃională de Meteorologie (09.2008); 

*** www.wetter3.de 


June 30, 2011 Octomber 08, 2011 November 26, 2011



ASPECTS REGARDING THE RIME PHENOMEN IN DEVA AREA 

Cristina Diana BRĂDĂU ∗ 

University of Oradea, Armatei Române Street, no. 1, Oradea, Romania, 

Doctoral School in Geography, mail: cristinabradau@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The survey regarding the rime phenomenon in Deva area was carried out for the 

time between 1961 - 2010. Within the time surveyed, the number of days with rime halted 

between 75 days in 1965 and 16 days in 2010. The average number of days with rime is 44 

days. In Deva area, the phenomenon of rime has a moderate condition. 

Key words: phenomenon of rime, frost, Deva city area. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Rime is the phenomenon whose spatiotemporal action depends on the air temperature, wind 

and humidity. It can be seen when the air and earth’s temperature drops under 0°C, air humidity is 

over 70%, calm weather or mild wind, reduced cloudiness or clear sky, high insolation during the 

day and high level of radiation during the night which determines the temperature to drop below 

the freezing point and the vapors sublimation (Măhăra, 2001). The appearance of rime is 

determined by three categories of causes in Deva: air masses circulation, the active surface and 

climatic elements characteristics (humidity, cloudiness, temperature, wind). 

In Deva area, the greatest part of the freezing and rime phenomena are determined by the 

air masses that disperse out the Field of Pannonia, Northern Europe and North-Western Europe. 

The geosynoptical conditions presented cause the most numerous cooling because of the cool air 

masses in Greenland as far as the South-Eastern Europe. The low air pressure in the Romania area 

attracts the cool air with high air pressure in the Scandinavian Peninsula. 

METHODOLOGY 

The Deva Weather Base provided data collected between 1961 - 2010 for the analysis of the 

rime phenomenon. The data referring to the numer of days with rime in the cities Iaşi, Timişoara, 

ConstanŃa, Braşov and Câmpina were collected out of Clima României, 2008 the edition. 

In this survey, we analyse the indicators referring to the multiannual average number of days 

with rime, the abnormality of the annual number of days with rime beside the multiannual average, the 

monthly average number of days with rime. The comparative analysis of the number of days with rime 

in certain cities placed in different parts in Romania emphasizes the importance of the geographical 

position and its relief in the rime phenomenon appearance on the Romanian territory. 



204 


RESULTS 

The multiannual fluctuation of the number of days with rime 

This indicator has a crucial importance in the emphasis of the maximum and minimum 

number of days with rime between 1961 - 2010, as well as the negative and positive abnormalities 

compared to the multiannual average. 

For an integrating analysis, we consider the annual average number of days with rime in the 

following cities: Iaşi, Timişoara, ConstanŃa, Braşov and Câmpina placed in different parts on the 

Romanian territory and towards Deva city. 

Table 1.The annual average number of days with rime (1961 - 2007) 

(Data source: Clima României, 2008) 

City Iaşi Timişoara ConstanŃa Deva Braşov Câmpina 

Annual average no. of days 66.1 59.1 28.8 45.8 55.2 71.3 

with rime 

Analysing the situation within the context of the said cities, we notice certain 

differences among the annual average number of days with rime, differences caused by their 

geographical position towards the Carpathian Curve as well as certain characteristics of the 

air masses dynamics. 

Iaşi 

66,1 

Timişoara 

59,1 

ConstanŃa 

28,8 

Deva 

45,8 

Braşov 

55,2 

Câmpina 

71,3 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 

Figure 1. The annual average number of days with rime 

(Data source: Clima României, 2008) 

The lowest number of days with rime is reported to be in ConstanŃa due to the Pontic 

influence which has the role of a regulator on the climate. The highest number of days with 

rime is reported to be in Câmpina, Iaşi, Timişoara that is in the extra-Carpathian regions due 

to the cool air advections out North, North-West and East (figure 1). The air advection is 

produced by the anticyclones located in the Western and Central part of Europe when the 

regions in the Northern half of Romania are affected by rime while, when these advections are 

generated by the anticyclones located in the Scandinavian Peninsula and the Russian Field, 

the rime affected regions are the Eastern and South-Eastern parts of the country (Bogdan and 

Niculescu, 1999).

Aspects Regarding the Rime Phenomen in Deva Area 205 

In Deva, the lowest number of days with rime is conditioned by its specific mild 

climate. For the interval between 1961 - 2010, the annual average number of days with rime 

in Deva fluctuated between 75 days in 1965 and 16 days in 2010 (figure 3). For the analysed 

interval of time, high values of the number of days, with rime were recorded in 1998 (73 

days) and 1997 (68 days). We have to mention that the high number of days with rime in the 

above-said years was conditioned by either the early invasion of anticyclonic air masses out 

Europe in the context of a region with low pressure in Romania, or the persistence of the 

anticyclonic condition during the cold season combined with the appearance of the mobile 

Mediterranean cyclones which raises the level of humidity. 

N o .o f d a y 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

1 9 6 1 

1 9 6 3 

1 9 6 5 

1 9 6 7 

1 9 6 9 

1 9 7 1 

1 9 7 3 

1 9 7 5 

1 9 7 7 

1 9 7 9 

1 9 8 1 

1 9 8 3 

1 9 8 5 

1 9 8 7 

1 9 8 9 

1 9 9 1 

1 9 9 3 

1 9 9 5 

1 9 9 7 

1 9 9 9 

2 0 0 1 

2 0 0 3 

2 0 0 5 

2 0 0 7 

2 0 0 9 

75 

Positive abnormalities 

Negative abnormalities 

44,6 

16 

Number of days with rime 

Multiannual average of days with rime 

Figure 2. Abnormalities of the annual number of days 

with rime beside the multiannual average in Deva (1961 - 2010) 

(Data source: AdministraŃia NaŃională de Meteorologie) 

Between 1961 - 2010, the multiannual average number of days with rime is 44.6 days. 

Beside this multiannual average, there were noticed positive and negative abnormalities. 

The highest number of days with rime was recorded in 1965 (75 days) and the lowest number of 

days with rime - in 2010 (16 days with rime). The high number of days with rime recorded in 1965 is 

due to certain early cooling on autumn which was caused by the invasion of arctic masses of air in the 

context of the mobile polar anticyclones appearance in the Northern part of Europe. Over the year of 

1965, the high number of days with rime in October the 7th can be noticed. 

The appearance of the phenomenon was favoured by the advection of cold air masses in the 

Northern and North-Western parts of Europe, being attracted by the minimum barometric 

temperature in the Black Sea pond. The maximum expansion of such masses towards our territory 

took place on October the 20th, 1965, as it can be noticed on the baric and geopotential field at 500 

hPa (figure 3). We have to mention that at Deva Meteorological Base, the minimum 

Temperature at soil level on October the 23th, 1965, was -6.2°C. On the 25th of October, 

1965, the minimum temperature at soil level was -5°C. These temperature values combined with a 

raised value of humidity created favourable conditions for the appearance of the rime phenomenon 

in the second part of October, in 1965, in Deva. 

In 1965, the rime phenomenon lasted until late in the spring, so that in May there were two 

days of rime ere recorded. We have to mention that the map of baric and geopotential field at 500 

hPa highlights that on 11 th of May, 1965, there was an arctic air mass on the territory of Romania. 

Such a situation happened because certain cold and humid air masses moved towards Central 

Europe, being attracted by the minimum pressure values that were determined by the 

Mediterranean cyclones in the Southern Europe (figure 4).

206 


Figure 3. The map of baric and geopotential field at 500 hPa, on 20th October, 1965 

(Data source: www.wetterzentrale.de) 

Figure 4. The map of the baric and geopotential field at 500 hPa in 11th May, 1965 

(Data source: www.wetterzentrale.de) 

Over 70 days with rime were recorded in 1998, as well. In 1999, over 60 days with rime 

were recorded, while, in 2000, the number of days with rime was 60. The low number of days with 

rime was caused by the predominance of a stressed cyclonic condition in Deva because the mobile 

Mediterranean cyclones moved to East. A number of less than 30 days with rime was recorded in 

1962 (27 days), 1978 (23 days), 1980 (29 days). In 1987, there were 25 days with rime and 20 days in 

2009. Between 1961 – 2010, in Deva, the lowest annual number of days without rime was recorded in 

1965, 290 days, followed by 1998 with 292 days without rime. The highest annual number of days 

without rime was recorded in 2010, 249 days, followed by 2009 with 345 days.

Aspects Regarding the Rime Phenomen in Deva Area 207 

Beside the multiannual average of 44.6 days with rime in Deva, 26 years of positive 

abnormalities were recorded, which represents 53% of the total of years taken into account, 

and 23 years with negative abnormalities, which represents 47% (figure 5). The highest 

positive abnormality was recorded in 1965, 30 days, while in 1961 and 1964 the least positive 

abnormality was recorded, 1 day. The negative abnormalities varied between 29 days in 2010 

(the highest) and 2 days in 1968 (the least). 

53% 

47% 

Negative abnormalities 

Positive abnormalities 

Figure 5. The abnormality frequency beside the multiannual average in Deva, between 1961 - 2010 


The annual variation of the number of days with rime 

Over a year, certain favourable conditions for the rime appearance in the interval September - 

May can be created. The analysis of the monthly average values of the days with rime for the interval 

1961 - 2010 stresses the fact that March is the month with the highest number of days with rime - 

8.14 - followed by November with 7.9 days, while the minimum days for the suitable time for rime 

appearance are recorded in May and September, when the monthly average is less than 1 day (figure 

6). After the analysis of the monthly average values, we can notice that the monthly average number 

of days with rime is spring and autumn, not winter. In Deva, the earliest date the rime can appear is 

in the first part of September, and the latest is in the first part of May. 

Table 2. Average monthly number of days with frost and their frequency in Deva, 1961 - 2010 


Month IX X XI XII I II III IV V Annual 

No. days 0,2 4,9 7,9 7,2 6,6 7,4 8,14 2,1 0,16 44,7 

Frequency 0,4 11,0 17,8 16,1 14,8 16,5 18,2 4,8 0,4 100 

No of day 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

8,14 

IX X XI XII I II III IV V 

No. of day 

0,16 

Figure 6. The monthly average number of days with rime in Deva, 1961 - 2010 


During the winter months, the number of days with rime in Deva varies between 6.6 days 

with a frequency of 14.77% in January and 7.36 days with a frequency of 16.47% in February. The 

highest frequency of the days with rime over the winter is recorded in February - 16.47% - 

followed by December with a frequency of 16.15%.

208 


Analysing the monthly frequency of the days with rime within the interval with probability 

for rime, we can notice that the highest frequency is recorded in March - 18.21% - followed by 

November with 17.80%. The lowest frequency is recorded in May - 0.35% - followed by 

September, with a frequency of 0.44% (figure 2). 

The high number of days with rime in March is caused by the action of the anticyclones located 

in the Western and Central part of Europe (Bogdan and Niculescu, 1999). The relief composition in 

Deva and the presence of Mureş couloir favour the cold and humid air masses to remain there, which 

explains the high number of days in spring and autumn months. In this respect, we mention the fact that 

the highest number of days with rime is not recorded during the winter months, but in March and 

November, that is in spring and autumn. The lowest frequency is recorded in September and October 

due to the cold and humid air masses receding towards the Northern Europe and activating the 

anticyclones formed in the Arabic Peninsula and Northern Africa. 

The earliest rime in Deva was recorded on 14 th September and the latest on 13 th May 

(Clima României, 2008). These pieces of data have a crucial importance in agriculture because on 

the specified dates, a part of the culture is in vegetation and, under these circumstances, rime 

causes damages in culture. The average date of the first rime appearance is 16 th October, but it can 

be slow in coming under certain conditions until 16 th November. The average date of the last rime 

is 17 th April, but, over the years, it can disappear after 17 th March (Clima României, 2008). 

The risk interval represents the interval between the average and extreme date of rime 

appearance. Thus, between the average date of the first frost and the earliest frost in autumn 

represents the autumn risk interval; and between the average date of the last frost and the latest 

frost in spring represents the spring risk interval (Bogdan and Niculescu, 1999). In Deva, the 

autumn risk interval for rime is between 14 th September and 16 th October. The spring risk interval 

is between 17 th April and 13 th May. 

Rime appearance in Deva outside the average dates of happening for either the first rime or 

the last one is favoured by a certain aerospace configuration, as well as the local relief conditions. 

RISK ASPECTS 

The study on this phenomenon has a crucial importance when it happens either too early in 

autumn, or too late in spring. This importance comes from the negative implications in agriculture, 

causing serious damage in culture if it occurs during plant vegetation. 

Rime becomes a risk climatic phenomenon for the economy if: 

- it occurs 2 - 3 weeks earlier in autumn or later in spring, compared with the average 

dates (Gaceu, 2005); 

- frost appears simultaneously on the soil and in the air (Gaceu, 2005); 

- rime occurs at the same time with other meteorological phenomena (slush, snow, fog); 

- the anticyclonic condition representative for rime occurrence favours the pollutant factors 

persistence in the atmosphere; 

- the high level of humidity in the air causes discomfort for human organisms. 

REFERENCES 

Bogdan Octavian, Niculescu Elena (1999), Riscuri climatice din România, Editura Sega-InternaŃional, Bucureşti; 

Gaceu O. (2005), Clima şi riscurile climatice din MunŃii Bihor şi Vlădeasa, Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea, Oradea; 

Măhăra Gh. (2001), Meteorologie, Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea, Oradea; 

*** (2008), Clima României, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti. 

*** www.wetterzentrale.de 

*** www.inm.ro 


July 20, 2011 September 19, 2011 November 09, 2011



COMMUNITY’S ADAPTIVE CAPACITY DUE TO COASTAL 

FLOODING IN SEMARANG COASTAL CITY, INDONESIA 

Muh Aris MARFAI ∗ 

Geography Faculty, Gadjah Mada University, 55281 Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 

e-mail: arismarfai@gadjahmada.edu / arismarfai@yahoo.com 

Dyah R. HIZBARON 

Geography Faculty, Gadjah Mada University, 55281 Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 

e-mail: emmahisbaron@gmail.com 

Abstract: Community’s response and adaptive capacity is a one of the key roles on the 

disaster management and risk reduction program. This study is aimed to investigate the 

coastal community’s response and adaptive capacity due to tidal flood hazard in the 

Terboyo Wetan Village and Trimulyo Villages along the coastline of Semarang City. These 

two villages are suffered from tidal flood hazards, and further consequences are land 

subsidence hazards as the impact of man-made activity and worsened by industrial activity. 

The research is inductively attaining data and concluding the result as in a descriptive 

manner via questionnaire. The result reveals that the local communities are aware of the 

tidal flood hazard, but this understanding did not manage to support their decision to leave 

the area. The community has adapted the tidal flood by simple physical adaptation strategy, 

such as increase the floor level following the water level and making small dam to blocking 

water enter the house. This response is not sufficient and aesthetically not proper from the 

environmental point of view. From the community’s perception obtained during the 

research, it can be said that instead of taking the tidal flood as the risk, the community in 

the research area tends to neglect the hazard and considered that the tidal flood is no longer 

as threat towards their wellbeing. 

Key word: community’s response and adaptive capacity; coastal area; tidal flood hazard; 

Terboyo Wetan and Trimulyo Villages; Semarang City. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Local community response and community resilience toward hazard and natural disaster 

become an important subject on disaster management studies. The community resilience defined 

as the evaluation towards the community competence to adapt and or to improve their current state 

towards particular threads (Thomalla et al., 2007; Twigg, 2007). 

The competence of the community generally addressed as the adaptive capacity. The 

community response and adaptive capacity can be in any form of economic development, social 

capital, information or communication and or community competence. Different disaster 

occurrence and type provokes different level of frequency and magnitude which in a way 

correspond with the availability of resource to cope with it. Thus, the nature of community 



210 

Mush Aris MARFAI, Dyah R HIZBARON 

response and adaptive capacity is unique and dynamic (Adger et al., 2004). It means that in 

particular area, the evaluation towards the adaptive capacity is essential to be carried out in order 

to identify the existing local community resources to cope with any other disaster occurrence. 

Community response and adaptive capacity is illustrated in a form of culture setting, as 

argued by Gunawan (2001). 

The cultural setting correlates the human adaptation to their environmental setting. The 

adaptation method is not easily shifting without any cultural transition (Miller and Weitz 

1979; Moran, 1982; Gunawan, 2001). 

Inversely, the adaptive capacity in the community is define inclusively, depends on the 

characteristics of wellbeing, existence of threads and local resource (Luers et al., 2003). In 

order to delineate the homogenous community, scholars generally address to the village level, 

as the smallest unit (example: Dewi, 2007; Marfai et al., 2008). 

In the developing countries such as Indonesia, the village level (desa/kelurahan) generally 

comprise of the people who share the same tradition, occupation, and sometimes borne from the 

same kinship. It is reasonable since the community in the village generally lacking of know how 

technology and less informed to any innovation. Therefore, it is argued that in this level, the 

adaptive capacity assumed to be homogenous since it was built from the collective understanding. 

Series of research to identify the coastal hazard management, tidal flood management and 

the land subsidence impact in the coastline along the Semarang city has been conducted (Marfai 

and King, 2007; Marfai and King, 2008a; Marfai et al., 2008). 

There are abundance of literature on the coastal hazard management in Semarang City, 

such as Soedarsono (1996), Kobayashi (2003), Marfai (2003, 2004a, and 2004b), Dewi 

(2007), Directorate of Geology and Environment of Bandung and BGR (2008), and Marfai 

and King (2008b). 

Since the 2001, it was revealed that the most common local adaptation conducted by the 

local community is in a form of structural or physical adaptation in their houses and any kind of 

building type (Arbriyakto and Kardyanto 2001). Most of the studies focus on the identification of 

the impact of either tidal flood or land subsidence in Semarang City. Less of the literature provide 

an insight of how the local community adaptation characteristics changing from time dimension 

and promotes the positivism approach of the coastal hazard management. 

This article aimed to elaborate any significant changes towards local response in the 

Terboyo Wetan Village and Trimulyo Village along the coastline of Semarang coastal area. 

Previously, at early millennium the local adaptation is in a form of structural and physical 

adaptation, while there are so many up dates know- how technologies, „how is the form of 

adaptation changing in the community level?” The research tries to answer this question using 

descriptive analysis. 

RESEARCH SETTING 

The research is conducted in the prone area of land subsidence and tidal flood along the 

coastline in the Semarang City, Central Java Province, Indonesia. There are more than twenty 

villages along the Semarang City coastline suffered from the coastal inundation which produce 

tidal flood and enhance the land subsidence phenomena (figure 3). 

Among these twenty villages, the research shall focus on the identification of the local 

adaptive capacity in the two villages, Terboyo Wetan and Trimulyo. The identification of the two 

villages is aimed to complete the information along the coastline in Semarang City in order to have 

complete series of data related to the community adaptation strategy. 

Some villages, neighboring this two villages along the coastline of Semarang, have 

been investigated by previous researches Kobayashi (2003), Dewi (2007), Directorate of 

Geology and Environment of Bandung and BGR (2008), and Marfai and King (2008b), thus 

this research will complete the information related the community’s response to flood hazard 

along the Semarang coastal area.

Community΄s adaptive capacity due to coastal flooding in… 211 

The location of these two villages is relatively strategic for the industrial area and other 

commercial type of land use. The land use of the two villages are varied, ranging from the 

settlement, terminal, freight terminal, middle industrial estate, hospital, and university. 

Figure 1. The Distribution of Hazardous Area along the coastline in Semarang City 

(Source: Regional Development Board, Semarang Municipality, 2002) 

The strategic commercial land use is signified with the densely populated area per 

hectare (table 1). 

Table 1. Demographic Condition of Research area 

Source: Regional Development Board, Semarang Municipality, 2002 

Village 

Total 

Inhabitant 

Width (Ha) Density per (Ha) 

Terboyo Wetan 1690 127.5 13.3 

Trimulyo 4135 295.9 14.0

212 


The community occupation relatively relied upon the environmental setting such as 

fisherman, harbor, industrial activities, less agricultural activity and recreational activities. 

Administratively, these two villages are categorized as the rural area, however, from the 

physical identification the area may be categorized as urbanized area. As argued, that there are at 

least four types of flooding in the urban areas: 1) localized flooding occurs in slum area because of 

the insufficient draining system; 2) small streams in urban areas rise very rapidly due to heavy 

rainfall; 3) major rivers over the critical height above the land; 4) wet season flooding. 

None of these category occurred in the Terboyo Wetan and Trimulyo (figure 2). 

Figure 2. Inundated Area along the Semarang Coastline 

(Source: Marfai and King 2008c) 

Both villages are experiencing tidal flood due to the rise of tidal sea and sea surge, affect 

the sea level rise over the critical height above the coastal land (Marfai et al., 2008). 

The tidal flood highly perceived as the frequent type of natural hazard that should be cope 

with. The community aware of the tidal flood, however, the severe impact of land subsidence is 

perceived moderately as longer terms of impact. 

The Terboyo Wetan village and Trimulyo village is located in the western part of the 

coastline (figure 3a). 

The elevation of the villages is relatively lower than the coast area, with the darker black 

color. Additionally, from the figure 3b, the darker red color to the beige yellow color indicates the 

unstable land (subside up to 8 cm per annual, Directorate of Geology and Environment of 

Bandung and BGR (2008)), whilst the green color express relatively stable ground (subside 0 cm 

per annual). Both of the research area is delineated in the red color; it means that the area is 

suffered from worse land subsidence. 

The land subsidence in Semarang City is assumed as the result of the mix natural condition 

and induced by the human activity. It is predicted that the land subsidence in Semarang City was 

induced by the usage of groundwater, which exceeds the quantity of natural replenishment. 

Consequently, water level in the alluvium clay layers and sand sedimentation – composition of the 

coast area – is declining causing the land subsidence.


Figure 3. a) Administrative boundaries and DEM data of Semarang, 

b) Subsidence in the Semarang coastal area

214 


As noted by Marfai and King (2007), that the prediction of the land subsidence in 

Semarang City is increasing in longer terms. Subsequently after the sea level rise phenomena 

and exceeding groundwater usage, it is projected that the area may loss 328.5 hectare per year 

in 2010 and its getting worse by the year 2020 with total loss of 1464 hectare per year. It 

means that the area shall suffer from further economic loss and other unquantifiable loss. It 

was predicted that the public utilities shall suffer the most due to the land subsidence are 

transportation network, industrial area and warehouses (Kobayashi, 2003). 

Figure 4. Type of land use system in the coastal area of Semarang City 

(Source: Marfai and King 2008b) 

It is projected that more people will settled in the research area due to its strategic location. 

The typified land use system along the coastline can be seen from the figure 4. 

Spatially the research area is important to be protection area however the land occupation is 

not easy to be stopped. The juxtaposition of having the coastline productive at the same time being 

preserved is merely on the blueprint. The community facing serious difficulties to avoid the natural 

impact either sea surge, tidal inundation, or the land subsidence. 

METHODOLOGY 

Summarized from the previous research setting, the research area suffered from unfortunate 

natural condition – lied in the low land of coastline – hit by immense tidal surge which leads to 

tidal flooding. At the same time, to fulfill human basic necessity the groundwater keep depleting 

and induce further natural catastrophe in the longer terms, such as the land subsidence. It means


that the current capacities in the research area should be identified in order to provide better insight 

in the coastal hazard management in the future. 

The research is inductively attaining data and concluding the result as in a descriptive 

manner. The analytical technique applied to evaluate the data is statistic inferential, because this 

research simplified the population into the sampling unit. Statistic inferential or inductive statistic 

is a technique of statistic which applied to observe data from the sampling unit, and conclude the 

result for the whole population (Sugiyono, 2007). 

The unit of analysis is multi level; the household are taken to represent the condition in 

an area respectively. The questionnaire is applied for the identification of local adaptive 

capacity in the research area. The content of the questionnaire was adopted from previous 

research by Dewi (2007) and Marfai et al., (2008). 

The questionnaire was applied by Marfai et al., (2008) in the Bandarharjo and Tanjung Mas 

Villages, Semarang Coastal area. Our research is conducted in Terboyo Wetan and Trimulyo 

Villages. By using the similar questionnaire, we expect to have a comprehensive data along the 

coastline of Semarang City in the future. Detailed research method can bee seen in the figure 5. 

The field observation is conducted to identify the real condition in the community level 

(village or des a / kelurahan). The primary data are obtained via in depth interview and semiclosed 

questions on the risk perceptions and the methods of response and adaptive capacity. Total 

respondent are 40 people with the assumption of validity of statistical analysis (n > 30). 

Figure 5. Research Method 

The questionnaire comprise of several important element subjected to the research goals, 

such as: 1) General information about the respondent, 2) Respondent perception on tidal flood 

hazard in their area, 3) Impact of the tidal flood hazard, 4) Affected building / supra-structure / 

infrastructure due to the tidal flood hazard, 5) Physical adaptation, and 6). Task force to deal with 

the tidal flood hazard. 

RESULT AND DISCUSSION 

CHARACTERISTIC OF THE RESPONDENT 

Local adaptive capacity in Terboyo Wetan and Trimulyo village are evaluated using the 

questionnaire. The characteristics of the respondent are shown in the table 2. 

There are 40 respondents which comprise of 20 respondents from Terboyo Wetan and 20 

respondents from Trimulyo. Based on the demographic condition, there are 67.5% of male respondent,

216 


and most of the respondent are in productive ages 18 – 65 years. Predominantly, the respondents are 

graduated from the secondary school (52.5%), higher education (35%) and non-education (12.5%). 

Responding to the characteristics of the environment, most of respondent work in the 

industry as a labor and farmer. Small share of the respondent is working as the government 

employer and other type of jobs. 

As noted earlier, the type of culture and existing wellbeing should be describe to grasp 

the potential resource as the origin of capacity in particular area. The type of housing also 

described in the characteristics of respondent in order to support the wellbeing of the 

respondent despite the type of occupation. 

Table 2. Characteristics of Respondent 

Characteristic Number of respondents Percent 

Sex: 

Male 27 67.5 

Female 13 32.5 

Age: 

18-25 22 55 

25-45 9 22.5 

45-65 9 22.5 

> 65 0 0 

Educational level: 

Non education-primary school 5 12.5 

Secondary school 21 52.5 

High school and University 14 35 

Occupation: 

Industry labor 19 47.5 

Farmer/Fisherman 10 25 

Government employer 8 20 

Other jobs 3 7.5 

Type of housing: 

Permanent 34 85 

Semi-permanent 6 15 

COMMUNITY’S PERCEPTION OF TIDAL FLOOD HAZARD 

Local communities are aware of the natural hazard especially tidal flood. But this 

knowledge did not manage to support their decision to leave the area. The reason is merely on the 

lack of alternatives, and other classical accessibility reasoning. 

Table 3. Distribution of people’s perception of tidal flood 

People’s perception of tidal flood Number of respondents Percent 

Knowledge of tidal flood hazard: 

Aware that the area is subject to tidal flooding 32 80 

Not aware that the area is subject to tidal flooding 8 20 

Motivation for their continued stay: 0 

Have no other alternatives due to lack of capital 22 55 

Accessibility to city centre, industrial estate, public facilities and 

15 37.5 

close to their working place 

Believe related culture and they were born in the area 3 7.5 

The most often of tidal flood depth: 0 


75-100 cm 6 15 

>100 cm 0 0 

The most often of the duration of tidal flood: 0 

< 3 hour 5 12.5 

3-6 hour 18 45 

6-9 hour 12 30 

>9 hour 5 12.5 

Cause of inundation: 0 

Land subsidence 18 45 

Poor drainage system 12 30 

Sea level rise 6 15 

Have no idea 4 10 

Figure 6. Impact of tidal flood to daily activities 

Figure 7. Physical adaptation by respondents 

The community express that the current research area is close to city centre, industrial 

estate, public facilities, and to their working place. Small share of the respondent believes that they 

should stay in the area due to the bounding with the previous generations and other kinship matter.

218 


Tidal flood in the research are often occurred for more than 3 hours, and lasted for more than 6 to 

9 hours. The depth of the tidal flood is relatively from 25 cm to 75 cm. 

The community able to identify the cause of the tidal flood, 45% reveals that land 

subsidence is the main cause of inundation, 30% express that the poor drainage system as the 

cause, while other 15% deem that sea level rise is the main cause of the inundation. 

Most of the community express that the natural system as the leading factor causing the 

inundation. The elaboration towards the distribution of people’s perception towards tidal 

flood can be seen in table 3. 

In addition, the tidal flood occurrence did not force the community to leave their activities, 

on the other hand, they continue working and doing daily activities. It means that the tidal flood 

generally occurred and the community did not distract over the tidal flood occurrence. Figure 6 - 7 

reveals the impact of tidal flood to daily activities. 

COMMUNITY’S RESPONSE AND ADAPTIVE CAPACITY 

Since the occurrence of tidal flood did not distract the daily activities, it means that the 

community relied upon some adaptation methods, which they believe able to rescue their 

belongings. The physical adaptation methods relied upon some technique, such as: put the house 

property on the higher place – the most economical methods – increase the yard level in 

surrounding house, increase the floor level and making small dam to block the water from entering 

the house; for the details see figure 8. 

Figure 8. a) heightened housing foundation; b) inundated house; c) small dyke in front of the house; d) 

heightened housing type (rumah panggung) 

(Source: photo courtesy: Marfai 2009)


The economical factors are essential in the preference of adaptation method. More than 50% 

respondent claimed to put their belongings on the higher place so that the tidal flood will not ruin it. 

Subsequently, the respondent is familiar with the type of increasing the yard level, since it is more 

efficient and relatively cheaper than increasing the floor level. At the latest order, the technique of 

making small dam to block the water is also available. 

As the Figure 8-a, describe that to heightened the housing foundation the type of house is 

relatively different with those house in figure 8c. The social economic condition plays an important role 

on how the community applied the local adaptation. The traditional and cultural setting in the 

community is relatively stagnant, each generation pass through some methods which are relatively 

applied by the next generations. These methods had been lasted for almost a decade it means that the 

methods of physical adaptation are not dynamic and quite stable as long as the cultural and socioeconomic 

condition did not change drastically. 

The physical adaptation may be very traditional, efficient and economically feasible for the 

community, however the adaptation technique may be classified to improper technique when it 

comes to aesthetic point of view and health point of view. The unhealthy environment created by 

the tidal flood and the improper technique is sufficient only temporal condition, however for any 

longer circumstance it was not fit at all. It is important that the government identify the existing 

institutional setting to provoke better condition for the research area. 

Moreover, Structural measure and non-structural measure to address the problem has 

been initiated by the government. The structural measure includes the improvement of 

drainage system, the pumping stations, the reshaping of land surface and land reclamation 

along the beach. The non structural measure includes the improvement of the neighborhood 

by coastal planning and management (Marfai et al., 2008). 

Detailed task force related to tidal flood hazard can be seen in the table 4. 

Coastal land use 

Table 4. Task force related tidal flood hazard 

Subject Plan and measures Agencies 

Detail coastal master plan 

Monitoring land use change on the coastal area 

Law enforcement and implementation of the 

regulation system 

Garbage disposal 

Tidal flood 

prevention 

Land subsidence 

River and 

drainage system 

Improvement garbage disposal system 

Involving local community on the public awareness 

system 

Improving of the polder system 

Improving number of pump stations 

Monitoring land subsidence 

Monitoring groundwater extraction 

Detail drainage master plan 

Improving drainage capacity and reduce 

sedimentation on the drainage system 

Regional development board 

Public work department 


Municipality health office 

Community 




Mining and geology 

department 



Water resources department 

The community’s response and physical adaptation strategy is fourfold respectively due to 

economic feasibility, level of understanding and simplicity of the technique. 

The physical adaptation is quite stable for longer terms since it involved the other 

resource such as financial resource per household. Rather to have better improved 

environment, the community from time to time live in the deteriorating environment, which 

cannot support any better wellbeing. Thus, the physical adaptation is seemingly neglected and 

lack of any update technology. 

However, since the community aware of any up-date information regarding the 

correlation between sea level rise, tidal inundation and land subsidence, they appeared open

220 


toward any empowerment program. By doing so, the government could at least approach the 

community to keep up to date about their deteriorating environment, thus any adaptation 

should not just relied on the economic feasibility but also to the health consideration and 

any aesthetic environment consideration. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The community is independent in finding their solution towards the hazards in the area. The 

hazard is no longer considered as threat towards their wellbeing. Instead of taking it as the threat or risk, 

the community in the research area tends to neglect the hazard. 

The community’s response and adaptive capacity in the research area is unique, depends 

on the type of the economic background and know-how technology. The coastal community has 

responded the flooding by physical adaptive capacity, which is quite stable from time to time. 

Therefore, such an institutional adaptive capacity, such as governmental action plan is needed in 

order to have a better strategy and response toward tidal flood. More training, forum group 

discussion, and other community empowerment will be an advantage to improve the community 

understanding and enhance their know-how technology. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

This article is developed from research project on Coastal risk management in Semarang 

City. Part of the research is supported by Young researcher grant project, International Foundation 

for Science (IFS), Sweden and Science & technology research grant, Indonesia Toray science 

foundation, Japan. The authors express their gratitude to the reviewers for their helpful advice. 

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eorisks__psi.html 


June 24, 2011 September 07, 2011 November 22, 2011



DOWNSTREAM VARIATION IN PARTICLE SIZE: A CASE STUDY OF 

THE TROTUŞ RIVER, EASTERN CARPATHIANS (ROMANIA) 

Dan DUMITRIU ∗ 

„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, 

B-dul Carol I, no 11, 700506, Iaşi, Romania, e-mail: dndumitriu@yahoo.com 

Daniel CONDORACHI 


B-dul Carol I, no 11, 700506, Iaşi, Romania, e-mail: condordan@yahoo.com 

Mihai NICULIłĂ 


B-dul Carol I, no 11, 700506, Iaşi, Romania, e-mail: mn_geogr@yahoo.com 

Abstract: In order to analyze Trotuş river bed deposits granulometry 21 sampling point were 

chosen, located at about 7 km each other. After field and lab analysis it was noticed that there 

is a general downstream reduction trend for clasts size, but only if we consider extreme 

sampling points (headwaters and outflow). Trotuş midcourse display a downstream 

coarsening phenomenon, influenced by tributaries and slope processes that deliver much 

coarser materials than the ones stacked within river bed deposits. 

Keywords: bed sediment, grain size, median grain size, downstream fining, downstream coarsening 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The nature of river bed sediments, also bank sediments have an important influence on 

rivers’ morphological and hydro-dynamic characteristics. Also is involved in rivers’ solid 

flow formation and components. In this context, grain size analyses may bring significant 

information regarding solid flow, sediment sources, their behavior at river bed deposits fluvial 

processing, etc. That’s why reports and studies on river bed sediments size have a long 

tradition perhaps of their practical nature. First reports were linked of downstream fining 

(Leonardo da Vinci, 1504 - 1506; Guglielmini, 1697; Frisi, 1762) (Gomez et al., 2001). These 

reports and the next ones founded the law stated by Sternberg (1875) according which grain 

size decrease exponentially with the travel distance. 

Starting from this finding, many studies focused on this process of river bed particle 

size decrease known as downstream fining. Was considered that this phenomenon has as main 

cause one of the following processes: fine particle selective transport or selective sorting 

(Paola et al., 1992; Ferguson et al., 1996; Wilcock, 1997; Gasparini et al., 1999; Hoey and 



Downstream Variation in Particle Size: A Case Study of the Trotuş River … 223 

Bluck, 1999; Montgomery et al., 1999); abrasion (Krumbein, 1941; Bradley, 1970; Schumm 

and Stevens, 1973; Parker, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c; Kodama, 1994; Malarz, 2005); in situ clast 

weathering during storage (Bradley, 1970; Heller et al., 2001), and the spatial distribution of 

sources for resistant lithologies (Pizzuto, 1995). 

In certain cases a deviation from the normal trend of downstream fining called 

downstream coarsening was reported, and some factors were responsible for this: tributaries 

influence (Miller, 1958; Knighton, 1980; Rice, 1998, 1999); direct river channel inputs of 

materials by slope processes where floodplain is missing (Benda, 1990; Grant and Swanson, 

1995; Grimm et al., 1995; Lambert et al., 1996; Rice and Church, 1996; Church, 2002; 

Brummer and Montgomery, 2003; Attal and Lavé, 2006). Recent studies focused on the grain 

size and shape within river beds insist on relationships between source area characteristics and 

river bed sediments characteristics (Desloges, 1990; Mikoŝ, 1994; Ichim et al., 1998; Moussavi- 

Harami et al., 2004; Farrow and Sklar, 2005; Malarz, 2005; Stanley et al., 2006; Attal and Lavé, 

2006; Lindsey et al., 2007; Rengers and Wohl, 2007; Rădoane at al., 2007, 2008; Mureşan, 

2009; Miao et al., 2010; Pike et al., 2010; Venditti et al., 2010). 

STUDY AREA 

Trotuş drainage basin is located in central-eastern part of Eastern Carpathians and 

Moldavian Subcarpathians and has about 4,350 sqkm and a length of about 160 km (figure 1). 

Between headwaters and Siret confluence, the altitude difference is about 1,290 m (from 1,360 m 

altitude at headwaters to 70 m altitude at confluence). Trotuş River is of VIII th order in Strahler 

classification. The catchment area lies on four distinct structural and lithological units: marginal 

syncline, carpathian flysch, pericarpathian molasse and the platform. 

Petrographically, in the four litho-stratigraphical units dominate the following lithology: 40% 

clayey silty rocks; 35% sandstones of different types; 18% quaternary deposits (gravels, sands, 

loams, clays); 5% crystaline schysts, limestones and dolomites; 2% menilites, disodiles etc. 

Average annual rainwater spans from 722 mm / yr in Trotuş Valley and almost 1,000 

mm/yr in higher mountains. These values drop down about 100 mm/yr in central part of 

Dărmăneşti Depression and towards the subcarpathians limit. Average annual discharge for 

Trotuş River, recorded at Vrânceni hydrometric station, is of 33 3 /s while maximum was of 

3,720 m 3 /s, recorded in 29 th of July 1991. 

Figure 1. Study area location

224 

Dan DUMITRIU, Daniel CONDURACHI, Mihai NICULIȚĂ 


In this study was used volumetric sampling for river channel sediments that uses sampling 

for surface layers or pavement layer and subsurface layer or subpavement layer (Mosley and 

Tindale, 1985; Church et al., 1987; Ichim et al., 1992) (figure 2). This sampling method consists in 

drawing of three sampling categories: surface sample (from the layer called hydraulic layer or 

pavement of which thickness is equal with the diameter of the largest clast); subsurface sample (or 

subpavement - material located under hydraulic layer); a global sample (obtained by summing up 

the previous sampling categories). 

Figure 2. The illustration of the arrangement mode of the bed deposits 

After setting up the sampling method and sampling points (21 channel sections at a distance 

of 7 km of each other) (figure 3) topometric measurements were made, for each sampling point, to 

precisely assess the slope of the river channel and floodplain. Then, using the method proposed by 

Mosley and Tindale (1985), that states that the weight of the largest clast from sampled area is 5% 

from total weight of the sample, the clast with the largest diameter was identified. This was 

weighted to know the quantity of the sampled probe area. One square meter area was chosen as 

being representative for the entire section, out of which were collected surface and subsurface 

gravel. Some of granulometric fractions were sieved directly in the field using a set of sieves with 

holes having diameters according to the Wentworth scale. Sieving holes were of 64 mm (-6 phi), 

32 mm (-5 phi), 16 mm (-4 phi), 8 mm (-3 phi). The clasts with diameters between 128 - 256 mm 

were measured and weighted using a special calliper. For the ones larger than 256 mm, more 

difficult to be weighted in the field, a diameter-weight scale conversion was used (Church et al., 

1987; Ichim et al., 1992) built on the basis of the river clasts that were investigated by evaluating 

the weight of the biggest clasts on the basis of the B axis. 

Figure 3. Sediment sample point distribution 

After all the sampled material was weighted, from each class (piles of gravel were made on 

each class) sample clasts were taken from each class. It was randomly picked 100 clasts from 

classes of 16 - 32 mm and 32 - 64 mm for morphometrical and petrographical lab analysis. For the


material smaller than 8 mm, sieving was continued in the lab using sieves of smaller diameter (6; 

5; 2; 1; 0.5; 0.2; 0.1 mm). From the obtained results there were made assessments on differences 

from pavement and subpavement, on median diameter of river bed deposits, on the percentage of 

each granulometric fractions, clasts morphometry, lithology etc. Global samples (by summing 

pavement and subpavement samples) were separated in 14 granulometric classes, at 1 phi interval, 

on five dimensional steps, according with Wentworth scale (Church et al., 1987), as follows: a) silt 

+ clay (< 4 phi or 0.063 mm); b) sand (between 4 phi or 0.063 mm and - 1 phi or 2 mm); c) 

gravel (between - 1 phi or 2 mm and - 6 phi or 64 mm); d) cobble (between - 6 phi or 64 mm and 

- 8 phi or 256 mm); e) boulder (over - 8 phi or 256 mm). 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

MEDIAN DIAMETER OF BED MATERIAL 

Regarding median diameter of Trotus River bed particles was noticed a general tendency of 

grain size reduction between the extreme two sampling points (from 38 mm at FăgeŃel, located at 

7.1 km from headwaters, to 27 mm at Burcioaia, at 160 km distance from headwaters). Out of this 

general tendency, among main confluences or where Trotus valley becomes narrower, positive and 

negative deviations were recorded. Second polynomial function fitted at best general variation 

tendency for median diameter that helped to separate four sectors (figure 4). Therefore, upper 

course (downstream confluence with Valea Rece) average median diameter is around 62 mm, then 

down to Ciobănuş confluence to be around 92 mm. A slight reduction was reported downstream 

Ciobănuş confluence, but not of great importance for general features of river bed deposits from 

this short section between Ghimeş and Asău. Median diameter grow tendency in midcourse reach 

a maximum downstream Asău, after which a reduction is reported within Comăneşti Depression. 

Median diameter (D50), mm 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

D50 = -0,011L2 + 1,5411L + 43,287 

R = 0,809 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 

Distance downstream (L), km 

Figure 4. Downstream variation in the median diameter of the bed material 

A second maximum is reported in the exit sector from Depression and entrance in 

subcarpathian area. Downstream Perchiu section median diameter variation records a constant 

reduction except a small increase after Tazlău confluence. Concluding, three sectors were separated 

that have the lowest median diameter (FăgeŃel - Valea Rece; inside Comăneşti Depression; lower 

course downstream Tazlău confluence) and another one in mid course, in which D 50 values are, in 

average, above 90 mm. These high values for median diameter may be caused by sediments inputs 

from the short tributaries and high longitudinal slopes that deliver coarse material in Trotuş channel, 

on one hand, and slope feeding, on the other hand, as this sector is located in an area where is a 

valley narrowing at the entrance and exit from Comăneşti Depression. In this narrow areas slopes 

have an important role in feeding the river channel with coarse materials. 

SURFACE BED MATERIAL GRANULOMETRIC SPECTRUM 

This has a variation tendency that, in general, is close to perfect, with a downstream 

increase share for small gravel size, where boulders and cobbles are replaced by gravel. It cannot 

be said that is an ideal distribution, as the competition is just between cobbles and gravels. 

Usually, in river bed deposits classes of grain size particles becomes smaller and their share

226 


increase exponentially downstream. In this particular case grains from silt, clay and loam classes 

do not record any increase in share, on the contrary, their share display a reduction. This anomaly 

is present for certain clasts dimension in river bed deposits. For Trotuş River, boulder and cobble 

clasts are not specific, in particular, for upper course, but for midcourse sectors (figure 5). 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

20% 

0% 

7,1 13,5 21,8 25 31,2 37 42,6 50,5 59,4 66 73,1 78 89,6 98,1 106 119 126 140 148 154 159 

Distance downstream, km 

>256 mm 64 - 256mm 2. - 64 mm 2 - 0.063 mm < 0.063 mm 

Figure 5. Downstream variation in the grain size distribution of the surface channel deposits 

Cobbles (64 - 256 mm) is the granulometric class with the largest share within pavement. In 

certain sampling sections (especially in the midcourse) this class share is about or over 80% (Valea 

Rece, Palanca, Beleghet, Ciobănuş, Asău, Păgubeni, Târgu Trotuş). As in the case of median 

diameter, the function that better adjusts variation tendency for cobbles along longitudinal profile 

is the polynomial one, that identifies almost the same sectors, but with a small value for Comăneşti 

Depression. Cobble class has a constant increase after FăgeŃel sampling point (46.67%) until 

Trotuş entrance in Depression (Asău - 89.44%) and after a decrease of about 15% at Comăneşti, a 

new sharp increase is reported downstream Uz confluence (82.1%). In subcarpathian and plateau 

areas cobble class loses its significant chare, but a significant anlomaly is recorded downstream 

Trotuş confluence with Oituz, Caşin and Tazlău (figure 6). 

(%) 

100,00 

90,00 

80,00 

70,00 

60,00 

50,00 

40,00 

30,00 

20,00 

10,00 

0,00 

Dc = -0,0067L 2 + 0,7872L + 57,589 

R = 0,870 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 


Figure 6. Cobble variation share within pavement along Trotuş River 

(%) 

100,00 

90,00 

80,00 

70,00 

60,00 

50,00 

40,00 

30,00 

20,00 

10,00 

0,00 

D = 0,0078L 2 - 0,9657L + 43,393 

R = 0,874 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 


Figure 7. Gravel variation share within pavement along Trotuş River


Gravel class (2 - 64 mm) within pavement displays an inverse relation with cobble 

class along longitudinal profile. In the upper course has about 50% then decreases slowly 

downward to Asău (2.58%) and Mosoreni (5.66%). Outside mountain area, correlated with 

cobble share decrease, there is a constant increase for gravel clasts with a maximum value of 

84.41% at Adjud (figure 7). 

Blocks class (over 256 mm) are specific only to pavement in Trotuş midcourse, where the 

valley has many narrow sectors and slope materials feed directly the river channel. 

Sand class (2 - 0.063 mm) has a small share of only 4% in Comăneşti Depression, upstream 

Uz confluence, which is explained by river slope reduction that allow „graded” gravel formation. 

SUBPAVEMENT DEPOSITS GRANULOMETRIC SPECTRUM 

This is characterized by gravel (2 - 64 mm) and sands (2 - 0.063 mm) dominance. In the 

sampling sections located downstream Tazlău confluence, these two classes can hold over 90% 

from river bed deposits granulometric spectrum (figure 8). Out of mountain area Trotuş has no 

important tributaries that can significantly influence river bed deposits granulometry. Also 

proximity slopes to river channel and river banks deliver only fine materials and the decrease of 

river slope determines a grain sorting that trigger downstream fining. Of course, in the river 

midcourse gravel and sand share decrease on cobble favour (50% at Ghimeş, 52.6% at 

Brusturoasa, 70% at Asău, 50% at Mosoreni and Târgu Trotuş). In this sector, tributaries and 

slopes constantly feed Trotuş river bed with much coarser materials that in most cases cannot be 

transported and were stocked and has undergone in situ processing. 

From figures 8 and 9 it can be said that, finally, for sub-pavement deposits it can be 

reported an ideal distribution, which is disturbed in river midcourse, like all other river bed 

deposits qualitative characteristics. Second polynomial functions describe at best variation 

tendencies for gravel and cobble share within pavement deposits (i.e. certain gradual 

„vanishing” for clasts with larger size). 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

20% 

0% 

7,1 13,5 21,8 25 31,2 37 42,6 50,5 59,4 66 73,1 78 89,6 98,1 106 119 126 140 148 154 159 


>256 mm 64 - 256mm 2. - 64 mm 2 - 0.063 mm < 0.063 mm 

Figure 8. Subpavement granulometric spectrum 

100,00 

80,00 

(%) 

60,00 

40,00 

20,00 

0,00 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 


Very coarse pebble 

Coarse pebble 

Figure 9. Cobble (64 - 256 mm) and gravel (2 - 64 mm) variation share within subpavement deposits, 

along Trotuş River

228 


RIVER BED DEPOSITS GLOBAL GRANULOMETRIC SPECTRUM 

River bed deposits global granulometric spectrum reflects both pavement and subpavement 

characteristics. The dominance of cobbles and boulders in pavement materials gibes 

Trotuş deposits a coarse facies, from headwaters to outflow, while sub-pavement sands make some 

„enhancement” of materials sizes, as fine materials share are increasing downstream (figure 10). 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

20% 

0% 

7,1 13,5 21,8 25 31,2 37 42,6 50,5 59,4 66 73,1 78 89,6 98,1 106 119 126 140 148 154 159 


>256 mm 64 - 256mm 2. - 64 mm 2 - 0.063 mm < 0.063 mm 

Figure 10. Trotuş River bed deposits global granulometric spectrum 

In spite of this, sands barely succeed to have over 10% in several sampling sections, while silt 

and clay have less than 1%. In this way, cobbles and gravels, from most sampling points, hold 

toghether over 90% from granulometric spectrum, which allow us to put Trotuş River in the category 

of gravel bed river. 

TROTUŞ RIVER BANKS SEDIMENTS GRANULOMETRY 

River banks sediments (sampled in 17 out of 21 cross sections for floodplain 

geomorphological complex) have median diameter between 0.04 - 0.35 mm (figure 11). 

Median diameter, mm 

0,4 

0,35 

0,3 

0,25 

0,2 

0,15 

0,1 

0,05 

0 

0 50 100 150 


Figure 11. Trotuş River banks deposits median diameter variation 

100% 

gravel 

90% 

80% 

70% 

sand 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

silt 

10% 

0% 

clay 

7,1 13,5 21,8 25 42,6 50,5 59,4 66 73,1 78 89,6 98,1 105,5 118,5 125,5 139,5 159 


Figure 12. Trotuş River banks deposits granulometric variation


Gravels are reported sporadically, as lenses that indicate either former river channels, or 

some influences made of some tributaries (Ciobănuş, Slănic). 

Along river longitudinal profile, confluences and local petrographic facies disturb the 

tendency of granulometric size decrease. Most important influences are reported at Ciobănuş and 

Slănic confluences. 

Trotuş River banks are, in general, sandy (in most cases over 70%), but between 

confluences is was reported an increase of silt and clay share (40% at Beleghet and Perchiu, 32% 

at Burcioaia, 30% at Comăneşti) (figure 12). 

MODALITY OF THE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS 

Granulometric distribution can be analysed by graphics interpretation for each sampling 

point along the river. In this way, from graphics shape it can be assessed if granulometric 

distribution is unimodal, which means that the material is quasi-unifom regarding particle size (in 

this case can be composed only of gravel cobble blocks, or only by sand and other fine sediments) 

or bimodal (and in some cases poly-modal) when are present gravel and sand deposits. Linked 

with composition share of the two most important classes to form mixes it is considered that the 

ideal mix would be 70% gravel and 30% sand, which is identical with the ones proposed by 

Ibbeken (1983) and Ibbeken and Schleyer (1991) for river bed deposits in their lower course for 

Calabrian rivers. Rădoane et al. (2001, 2006, 2008) indicate that, for the Romanian studied rivers, 

bimodality is determined by under 25% for 1 - 20 mm fraction, which is considered a fundamental 

element in river deposits distribution formation. 

For Trotuş River the modality of the grain size distribution was analysed separately for 

surface, subsurface and for the global sample. Based on individual share for cobbles, gravels, 

sands and silty-clayey particles that compose river bed deposits, histogram distributions were 

calculated. Based on these graphs was settled that the distribution is unimodal (was noted as 

modality 1) or bimodal (modality 2). From figure 13 histograms one can notice that: 

(%) 

90 

80 

Cobble Gravel Sand 

70 

60 

50 

40 

A. 

30 

20 

10 

0 

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

230 


- bimodality has a very slight increase downstream Trotuş River and has a correlation 

coefficient of 0.222. For the rivers of which river bed deposits are made of materials with very 

different sizes, was reported, as a general rule, that for the upper course is specific a unimodal 

distribution, and in lower course a bimodal distribution (Ibbeken şi Schleyer, 1991; Kodama, 

1992; Sambrook Smith, 1996; Ichim et al., 1998; Rădoane et al., 2001, 2006, 2008). Bimodal 

distribution is reported in only one section (CăiuŃi) and only for sub-pavement and global sample; 

- bimodality has an inverse relationship with Trotuş River channel slope. As the river slope 

reduces itself (within Comăneşti Depression and after Trotuş exits from mountain area) a weak 

bimodal distribution was reported; 

- bimodality has an indirect relationship with median diameter variation for river bed 

deposits. For Trotuş River bimodality is manifest together with D 50 decrease, explained by share 

reduction for cobble and gravel and increased share for fine sediments (sand and silt); 

- bimodality is in direct relationship with the percentage of sand, gravel and 1 - 20 mm fraction; 

- bimodality of granulometric distribution is different from the pavement and sub-pavement 

samples. Trotuş granulometric distribution for pavement deposits is exclusively unimodal. Subpavement 

samples, along with an increase of fine sediments display a slight bimodal tendency. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The obtained results have the same consistency with the ones reported by other authors that 

studied different Romanian rivers (Ichim et al., 1998, Maria Rădoane et al., 2001, 2006, 2008). 

Their main conclusion, and verified on Trotuş River, was that large geological and 

geomorphological units that east Carpathian rivers cross them diagonally has as a result certain 

granulometric clustering along river drainage channel. 

This phenomenon was well emphasized by using a triangulated diagram which display a 

clear discrimination among cobble (> -6 phi), gravel (-6 phi -1 phi), sand (-1 phi -4 phi), silt and 

clay (< 4 phi). From figure 14 some conclusions can be drawn: 

Figure 14. The change of Trotuş granulometric spectrum in relationship with geomorphological units 

- carpathian area groups the sampling sections in which cobbles and boulders have a large 

share in river bed sediments composition of about 60 - 80%. The cluster from Carpathian area is 

well shaped in the right corner; 

- subcarpathian area is composed by sections where dominates gravel, and the cluster is 

located in the upper center part of the diagram.


River bed materials orting was done in a long competition process between sorting and 

sediment abrasion during fluvial transport. Fluvial processing rock resistance, river channel slope 

and the strength of fluvial transport individualized each river (Ichim et al., 1998, Maria Rădoane et 

al., 2001, 2006, 2008). 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

This work was supported by CNCSIS - UEFISCSU, project PNII - IDEI number 436/2007. 

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May 12, 2011 July 18, 2011 August 27, 2011



SEASONAL STUDY WITH INTERPRETATION OF THE CHEMICAL 

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER POND IN REFERENCE TO QUALITY 

ASSESSMENT: A CASE STUDY 

Hemant PATHAK ∗ 

Indra Gandhi Govt. Engineering College, Department of Chemistry, India 

e-mail: hemantp1981@yahoo.co.in 

Deepak PATHAK 

Govt. S. L. P. College, Department of Chemistry, Gwalior, (M.P.), India 

e-mail: hemantp1981@yahoo.co.in 

Sudhir Nagesh LIMAYE 

„Dr. Hari Singh Gour” Central University, Sagar (M.P.) 470003, India 

e-mail: snl222@yahoo.co.in 

Abstract: Water samples were collected from different locations around Lakha banzara Lake. 

These water samples from 08 sampling points during three seasons were analyzed for their 

physicochemical characteristics, viz. pH, Colour, Odour, Hardness, Chloride, Alkalinity, TDS, 

COD, Metal ion content etc. On comparing the results against water quality standards and standard 

values recommended by World Health Organization (WHO), it is found that most of the water 

samples are highly polluted not even bathing purposes, due to high concentration of one or the 

other parameter. A Systematic calculation of correlation coefficient between water quality 

parameters has been done with the objective of minimizing the complexity and dimensionality of 

large set of data. The significant correlation has been further verified by using t-test. An attempt 

has been made to find the seasonal quality of water in Lakha banzara lake, in order to adopt a 

mathematical model for examine water quality. 

Key words: Water quality parameters, Correlation analysis. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

In India ponds, lakes, rivers and ground water are used for domestic and agricultural 

purposes. The quality of water may be described according to their physico-chemical and 

micro-biological characteristics. For effective maintenance of water quality through 

appropriate control measures, continuous monitoring of large number of quality parameters is 

essential. However it is very difficult and laborious task for regular monitoring of all the 

parameters even if adequate manpower and laboratory facilities are available. Therefore, an 

attempt based on statistical correlation, has been used to develop mathematical relationship 

for comparison of physico-chemical parameters. 



234 


OBJECTIVES 

STUDY AREA AND COLLECTION OF WATER SAMPLES 

Water samples were collected from 8 sampling station of Lakha banzara lake in sagar city 

viz: 1). Ganesh Ghat; 2). Chakra Ghat; 3). Gau Ghat; 4).Ghat near Dufrin Hospitil; 5). Baria Ghat; 

6). Dhobi Ghat; 7). Sanjay Drive; 8). Centre of lake. 

At premonsoon, during monsoon and post monsoon seasons from January 2007 to January 2008. 

The samples were collected in clean polythene bottles without any air bubbles. The bottles were 

rinsed before sampling and tightly sealed after collection and labeled in the field. 

The temperatures of the samples were measured in the field on the spot at the time of 

sample collection. The samples were immediately analysed in the chemistry lab. The error due to 

time has been omitted for the present study. 

MATERIAL, METHOD AND METHODOLOGY 

ANALYSIS OF WATER SAMPLE 

All the chemicals used were of AR grade. Analysis was carried out for various water 

quality parameters such as pH, total solids, Total Dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), 

total alkalinity, calcium, chloride and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were measured by using 

Standard methods. pH- measured using standard pH meter, total solids (TS), total dissolved solids 

(TDS) by standared methods, calcium content by EDTA titrimetric method, chloride content by 

argentometric method, Total hardness was calculated by complexometric titration using EDTA, 

methyl orange alkalinity and chemical oxygen demand (COD) by open reflux method.The 

statistical analysis has been performed using standard methods.Correlation coefficient (r) was 

calculated and correlation for significance has also been tested by applying t-test. Winks SDA 

6.0.5 Statistical Software was used for Statistical analysis. 


Table 1. Comparison of physicochemical parameters of Lakha banzara lakes water (In mg/L) at Pre monsoon 

with standard values (WHO) Physico - Chemical parameters, in mg/L (May 2007) 

Parameter P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 Mean 

Temp., 

°C 

WHO 

(Excessive 

limit) 

20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC 20 ºC - 

Colour Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish 

Odour 

Total 

solids 

mg/L 

Bad 

Smell 

1995 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

2015 1886 1970 1980 2110 1990 1760 

Bad 

Smell 

1963.25 

Unobjec 

tionable 

Ph 9.0 9.2 9.2 8.9 8.8 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.87 6.5-9.2 

TDS 

mg/L 

1700 1820 1560 1700 1740 1930 1800 1660 1738.75 1000 

Chloride 

mg/L 

TH 

mg/L 

Ca, 

mg/L 

Alkalinit 

y mg/L 

COD 

mg/L 

265 273 288 295 256 285 277 274 276.62 - 

1200 1240 1292 1185 1182 1280 1098 1190 1208.37 600 

90 96 87 83 100 90 90 94 91.25 200 

930 1090 1060 890 944 936 1050 1035 991.87 120 

265 278 266 280 285 280 255 260 271.12 255 

*P - indicate Sampling place 

1500

Seasonal Study with Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Water… 235 

Matrix of Correlation Coefficients (Pre monsoon) 

TS pH TDS CHLORIDE TH Ca ALKANITY COD 

TS 1 .031 .773 .013 .126 -.039 -.355 .505 

(.942) (.024) (.976) (.766) (.926) (.388) (.202) 

pH 1 -.415 .066 .402 -.116 .319 .129 

(.307) (.877) (.324) (.784) (.441) (0.76) 

TDS 1 -.079 -.057 .238 -.144 .344 

(.853) (.893) (0.57) (.734) (.403) 

CHLORIDE 1 .301 -.854 -.046 -.039 

(.468) (.007) (.914) (.927) 

TH 1 -.102 .054 .395 

(.811) (.899) (.332) 

Ca 1 .285 .217 

(.494) (.605) 

ALKANITY 1 -.483 

COD 1 

Key: Correlation 

(p-value) 

Table 2. Comparison of physicochemical parameters of Lakha banzara lakes water (In mg/L) at Monsoon 

with standard values (WHO) Physico - Chemical parameters, in mg/L (Sep. 2007) 

Parameter P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 Mean WHO 

Temp., 

ºC 


Colour Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish - 

Odour 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Unobjec 

tionable 

Total 

solids 

2012 2180 1980 2230 2210 2260 2135 2070 2134.62 1500 

pH 9.1 9.1 9.3 8.8 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.83 6.5-9.2 

TDS 1740 1970 1670 1860 1850 1990 1870 1730 1835 1000 

Chloride 256 270 268 275 276 280 286 269 272.5 600 

TH 

mg/L 

Ca 

mg/L 

Alkaliny 

mg/L 

900 940 1100 1010 950 980 990 1070 992.5 600 

95 92 108 97 120 124 116 121 109.12 200 

915 1050 960 930 910 870 950 960 943.12 120 

COD 272 280 286 285 290 295 265 270 280.37 255

236 


Matrix of Correlation Coefficients (monsoon) 

TS PH TDS CHLORIDE TH Ca ALKANITY COD 

TS 1 -.139 .837 .072 -.619 .527 -.451 .618 

(.607) ( 0.0) (0.79) (.011) (.036) (.079) (.011) 

pH 1 -.286 -.173 .078 -.393 .395 .099 

(.283) (.523) (.775) (.132) (0.13) (.715) 

TDS 1 .088 -.488 .345 -.219 .457 

(.746) (.055) (.191) (.415) (.075) 

CHLORIDE 1 .284 -.114 -.004 -.05 

(.286) (.675) (.988) (.854) 

TH 1 -.533 .357 -.273 

(.034) (.175) (.306) 

Ca 1 -.387 .398 

(.139) (.127) 


(.039) 

COD 1 


(p-value) 

Table 3. Comparison of physicochemical parameters of Lakha banzara lakes water (In mg/L) at Post 

monsoon with standard values (WHO) Physico - Chemical parameters, in mg/L (Jan. 2008) 

Paramet 

er 

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 Mean WHO 

Temp., 

ºC 


Colour Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish Greenish 

Odour 

Total 

solids 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Bad 

Smell 

Unobjec 

tionable 

1750 2080 1785 1834 1880 1897 1750 1825 1850.12 1500 

pH 9.4 9.0 9.1 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.8 8.5 8.76 6.5-9.2 

TDS 1715 1990 1750 1800 1860 1830 1710 1790 1805.62 

1000 

Chloride 

, mg/L 

TH, 

mg/L 

Ca, 

mg/L 

260 268 270 280 282 285 290 272 275.87 - 

880 910 960 850 885 950 920 970 915.62 600 

92 88 95 85 96 105 94 88 92.87 200 

Alkalinit 

y 

925 1010 970 945 960 940 960 1070 972.5 120 

COD 282 285 290 292 289 292 276 278 285.5 255

Seasonal Study with Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Water… 237 

Matrix of Correlation Coefficients (Post monsoon) 

TS PH TDS CHLORIDE TH Ca ALKANITY COD 

TS 1 -.019 .634 -.012 .075 .505 -.256 .082 

(.931) (.001) (.957) (.728) (.012) (.228) (.703) 

pH 1 -.137 -.313 .025 -.349 .26 .057 

(.522) (.137) (.907) (.094) (0.22) (.792) 

TDS 1 .054 -.381 .237 -.108 .415 

(.803) (.066) (.265) (.617) (.044) 

CHLORIDE 1 .141 -.044 -.04 -.009 

(0.51) (.838) (.852) (.965) 

TH 1 -.149 .255 -.475 

(.486) (0.23) (.019) 

Ca 1 -.381 .161 

(.066) (.451) 


(0.09) 

COD 1 


(p-value) 

A total of 8 water samples from Lakha banzara lake used by people of Sagar City were collected 

in clean polythene bottles and brought to the laboratory. The samples were chemically preserved by the 

addition of 3 - 5 ml concentrated HNO 3 per litre of the sample. he standard and observed values of 

physico-chemical parameters of experimental water samples are presented in table 1 - 3. The chemical 

data were complied further to know location wise distribution. The data revealed that there were 

considerable variations in the examined samples from different sources with respect to their chemical 

characteristics. The results indicate that the quality of water considerably varies from location to 

location. Correlation is the mutual relationship between two variables. Direct correlation exists when 

increase or decrease in the value of one parameter is associated with a corresponding increase or 

decrease in the value of the other. The correlation is said to be positive when increase in one parameter 

causes the increase in the other parameter and it is negative when increase in one parameter causes the 

decrease in the other parameter. orrelation coefficients (r) among various water quality parameters were 

calculated and the values of the correlation coefficients (r) are given in above correlation matrix table. 

At Pre-Monsoon 

The observed pH values ranging from 8.6 to 9.2 (table 1) shows that, the present water 

samples are slightly alkaline. The Weak positive correlationship found between Total solid and Ph 

(-.139), Total solid and Chloride (.013), Total solid and Total Hardness (.126), similarly in 

between (pH, Chloride), (pH, TH), (pH, alkalinity), (pH, COD), (TDS, Ca), (TDS, COD), 

(Chloride, TH), (TH, alkalinity), (TH, COD), (Chloride, TH), (Ca, alkalinity), (Ca, COD). The 

Moderate positive correlationship found between (TS, TDS) and (TS, COD). The Weak Negative 

correlationship found between (TS, Ca), (TS, alkalinity), (pH, Tds), (pH, Ca), (Tds, alkalinity), 

(Chloride, alkalinity), (Chloride, COD), (TDS, TH), (TDS, Chloride), (TH, Ca), (alkalinity, COD). 

The Strong Negative correlationship exist between (Chloride, Ca). 

At Monsoon 

The Strong positive correlationship found between (TS, TDS). The Moderate positive 

correlationship exist between (TS, COD), (TS, Ca). The Weak positive correlationship exist between 

(TH, alkalinity), (pH, COD), (TDS, Ca), (TDS, COD), (pH, TH), (pH, alkalinity), (TS, Chloride), 

(TDS, Chloride), (Chloride, TH), (Ca, COD). The Moderate Negative correlationship exist between

238 


(TS, TH), (TH, Ca), (alkalinity, COD). The Weak Negative correlationship exist between (Chloride, 

alkalinity), (Total solid and pH), (Total solid and alkalinity), (pH, TDS), (pH, Chloride), (pH, Ca), 

(Tds, alkalinity), (Tds, TS), (Ca, COD), (TH, COD), (Ca, alkalinity). 

At Post Monsoon 

The Moderate positive correlationship found between (TS, Tds), (TS, Ca). The Weak positive 

correlationship found between (TS, TH), (TS, COD), (pH, TH), (pH, alkalinity), (pH, COD), (TDS, 

Chloride), (TDS, Ca), (TDS, COD), (Chloride, TH), (TH, alkalinity), (Ca, COD). The Weak Negative 

correlationship found between ((TS, pH), (TS, Chloride), (TS, alkalinity), (pH, TDS), (pH, Chloride), 

(pH, Ca), (TDS, TH), (Tds, alkalinity), (Ca, Chloride), (Chloride, alkalinity), (Chloride, COD), (TH, 

Ca), (TH, COD), (Ca, alkalinity), (alkalinity, COD). A large number of factors and geological 

conditions influence the correlations between different pairs directly or indirectly. An appreciable 

significant strong positive correlation have been recorded for total solid and total dissolved solid (at 

monsoon). A strong negative correlation was found between Chloride and Ca. 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 

All the physico-chemical water quality parameters of Lakha banzara lakes water in sagar 

city are out of the highest desirable limit or maximum permissible limit set by WHO except pH, 

Chloride and Ca which recorded high values. Hence these sample water can not be much fit for 

drinking, irrigation and domestic used. The statistical analysis of the experimentally estimated 

water quality parameters on water samples yielded the range of the variation, mean, standard 

deviation and co-efficient of variation. Since the correlation coefficient gives the interrelationship 

between the parameters, correlation coefficients were calculated. Results of correlation analysis 

show that, at Premonsoon, monsoon,Postmonsoon all applied water quality parameters are beyond 

the maximum permissible limit set by WHO. The average of alkalinity has exceeded the desirable 

Limits which are due to improper drainage system. In conclusion from the results of the present 

study it may be said that the Lakha banzara lakes water of Sagar is not fit for domestic As well as 

bathing purpose need treatments to minimize the contamination especially the alkalinity. It is 

recommended that lakes water analysis should be carried out from time to time to monitor the rate 

and kind of contamination. It is need of human to expand awareness among the people to maintain 

the cleanness of lakes water at their highest quality and purity levels. 

REFERENCES 

Pathak H. (2011), Doctoral thesis (submitted), Dr. H. S. Gour central university, Sagar, M.P., India; 

Pathak H., Limaye S. N. (2011), Study of seasonal variation in ground Water quality Chemical parameters of Sagar city 

(M.P.) by principal component analysis and evaluation, E- Journal of chemistry, 8(4), 2000-2009; 

Shyamla R., Shanthi M., Lalitha P. (2008), Physicochemical Analysis of Bore well Water Samples of Telungupalayam Area 

in Coimbatore District, Tamilnadu, India, E-Journal of Chemistry, 5(4), 924-929; 

*** APHA (1992), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American public health association 

publication, 18th edition, Washington DC, ISBN 0-87553-131-8, ISSN 8755-3546; 

*** W.H.O (1984), Guidelines for drinking water quality, Recommendations WHO, Geneva, Vol.1, www.whoindia.org/; 

*** WINKS SDA software, Version 6, Web site at www.texasoft.com. 


August 09, 2011 Octomber 22, 2011 November 27, 2011



DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION TERRITORIAL 

DISPARITIES IN THE TIMIŞ PLAIN 

Bianca MITRICĂ ∗ 

Romanian Academy, Institute of Geography, D. RacoviŃă Street, 12, Bucharest, Romania, 

e-mail: biancadumitrescu78@yahoo.com 

Irena MOCANU 

Romanian Academy, Institute of Geography, D. RacoviŃă Street, 12, Bucharest, Romania, 

e-mail: mocanitai@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The aim of the paper is to analyse the territorial disparities of the drinking water 

infrastructure in the Timiş Plain. The article intends to highlight the data-base on NUTS V 

level (TEMPO Online time series, National Institute of Statistics) and to map the main 

changes registered by the statistical indicators used for the analysis: the number of territorialadministrative 

units (ATU) connected to the drinking water network, the length of the 

drinking water infrastructure, the capacity of installations to produce drinking water, the 

consumption of water by the different types of consumers). In Timiş Plain, the access to 

running water hasn’t registered important regional disparities, the expansion of the rural 

settlements connected to drinking water network being generalized in territory. The capacity 

of installations to produce drinking water had decreased, especially because of the drop of the 

installation situated in Timişoara Municipality, and in the other small towns, this trend being 

linked with the decrease (with 45%) of the quantity of drinking water distributed to 

consumers, especially to the economic agents. 

Keywords: territorial features, the drinking water infrastructure, Timiş Plain. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Water supply is a major indicator of the level of civilization in an area, and of 

development opportunities for the respective human communities. 

The issue of water supply to population and industry calls for a wide-ranging approach 

capable to outline the numerous socio-cultural, demographic and economic implications of 

benefiting from water supply in a centralized system and the real possibility of its daily use. 

Research into the quality of life and the living standard also emphasizes that water 

plays an important role in the daily life of the population (ENVIS Centre on Human 

Settlements, 2009; Eberhardt and Pegram, 2000; Chiriac et al., 2001; WQEHH, 2008; 

CWHW, 2010; PBWQ, 2011), improving the public health protection (WQEHH, 2008), 

reducing the child mortality (Günther, 2011) etc. 



240 


In Timiş Plain, the access to running water doesn’t shows great regional disparities. The 

proportion of settlements, short of running water is two or three times lower in the central and the 

western counties of Romania than in those located in south-western, southern and western parts of 

the country. The statistical returns of the last census (2002) reveal that the Timiş County partially 

overlapping the Timiş Plain boundaries rank in the superior half of the national hierarchy for 

indicators regarding: „the proportion of households without sewerage per the total number of 

households” (Timiş - 34%) and „the proportion of households with bath-rooms per the total 

number of households in the rural area” (Timiş - 25%) (ADPSRN, 2003). 

DATA SOURCES 

This study intends to highlight the data-base on NUTS V database (TEMPO Online timeseries 

published by the National Institute of Statistics). 

The main changes (between 2000 - 2008, with updates to 2010 whenever possible) 

registered by the statistical indicators and used in this analysis focus on the number of territorialadministrative 

units - ATUs - connected to the drinking water network, the length of the drinking 

water infrastructure, the capacity of drinking water production plants and water consumption by 

types of consumers. They are represented on a series of maps using GIS techniques. 

HISTORICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC BACKGROUNDS 

In 1552, the first tower for water was documentary attested in Timişoara City; during 

the XVIII century were attested the first mechanic installation for the water transportation 

from Bega river in the City (1732) and an installation for water supply (1778). In Timişoara 

Municipality, the first water treatment plant had started to function on June 1, 1914 (figure 1). 

From 1916, the industrial water plant operates in Timişoara Municipality; after forty years a 

new water treatment plant has become functional, the Water Treatment Plant no. 2 capturing and 

treating the water from Bega River (the initial capacity was 115.7 l/s). 

Figure 1. Territorial coverage of the Timiş Plain with Aquatim Company's services 

(Source: Aquaştiri, http://www.aquatim.ro/uploads/file/de%20actualitate/Aquastiri_iunie%202010.pdf)

Drinking Water Supply and Consumption Territorial… 241 

The existing water treatment plants were extended during the last two decades of the 

XX century: the Water Treatment Plants no. 2, extended with Water Treatment Plants no. 4 

(1982), a new front capture (40 new drilling, in 1990) for the Water Treatment Plants no. 5 

(1991). From the second half of the ’90, the different programmes and sources for financing 

were used for the development of water infrastructure (1995 - Municipal Utilities 

Development Programme, 11.9 millions USD, 2002 – Instrument for Structural Policies for 

Pre-Accession (ISPA) Programme for the wastewater treatment plant rehabilitation and the 

upgrading of the sewerage network, 45 millions euros). 

The Timiş Plain is situated in Timiş County, which constitutes a driving force for the 

Romanian economy, the GDP coming third after that of Bucharest and of Ilfov County, the 

great many small and medium-sized enterprises representing an important contributor to the 

area’s GDP (by over 40%), due to commercial and import-export activities. In present 

Timişoara Municipality is a great polarizer for the industry and services sectors, concentrating 

60% of all of the Timiş County industrial units. 

The economic structure of the Timiş Plain is influenced by the evolutions seen in 

Timişoara Municipality, the city supplying 96% of the entire workforce to the 12 settlements 

from the plain. The total number of employees registered a sinuous evolution and beginning 

with the last decade, was observed a constant increase, due to the development of a viable 

entrepreneurial sector based mostly on small and medium-sized enterprises, and the attraction 

of foreign investments in particular. 

The positive dynamics of the socio-economic life is due primarily to its geographical 

position at the cross-roads between the Carpathian realm and the Pannonian Basin. Timiş 

County, especially the Timiş Plain, is an area of major economic importance and a gateway to 

Central Europe and Balkan Europe; in addition, the Timişoara City lies in a zone of vast 

European convergence and penetration, featuring big transport and communication axes. 

The main demographic particularities of the Timiş Plain are the followings: total population 

is 346,818 inhabitants, population structure: 89.8% urban population, 10.2% rural population, 

demographic size of the settlements is 1,429 inh. (BucovăŃ) and 311,586 inh. Timişoara City and 

population density is 341.7 inh./sq km. 

In some of the Timiş Plain communes, the decrease trend of the population had been visible 

even before 1989, depopulation setting in due to the rural-urban migration, despite the restrictive 

measures to stop this phenomenon by closing the large urban centres new incomers. Over the past 

20 years, the Timiş Plain lost 13,467 inhabitants, the decrease culminating in 2002, and improving 

slightly between 2006 and 2009. 

The historic region of Banat was even in the past (under communism) a space characterised 

by temporal and definitive immigration mainly for people from Moldavia and Oltenia, and after 

1990 also from some parts of Arad, Hunedoara and Teleorman counties. 

The main economic actor in the water supply filed is Aquatim, which represents the 

regional operating company of the public water and wastewater services for Timişoara 

Municipality and 40 other localities from Timiş County (figure 1). 

TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION OF DRINKING WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 

The human settlements network connected to drinking water supply was in a 

continuous extension because of the connection of rural communes. In 1990, 66.6% of total 

administrative territorial units (ATU) of the Timiş Plain were connected to the drinking water 

supply and in 2009 (91.6%) (figure 2). 

The length of drinking water network increased continuously in the interval 1990 - 2009, 

with 41.3% (with 30.5% over 2000 - 2009), being correlated with the extension of the localities 

network connected to drinking water supply (the most significant in Timişoara Municipality and in 

the rural communes of Giroc, Şag, Uivar and BucovăŃ, localised in the neighborhood of the 

Timişoara Municipality) (figure 3).

242 


Figure 2. The ATU connected to drinking water supply (1990 and 2009) 

Figure 3. The length of drinking water network. Territorial characteristic


Field investigations conducted in the Timiş - Bega Interfluve pilot area revealed the 

situation of the settlements connected to the drinking water network shows: a good coverage with 

water services, yet been clearly differentiated between rural and urban ATU in terms of length of 

drinking water network, share of households with water supply, quantity of water distributed to the 

consumers. In the pilot-area Timiş-Bega Intefluve, the total length of drinking water network is 

836.6 km (2010), 73.9% being concentrated in Timişoara Municipality. 

The territorial disparities between the villages from the pilot-area Timiş-Bega Intefluve 

outlines the greater length of drinking water network in the rural settlements in the 

neighborhoods of Timişoara Municipality (the case of Giroc and Chişoda villages, which have 

the water network connected with the network of Timişoara Municipality) that in the villages 

localized at the periphery of the Timiş County.In the pilot-area Timiş-Bega Intefluve, in 2010, 

the total number of householders is 343,826, and 98.07% from these are connected to the 

drinking water network (100% in urban area and 46.4% in rural area) (figure 4). 

Figure 4. The households connected to the drinking water network 

In February, 2011, the financing of the project „Extension and modernization of water supply 

and sanitation in Timiş County“ was signed. The project has a value of 118.87 million euros and it is 

financed from the Cohesion Fund, by Sectoral Operational Programme Environment. 

QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS CONCERNING THE PRODUCTION AND THE 

CONSUMPTION OF DRINKING WATER 

The capacity of installations to produce drinking water had decreased with 22.9%. The 

decrease was caused by the drop of capacity to produce drinking water specific for the installations 

situated in Timişoara Municipality, Deta, Sânnicolau Mare and Lovrin (figures 5, 6). 

In Timişoara Municipality, in 2008, Aquatim SA supplied an average of 2.63 million 

liter/hour (Raport anual Aquatim (RAQ), 2008). The city relies mostly on river water supplied 

by the Bega treatment plant, but also on groundwater supplied from 56 water drills by the 

Urseni and Ronat treatment plants. The river water/groundwater ratio has been maintained 

constant in the last years to protect the natural, resources (RAQ, 2008).

244 


Figure 5. Dynamic of installations capacity to produce drinking water 

Figure 6. The capacity of installations to produce drinking water. Territorial disparities (2009) 

In terms of territorial differentiation, the major changes in response time consist in the 

increasing of the quantity of drinking water distributed to consumers in 2 different areas: 

-in the western part (Lenauheim, Tomnatic, Gottlab, Comoloşu Mare, Lovrin); 

-in the eastern part of Timişoara Municipality (figure 7).


The quantity of drinking water distributed to all consumers decreased by 56.4% 

(between 2000 and 2009). The two types of consumers shows the same negative dynamic, 

household consumption dropping by only 19.8%, compared to 77.3% in the case of the other 

consumers (figure 8). 

Figure 7. The quantity of drinking water distributed to consumers by types of consumers (2009) 

inhab. 

350000 

thou.cubic cm 

25000 

300000 

20000 

250000 

200000 

15000 

150000 

10000 

100000 

50000 

5000 

Figure 8. The quantity of drinking water 

distributed to consumers by type of 

consumers 

0 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 

urban population rural population urban consumption rural consumption 

Figure 9. The consumption of drinking water of the urban 

and rural population 

0

246 


The quantity of drinking water supplied to population fell over the 2000 - 2009 period 

(figure 9) because of population decrease, the implementation of water measurement system and 

the increase of drinking water costs. Between 2020 - 2100 the quantity of drinking water 

supplied to the population is expected to increase in the county-side due to improvements in the 

drinking water supply length (11.0% in 2050 and 11.6% in 2100) and in town due to increase of 

population (15% in 2050 and 20% in 2100). 

GENERAL ANALYSIS OF THE WATER PRICE 

Between 2000 and 2009, the cost of water rose by 5.8 times, from 0.42 to 2.46 lei (Raport anual 

Aquatim (RAQ), 2008). Water consumption and cost increases over the studied period were 

closely correlating (figure 10). 

Figure 10. The quantity of drinking water distributed to population and water costs 

Figure 11. Cost of water distributed (2010) 

The cost of water distributed in the territory varied significantly from one locality to another, 

prices staying high in Uivar, Timişoara, Giroc and MoşniŃa Nouă with lowest values at Becicherecu 

Mic and Giulvăz, settlements situated in the south-west of the Timiş Plain (figure 11).


CONCLUSIONS 

In Timiş Plain, the access to running water doesn’t shows important regional disparities. 

The expansion of the human settlements network connected to drinking water supply is 

accompanied by the decrease of the capacity of installations to produce drinking water (with 

23.4%, especially because of the drop of the installation situated in Timişoara Municipality, Deta, 

Sânnicolau Mare and Lovrin) and of the quantity of drinking water distributed to consumers (with 

45%, the two types of consumers having the same dynamic (negative) but the consumption of the 

households had drop less, compared with 70.6% specify for the other consumers. 

Field investigations conducted in 2010 in the Timiş Plain pilot area, revealed a good 

coverage with water services: 343,826 households and 98.07% from these are connected to the 

drinking water network. It is obvious the differentiation between rural and urban administrativeterritorial 

units, in terms of length of drinking water network, share of households with water 

supply, quantity of water distributed to the consumers. 

The drinking water prices increased, in the context of the decreasing of the quantity of drinking 

water distributed to the population, because of the decreasing of the total number of population. 

The present study underlines the weaknesses in systems of water supply in Timiş Plain: the 

insufficient water supply networks territorial expantion in the rural area, the low level water 

metering to customers, the high level of losses due to wear of the systems, the degree of metering 

an low cost coverage by tariffs, the rural environment does not benefits the wastewater collection 

system and the wastewaters are discharged unpurified or poorly treated. 

REFERENCES 

Chiriac D., Humă Cristina, Tudor Cristina, (2001), Impactul socio-economic al apei asupra calităŃii vieŃii populaŃiei din 

România, Calitatea VieŃii, XII, nr. 1- 4, Bucureşti; 

Eberhardt R., Pegram G. (2000), The water sector. a position paper, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische 

Zusammenarbeit, GmbH, World Wide Fund for Nature, Development Bank of Southern Africa; 

Günther, Isabel, Günther, F., (2011), Water and Sanitation to Reduce Child Mortality. The Impact and Cost of Water and 

Sanitation Infrastructure, Policy Research Working Paper, no. 5618, The World Bank, Development Economics 

Prospects Group. 

Qilin L., Dueñas-Osorio L., Raciny I. (2009), Sustainable water infrastructure for improving public health protection. A 

look at centralized, decentralized and hybrid water systems, http://shellcenter.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=59; 

*** (2003), Aspecte privind dezvoltarea, populaŃia şi sănătatea reproducerii la nivel naŃional şi studii de caz. România 

(ADPSRN), UNFPA, Bucureşti; 

*** (2008), Water Quality for Ecosystems and Human Health (WQEHH), 2nd edition, UNEP, ERCE, UNESCO, 

http://www.unwater.org/wwd10/downloads/water_quality_human_health.pdf; 

*** (2008), Raport anual Aquatim (RAQ), http://www.aquatim.ro/uploads/file/rapoarte_anuale/aquatim-raport-anual- 

2008.pdf; 

*** (2008), Aquaştiri, anul 2, nr. 6, http://www.aquatim.ro/uploads/file/de%20actualitate/Aquastiri_iunie%202010.pdf; 

*** (2010), Raport anual Aquatim (RAQ), http://www.aquatim.ro/uploads/file/rapoarte_anuale/raport-anual-2010- 

aquatim.pdf 

*** (2010), World Water Day „Clean Water for a Healthy World" (CWHW), UN-Water, UNEP, FAOWater, 

http://www.unwater.org/wwd10/downloads/WWD2010_LOWRES_BROCHURE_EN.pdf; 

*** (2011), Policy Brief on Water Quality (PBWQ), UN-Water, http://www.unwater.org/downloads/waterquality_policybrief.pdf. 

*** (2009), Monograph in Quality of Life Indicators, ENVIS Centre on Human Settlements, Department of Environmental 

Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi. 





CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE ASSOCIATION OF 

FESTUCO DRYMEJAE-FAGETUM FROM LĂZĂRENI HILLS 

(NORTH-WESTERN ROMANIA) 

Laura Mariana LACATOŞ (HERMAN) ∗ 

University of Oradea, Faculty of Sciences, Biology Department, 

PhD Student, Oradea, Romania, e-mail:lauralacatos@yahoo.com 

Grigore Vasile HERMAN 

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 

1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: grigoreherman@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The importance and relevance of the present study emerges from the analysis and 

characterization for the first time of an association of Festuco drymejae-Fagetum (Morariu et 

al., 1968) in an unchartered territory from this point of view. The very existence of this 

association that is specific to the mountain area adds something new. Human impact on 

vegetation from this space took various types and forms, among which stands out: burning of 

vegetation, overgrazing, deforestation and not at least air and waters pollution. Deciduous 

forests in general in Piedmont Lăzăreni suffered in recent years (1990 - 2008) because of the 

economic degradation that caused serious damage to the exploitation of timber. 

Key words: association, phytocoenologic study, ecological factors, floristic elements 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The area studied (Lăzăreni Hills), is located in terms of space in the central southern part of 

Bihor County, between Crişul Repede River to the north and Crişul Negru River to the south (figure 1). 

From the geographic point of view this area represents a subsystem of the orographic system of the 

Western Hills. In its turn, this subsystem behaves as a system consisting of several physical and 

geographical units among which we mention: Tăşad Hills, Betfiei Hills, Hidişel Hills, Calea Mare Hills 

etc. Over time, Lăzăreni Hills were treated in the specialized literature from the following points of 

view: orographic (Pop, 2005), geological (łicleanu, 2008), climatic (Dragotă, 2006; Dumiter, 2007), 

pedological (Sabău et al., 2002) and biogeographic (Burescu and Cheregji, 2002; Burescu et al., 2002; 

Burescu and Lacatoş, 2010; Lacatoş and Burescu, 2010; Lacatoş, 2010a; Lacatoş, 2010b) etc. And in 

our country, this association has been described in North-Western Romania (Ardelean, 2002; Groza, 

2008; PăşcuŃ and Burescu, 2010; Pop et al., 2002), in Oltenia (RăduŃoiu, 2006), in Moldova (Gurău, 

2004), in South Western Romania (Nicolim and Imrea, 2009) etc 

In a careful analysis of the specialized bibliographic literature focused on this area, it is 

noted the absence of scientific gaps aimed at various components of the environment. This study 

comes in completing and improving information about an anthropic area, in full process of 

degradation due to the actions and activities of man. 



Contributions to the Knowledge of the Association of Festuco Drymea-Făgetum… 249 

Figure 1. Geographical location of Lăzăreni Hills 

(Source: processing after Pop, 2005) 

- 


In the study of vegetation cover a total of 52 phytocoenologic lifts were made, during 2008 

- 2010, of which 10 more representative surveys entered into the composition of the 

phytocoenologic table (table 1), according to the methodology used in scientific research work by 

Borza and Boşcaiu (1954), Borhodi (1996), Braun-Blanquet and Pavillard (1928), Marian (2008), 

Pott (1995) and Sanda (2008). Flora inventoried in the 10 surveys comprise a total of 54 species 

which are grouped in the phytocoenologic table on probative and characteristic species, differential 

or of recognition, which are subordinated to the sub-alliance, alliance, order and class. 

The synthetic table contains information about the species included in the floristic composition of 

the association, biological form, floristic elements, ecological indices (humidity, temperature, soil chemical 

reaction), karyotype, serial number of the survey, altitude (m.s.m.), exposition, slope, tree height (m), 

diameter of the trees (cm), canopy, grassy layer cover (%), surface (sqm). 

Overall coverage of each species participating in the association table was made with the 

index of abundance-dominance and besides it was calculated and noted the constancy (K) 

according to its evaluation system Braun-Blanquet. At the bottom of the table there were listed the 

species occurring in a single survey, place and the date of the surveys. 

Data from the phytocoenologic and environmental study of the association Festuco 

drymejae-Fagetum were plotted as a spectrum of biological shapes, of floristic elements, 

ecological indices and karyotype. 

RESULTS 

Beech forests studied are located along some streams, the valley and extend to the coast 

slopes with gradients ranging from 8º - 25º. Above them, on the plateau, there is a mixture of 

hornbeam and beech (Carpino-Fagetum), oak with hornbeam (Querceto petraeae-Cărpinetum),

250 

Mariana Laura LACATOŞ (HERMAN), Grigore Vasile HERMAN 

holm with hornbeam (Carpino-Quercetum cerris), holm with Turkey oak (Querco petraeaecerris), 

etc. They love moisture and are mostly located in the northern, north-western slopes. 

The association Festuco drymejae-Fagetum (figure 2) was identified in the following 

places: Miheleu, Gepiş, Lăzăreni, Holod, Sititelec, Oşand, Mierlău, Chijic and Copăcel, places 

whose pedological substrate is characterized by profound and intense moist soils up to damp - wet 

soils where air humidity is sufficient for the beech to find conditions favorable to life. 

Figure 2. Festuco drymejae-Fagetum BiŃişagului Valley (Lăzăreni village-Bihor County) 

The flora of the phytocoenoses studied in this area is rich summing up a total of 54 species 

(table 1), including a beautiful forest orchid Cephalanthera damassonium (Oprea, 2005), as well 

as the species Fagus sylvatica and Festuca drymejae which are species characteristic and dominant 

for the association analyzed. 

Tree layer is well represented by Fagus sylvatica having a general coverage of 75%, a 

maximum consistency (K=V), and the herbaceous layer is given by Festuca drymeja with an 

average coverage of 36.5%, a maximum consistency (K=V). 

Among the species identifying the sub-aliance Symphyto-Fagenion, alliance Symphyto 

cordati-Fagion and order Fagetalia sylvaticae we mention: Cardamine glanduligera, Euphorbia 

amygdaloides, Lamium galeobdolon, Asarum europaeum, Carex digitata, etc. And of the class 

Querco-Fagetea: Anemone nemorosa, Aposeris foetida, Athyrium filix–femina, Brachypodium 

sylvaticum, Campanula persicifolia etc. 

N o. of species (% ) 

70 

60 

59.2 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

5.5 

1.8 

Life form s 

H Th C h G M Ph nPh 

22.2 

Figure 3. The spectrum of life form in the association Festuco drymejae-Fagetum, 

where: H = hemicryptophytes; Th =Annual terophytes; Ch= Chamaephytes; G = geophytes; MPh = 

Megaphanerophytes; nPh = Nanophanerophytes; 

9.8 

1 .8


The analysis of the spectrum of biological forms (figure 3), highlights the predominance of 

hemicryptophytes (59.2%), followed at a great distance by geophytes (22.2%) and woody species (11.6%). 

In the spectrum of floral elements (figure 4), it is shown that the majority are Eurasian 

species (46.3%), European (29.6%) and Central European (9.2%). 

No. of species (%) 

50 46.3 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

9.2 

29.6 

3.7 

Floristic elements 

Eua Ec E Carp-B Alt-Med Cp Cosm 

3.7 

1.8 

5.5 

Figure 4. Spectrum of floristic elements of the association Festuco drymejae-Fagetum, 

where: Eua= Eurasian; Ec=Central European; E=European; Carp-B=Carpathian-Balkanic; Atl-Med=Atlantic- 

Mediterranean; Cp=Circumpolar Cosm=Cosmopolitan; 

N o. of species (% ) 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 0 

E cological factor 

U T R 

Figure 5. Diagram of ecological factors for the Festuco drymejae-Fagetum, 

where: U= humidity, T= temperature, R= the chemical reaction of the soil. 

No. of species (%) 

60 51.8 

50 

42.6 

40 

30 

20 

10 

3.7 

1.8 

0 

D P D.P 

Karyological spectum 

CN 

Figure 6. The spectrum of karyological in the association Festuco drymejae-Fagetum, where: 

D=dyploid; P=polyploid; D.P=Dyplo-polyploid; CN= karyotype is not knows.

252 


Ecological factors (figure 5), emphasizes in terms of moisture the high number of 

mesophilous plants (68.5%), followed by xero-mesophilous (16.6%), which has values close to 

mezo-higrophyle (13.8%). Compared to the heat factor micro-mesothermal species distinguish 

(68.4%) as well as micro-thermal (16.6%). Depending on the chemical reaction most species are 

acid-neutrophilous (38.9%), followed by weak acid-neutrophilous (29.6%), at a very small 

distance by amphitolerant species (27.8%). 

From the karyological analysis (figure 6), the high number of diploid species come off 

(51.8%), followed at a small difference by polyploids (42.6%). The diplo-polyploid couple (3.7%) 

is poorly represented in the association, as the species with unknown karyotype (1.8%). Diploids 

index has a value of 1.2. 

DISCUSSIONS 

Making a comparison between the work „Contributions to the phytocoenologic study in 

pure European beech stand forests in Codru-Moma mountains (North-Western Romania)” and this 

work from Lăzăreni Hills, we find that the first work comprises a large number of 104 species in 

Codru-Moma Mountains, while in Lăzăreni Hills we have a halved number of only 54 species, of 

which 36 species are common in the two areas studied. 

Differences in excess of the dominance of biological forms in association, of floristic elements 

and ecological factors are not too many; comparing them, we note a certain similarity in that: 

In Codru-Moma Mountains, live forms are represented by hemicriptophyte (H=50%), 

geophyte (G=23.6%) and megafanerophyte (MPh=13%), and in Lăzăreni Hills we have 

hemicriptophyte (H=59.2%), geophyte (G=22.2%) and megafanerophyte (MPh= 9.8%). 

In terms of floristic elements Codru-Moma Mountains are dominated by the Eurasian species 

(Eua=47.7%), European (E=18.7%) and circumpolar (Cp=8.4%), and in Lăzăreni Hills first places are 

held by the Eurasian (Eua=46.3%), European (E=29.6%) and Central European (Ec=9.2%). 

Behavior to environmental factors both in Codru-Moma Mountains and Lăzăreni Hills, 

phytocoenoses are of mesophilic character (67% in Codru-Moma Mountains, 68.5% in 

Lăzăreni Hills) and xero-mesophilic (12% in Codru-Moma Mountains, 16.6% in Lăzăreni 

Hills). Compared to temperature they are micro-mesothermal (75.9% in Codru-Moma 

Mountains, 68.4% in Lăzăreni Hills) and microthermal (12% in Codru-Moma Mountains, 

16.6% in Lăzăreni Hills). Soil chemical reaction capitalized through acid-neutrophil species 

(37% in Codru-Moma Mountains, 38.9% in Lăzăreni Hills) and low-acid neutrophil (37% in 

Codru-Moma Mountains, 29.6% in Lăzăreni Hills). 

Comparative analysis with work 11 illustrates the large number of species (70 species) 

found in similar associations from Pădurea Craiului Mountains for the small number of species (54 

species) which are part of the same phytocoenoses from Lăzărenilor Hills. 26 species are common 

for both situations. After live forms, are dominant hemicryptophytes (H=34% in Pădurea Craiului 

Mountains, H=59.2% in Lăzărenilor Hills), geophytes (G=23% in Pădurea Craiului Mountains, 

G=22.2% in Lăzărenilor Hills) and megaphanerophytes (Mph=11% in Pădurea Craiului Mountains, 

Mph=9.8% in Lăzărenilor Hills). In terms of florist elements found in Pădurea Craiului Mountains, 

the most representative species are the European species (E=30%), the Eurasian species (Eua=24%) 

and Central European species (Ec=21%) and, in Lăzărenilor Hills, the most representative are the 

Eurasian species (Eua=46.3%) and the Central European species (Ec=9.2%). 

Compared to ecological factors, species from Pădurea Craiului Mountains and from 

Lăzărenilor Hills have a mesophilic character (74.2% those from Pădurea Craiului Mountains and 

68.5% those from Lăzărenilor Hills). 

In terms of temperature, there are 77.1% micro-mesothermal in Pădurea Craiului 

Mountains and 68.4% in Lăzărenilor Hills. Chemical reaction shows acid-neutrophil species 

and weak acid-neutrophil species (67.1% in Pădurea Craiului Mountains and 38.9% in 

Lăzărenilor Hills), followed by euro-ionic species (22.8% in Pădurea Craiului Mountains and 

27.8% in Lăzărenilor Hills).


A relatively similar situation is presented by species from Festuco drymejae-Fagetum 

association analyzed in works „Flora şi vegetaŃia din depresiunea Caşin-Oneşti (sectorul CăiuŃi- 

Oituz)”, „Flora şi vegetaŃia judeŃului Satu-Mare”, „VegetaŃia JudeŃului Cluj. (Studiu 

fitocenologic, ecologic, bioeconomic şi ecoprotectiv)” and „Caracterizarea sinecologică a 

principalelor fitocenoze lemnoase din łara Oaşului (judeŃul Satu-Mare)”. Differences and 

similarities are generated by their spatial location. 

As a conclusion, Festuco drymejae-Fagetum association, analyzed in the above-mentioned 

works, is located, from orographic point of view, in mountain region, while, in this study, it is 

described in hills region. In the mountain region, the association has a much higher number of 

species, it is often doubled (for example, in work „Contributions to the phytocoenologic study in 

pure European beech stand forests in Codru-Moma mountains (North-Western Romania)”, 

compared to Lăzărenilor Hills. Making a comparison between the analysis of live forms, of 

floristic elements and of ecological factors described in Lăzărenilor Hills, and the works from the 

mountain region, it appears a certain similitude between them. 

L.f. F. e. U. T. R. 2n 

Tabel 1. As. Festuco drymejae-Fagetum (Morariu et al. 1968) 

Nr. Land Surveys 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 K AD 

m 

Altitude (m.s.m.) 250 290 260 280 240 260 280 210 230 220 

Exposition N NV N E NE NV N V NV SE 

Slope (º) 20 25 20 20 25 18 20 9 10 8 

Trees high (sqm) 19 20 22 21 17 20 18 23 21 22 

Trunk diam. (cm) 35 40 50 45 30 40 50 55 45 60 

Consistency of tree layer 0.8 0.95 0.7 0.8 1 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.9 

The grass layer (%) 60 55 35 75 45 95 60 55 35 80 

Surface (sqm) 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 

MPh E 3 3 0 D Fagus sylvatica 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 5 5 5 V 75 

G Carp-B 4 2 3 D Festuca drymeja 3 3 2 3 2 4 3 3 2 4 V 36,5 

Symphyto-Fagenion; Symphyto cordati-Fagion; Fagetalia sylvaticae 

G Carp-B 4 2.5 4 P Cardamine glanduligera + + . . . + . + + + III 0,3 

Ch E 3 3.5 4 D Euphorbia amygdaloides + + + + + . + + + + V 0,45 

H Ec 3 0 4 D Lamium galeobdolon + + + 1 . + + + + + V 0,9 

H Eua 3.5 3 4 D Asarum europaeum + + + . . + + + + . IV 0,35 

H E 3 3 3 P Carex digitata + + + + . . + + + + IV 0,4 

H E 3.5 3 4 P Carex sylvatica + + . + 1 + + . + + IV 0,85 

G Eua 3.5 3 4 D Circaea lutetiana + + + 1 + . + . + . IV 0,8 

G Ec 2.5 3 3 P Galium schultezii + + + + + + . . + + IV 0,4 

H Eua 3 3 3 D Lathyrus vernus + . + + + + . + . + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3.5 3 3 DP Myosotis sylvatica + + + . + + . + . + IV 0,35 

H Cp 4 3 3 D Oxalis acetosella + . + + . + + . + + IV 0,35 

H E 3.5 3 3 D Pulmonaria officinalis + . + + + + . + + + IV 0,4 

H E 3 2.5 3 P Rubus hirtus + + + . + . + . + + IV 0,35 

H Atl-Med 3.5 3 4 D Sanicula europaea . + + + . + . + + + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 3 0 P Symphytum tuberosum + + . + + . + + . + IV 0,35 

G Ec 3 3 4 P Cardamine bulbifera + . + + . . + + . + III 0,3 

G Eua 3 3 3 P Galium odoratum + . + . + + 1 + . . III 0,75 

G Eua 3 3 0 P Maianthemum bifolium . + . + + . + + + . III 0,3 

H Eua 3.5 0 4 P Paris quatrifolia . + . + + + + + . . III 0,3 

Querco-Fagetea 

G E 3.5 4 0 P Anemone nemorosa + + . + + . + . + + IV 0,35 

H Ec 3 2.5 3 D Aposeris foetida + + + . + . + + + . IV 0,35 

H Cosm 4 2.5 0 P Athyrium filix–femina + + . + + . . + + + IV 0,35 

H Eua(Med) 2.5 4 4 D Brachypodium sylvaticum . + + . + + + . + + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 3 0 D Campanula persicifolia + + + . + . + + + + IV 0,4 

H E 4.5 3 3 P Carex remota + . + . + . + + + + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 2 2 DP Cruciata glabra . + . + + + . + + + IV 0,35 

H Cosm 4 3 0 P Dryopteris fili–mas + . + 1 1 2 + + + . IV 3 

H Eua 4 3 2 P Festuca gigantea . + + + + + . . + + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 2.5 0 D Fragaria vesca + + . + + . + . + + IV 0,35 

Th Eua 3 2 0 D Galeopsis speciosa + . + . . + + + + + IV 0,35 

H Eua(Med) 3 3 4 P Geum urbanum + + . + . + + + + . IV 0,35 

nPh Atl-Med 3 3 3 P Hedera helix + + + 1 + . + + . + IV 0,85 

Th Eua(Med) 2.5 3 3 D Lapsana communis . . + + + + + + . + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 0 4 D Melica nutans + + + . . + + + + + IV 0,4 

H E 2.5 3 4 D Melica uniflora + . + + + + + . + . IV 0,35 

H E 3 3 0 D Mycelis muralis + + + + + . . + + + IV 0,4

254 


G Eua 3.5 0 3 CN Platanthera bifolia + . . + + + + + . + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 3 0 D Stellaria holostea + + + + + . . + . + IV 0,35 

H Eua 3 3 4 D Astragalus glycyphyllos . + + + . + + + . . III 0,3 

G E(Med) 2.5 3 4 P Cephalanthera + . + . + . + + . . III 0,25 

damassonium 

G E 2.5 3 3 D Convallaria majalis + . + . + + + . + . III 0,3 

Th Cosm 3.5 3 3 P Geranium robertianum . . + . + . + . + + III 0,25 

H Eua 3 3 0 P Poa nemoralis . + + . . + + . + + III 0,3 

G Eua(Med) 2 3 4 D Polygonatum odoratum + + . + . . + + + . III 0,3 

MPh E 3 3 3 D Prunus avium . + + . . + + + . + III 0,3 

MPh E 2.5 3 0 D Quercus petraea + . . + + . . + . + III 0,25 

H Eua 3.5 0 0 P Stachys sylvatica . + + + . + . + + . III 0,3 

H Eua 3 3 3 P Viola reichembachiana + + . + . + . + + . III 0,3 

MPh E 2.5 3 3 D Acer campestre . . + . + + . + . . II 0,2 

MPh E 3 3 3 P Carpinus betulus . + . + . + . . + . II 0,2 

Accompanying 

H Eua 3 0 3 D Galium molugo + + + . . + + . + + IV 0,35 

H Ec 4.5 2 0 D Chaerophyllum hirsutum . . . + . . + + + . II 0,2 

L.f. = life forms; H = hemicryptophytes; Th = Annual terophytes; Ch = Chamaephytes; G = geophytes; MPh = 

Megaphanerophytes; nPh = Nanophanerophytes; F.e.= floristic elements; Eua = Eurasian; Ec = Central European; E = 

European; Carp-B = Carpathian-Balkanic; Atl-Med = Atlantic-Mediterranean; Cp = Circumpolar Cosm = Cosmopolitan; U 

= humidity, T = temperature, R = the chemical reaction of the soil; 2n = karyological spectrum; D = dyploid; P = polyploid; 

D, P = Dyplo-polyploid; CN = karyotype is not knows. 

Species that occur in a single releve: Cruciata laevipes, Equisetum maximum. 

Place and date of mapping: 1. Briciu Valley - Miheleu village, 25.07.2009; 2. Gepişanului 

Valley - Gepiş village, 31.05.2009; 3. Luncile Valley - Lăzăreni village, 02.06.2009; 4. BiŃişagului 

Valley - Lăzăreni village, 02.06.2009; 5. Hodişel Valley - Holod village, 28.06.2009; 6. 

Şumugiului Valley – Sititelec village, 28.05.2009; 7. Surupa Valley - Oşand village, 22.08.2009; 

8. Forest Şumugiu - Mierlău village, 22.08.2009; 9. Forest Dumbrava - Mierlău village, 

25.07.2009; 10. Forest Gruiului - Copăcel village, 07.06.2009. 

The presence of Festuco drymejae-Fagetum association in these hills was conditioned by local 

specific topoclimatic conditions, generated by the existence of some orographic thermal inversions. 

The explanation for the existence of beech in Lăzăreni Hills is closely linked to physical 

and geographical conditions encountered in this area. Although beech vegetates at altitudes above 

1200 m in the latitudinal range of conditions between 40º - 45º, we will see that here it is an 

exception to the rule mentioned above. The scientific explanation of this is attributed to thermal 

inversions occurring at the level of topoclimate along the valleys such as: Gepişanului Valley, 

Luncile Valley, BiŃişagului Valley, Şumugiului Valley, Surupa Valley etc., cold air masses taking 

refuge along them generating conditions conducive to the emergence and development of beech. 

Deciduous forests in general in Piedmont Lăzăreni suffered in recent years (1990 - 2008) 

because of the economic degradation that caused serious damage to the exploitation of timber. 

The result of human impact is that a large number of species, some of them having endemic 

value, disappeared or will disappear. 

ACKNOWLEGMENTS 

This contribution was partially suported by POSDRU/59/1.5/S/1 research project. The 

authors acknowledge to anonymous reviewer for their throughtful suggestions and comments. 

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May 28, 2011 July 29, 2011 Octomber 07, 2011



GENESIS AND DYNAMICS OF A GEO-DEMOGRAPHIC 

SINGULARITY. A CASE STUDY - THE GIPSY COMMUNITY OF 

TOFLEA (BRĂHĂŞEŞTI COMMUNE, GALAłI COUNTY) 1 

Ionel MUNTELE ∗ 

„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, 

Department of Geography, Carol I Avenue, no 11, 700506, Iaşi, România, e-mail: imuntele@yahoo.fr 

Raluca HOREA-ŞERBAN 

„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, România, Faculty of Geography and Geology, 

Department of Geography, Carol I Avenue, no 11, 700506, Iaşi, Romania, e-mail: ralusel@yahoo.com 

Abstract: During the last two decades Romania has experienced one of the most serious 

demographic crises in its history. But regardless of this context, certain communities manage 

to preserve their demographic vitality at the local level in close connection to their cultural 

and social features. It is the case of Brăhăşeşti commune in GalaŃi County, known for the 

large gipsy community living in Toflea, one of its component villages. Its recent demographic 

evolution extending over the last decades points out its strong differentiation within the 

county. Being characterized by tendencies which are opposed to the general ones, this 

community manages not only to keep its exceptional demographic potential but also to 

produce, by means of migration, a real dissemination in a relatively vast space comprising the 

whole south-eastern part of Moldavia. The main conclusion of the research is that this 

community has become not only the main population reservoir of the whole north-western 

part of GalaŃi county but also the principal source of serious social problems as a consequence 

of the dimension of certain specific phenomena. 

Key words: demographic singularity, gypsies, dynamics, cultural features, territorial 

distribution 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The present study, part of a larger project meant to identify the genesis and effects of the 

multiple differentiations existing in the Moldavian rural space, is intended to advance a diachronic 

analysis of the way in which a community (the gypsies of Toflea-Brăhăşeşti in our case) manifests 

its personality at the demographic level. The way in which cultural peculiarities bring about 

demographic cleavages is apparently simple, being triggered by various socio-cultural or economic 

phenomena such as: marginalization, identitary withdrawal, discrimination etc. In this direction, 

the case of gypsy communities is exemplary, any place that records a considerable concentration 

1 This study refers to western part of historical Moldavia, part of Romania (8 counties of the North-East of this country). 

For disambiguation, in the text was used also the term Western Moldavia. 



Genesis and Dynamics of a Geo-Demographic Singularity. A Case Study - The Gipsy… 257 

of people belonging to this minority experienceng a significant demographic differential. This 

finds expression in the preservation of a more traditionalist demographic behaviour and the 

manifestation of certain life quality deficiencies (smaller values of life expectancy at birth, higher 

rates of infant mortality, specific evolutions of the morbidity rate etc). Generally regarded as a 

delicate matter, the gypsy-like special nature cannot be compared, at least within the Romanian 

space, to that of other (ethnical or religious) communities. Neither can it be generalized as long as 

gypsy collectivities find themselves in diverse stages of social and economic modernization, 

integration, assimilation etc. 

At this point of the analysis the term „geo-demographic singularity” needs to be accurately 

defined. It designates the situation in which a component of a territorial (geographical) 

demographic system records an evolution that is singular, exceptional to the general trends that 

take place within that subsystem. Such a singularity can represent the starting point of a new 

tendency which, by diffusion, can conquer larger and larger areas. As a matter of fact, all 

demographic phenomena score a more or less singular manifestation at the beginning. However, in 

the present case, this singularity is doubled by a series of social, cultural and economic features 

which completely differentiate the analysed community both from the territorial-administrative 

and physical geographical systems it is integrated into. 

The case study we carried out focuses on the largest community of this type in Moldavia, 

lying in a peripherical, relatively isolated area in the southern part of Tutova Hills, a geographical 

region that shelters some other similar communities, too, communities which are inserted in a 

system of settlements traditionally dominated by the small peasant property 2 . This geographical 

area is known by its profoundly rural nature and scarcity of subsistential resources, elements that 

triggered a massive participation in the internal migratory flows of the communist period. 

Nowadays, Brăhăşeşti commune, situated in the extreme north of GalaŃi county, comprises 

four villages: two bigger ones (Brăhăşeşti and Toflea) and two smaller ones (Corcioveni and 

CosiŃeni). The gypsy community of Toflea (counting two thirds of the total commune population 

of about 8,900 inhabitants) represents the main object of our research but, for statistical reasons, 

we shall make use of the information on the commune as a whole, its geo-demographic specificity 

being deeply marked by it. The first remark to make is that the self identification with the gypsies 

is of absolutely recent date, the census of 2002 being the first to massively record this affiliation. 

While the other villages of the commune derive from old free holder’s communities 

gradually integrated in feudal structures, Toflea village is relatively recent, the first documentary 

mention being that recorded in the first catagraphy of Moldavia 3 , drawn up in the year 1803, which 

speaks of „the tax-payers in Toflea hermitage” (Codrescu, 1886). The forest area covering the 

higher part of Nicoreşti Piedmont, still well afforested nowadays, used to accommodate more 

hermitages and monasteries, some of them still existing today (such as Buciumeni, Sihastru etc). 

Without forming a proper locality, the monastic settlement experienced an expanding evolution, 

being marked on the Russian map of 1828 as a hamlet with 5 up to 20 houses near which, on the 

present precincts of the village, to the south-east, there was another hamlet, bigger than the former 

(comprising 36 houses), called Rufeşti. The first modern census in Moldavia, carried on in 1859 - 

1860, revealed a number of 1,242 inhabitants for Toflea village (2,995 inhabitants for the whole 

commune), a spectacular leap for only several decades, whose explanation resides in the fact that, 

during the period of time between the two censuses, a numerous collectivity of gypsies settled 

down in the area. By 1948 (for nearly a century), the demographic evolution (as much as we can 

infer from exploring the population dynamics) was not very much different from that of the 

2 The most well-known communities are those in Băcioi (Corbasca commune, Bacău county) and Homocea commune 

(Vrancea county), during the interwar period both of them being included (just like Toflea-Brăhăşeşti) into Nicoreşti 

“plasa”, Tecuci county. As a matter of fact, that “plasa” was recorded by certain scientific papers of the time (Obreja, 1943) 

to have the greatest percentage of gipsies in Moldavia (the word “plasa” refers to a former Romanian territorial 

administrative unit ranking below “county” and above “commune”). 

3 In Romanian it is called „Condica Liuzilor”, representing a sort of tax-payers’ registry book.

258 


neighbouring settlements, being relatively slow: 1,513 inhabitants in 1912 (out of the 3,484 people 

of the commune); 1,914 inhabitants in 1941 (out of the 4,444 people living in the whole 

commune). Instead, the post war evolution was subject to a continuous tendency of singularization 

in comparison to the general specificities of the rural environment of the county (figure 1). 

1912=100 

300 

200 

Toflea village 

Brăhăşeşti 

commune 

GalaŃi county 

(rural area) 

100 

1912 1930 1941 1948 1956 1966 1977 1992 2002 

Figure 1. Comparative analysis of the number of inhabitants 

according to the censuses carried out from 1912 to 2002 

(Source: The censuses taken between 1912 - 2002 in Romania) 

This tendency became more and more conspicuous with every intercensus period until 

1977, when the direction changed the other way round: while the rural environment passed 

through a demographic decline (an evolution which was quite normal from the perspective of the 

consequences of the rural exodus), Toflea village experienced a contrary development, 

materialized in a stronger and stronger tendency of explosive demographic increase. The 

population grew from only 2,504 inhabitants in 1956 to 3,667 in 1992 and 5,479 in 2002 census. 

This means that from 1941 to 2002 (that is six decades) this village faced a threefold increase of its 

total population despite the combined influences of the last world war, the drought in 1946 - 1947 

(which worked havoc in the area) and the rural exodus which massively involved the population of 

this commune (only from 1966 to 1989 the migratory balance recorded a deficit of 2,366 

inhabitants, the annual average rate being of -1.9%, clearly superior to the national one). The more 

and more prominent growth after 1990 can also be ascribed to the massive rural return, the 

migratory balance rising to 1,540 people between 1990 - 2002, subsequently reaching a relative 

equilibrium between arrivals and departures. In this way a significant part of the previous exodus 

managed to be counteracted in a relatively short period of time. This significant return can hardly 

be explained taking into consideration the more than precarious natural offer and the extremely 

high subsistential density of the area (3,053 ha out of the 4,361 ha of the commune have an 

agricultural use - arable lands, pastures etc, causing a level of about 300 inhabitants / 100 hectares 

of agricultural land). The spectacular withdrawal of a significant part of the people who had 

formerly left their birth locality can also be granted extra explanations which refer to: the previous 

dispersion connected to the traditional practices of gypsy communities, the destructuring of a life 

style based on the peddling of the products resulted from specific handcraft activities (producing 

or repairing metal containers), the adherence to the Pentecostal cult of an important part of the 

population after the year 2001 (586 followers in 2002, more than 1,000 at the present according to 

official estimations), all of them superposed on the effects of transition.


Interesting and contradictory at the same time, this evolution can arouse a special interest in 

the context of the discordance with the major social and economic evolutions experienced all over 

the country after 1990. 

BRĂHĂŞEŞTI COMMUNE AND THE GEO-DEMOGRAPHIC DISPARITIES IN 

GALAłI COUNTY DURING THE LAST TWO DECADES 

A first analysis meant to highlight the extreme specificity of the case study was performed on 

the components of the natural balance at the level of the basic administrative units of GalaŃi county. 

The collected official information was processed in typological classifications with the help 

of Statlab program, using the birth, mortality and general fertility indicators of the feminine 

population. We kept 6 types of evolution of the components of the natural balance which 

emphasize the existence of a general tendency of strong decrease of the fertility indicators in all 

the administrative units of the county except one: Brăhăşeşti commune, which clearly stands out, 

forming a special singular type. 

Having a birth rate which initially complied with the general decline trend installed after 

1990 but which rapidly recovered to values sometimes exceeding 30‰ towards the middle of the 

90’s and with a generally decreasing mortality rate with constant values of less than 10‰, this 

commune definitely diverges from the others. After the year 2000 the phenomenon has 

strengthened under the circumstances in which the whole county has been facing a speeding 

decline triggered by the effects of the international migration of the labour force. The drawn up 

classification partially emphasizes the influence of the presence of the gypsy communities which 

enforce a certain resistance to the decline tendency of births in those areas where they hold a 

considerable share (of at least 5% of the total population). 

The urban centres and the peri-urban area of GalaŃi also stand out due to a perceptibly 

different behaviour characterized by a permanent low level of both indicators which finds 

expression in a natural balance close to 0 and a recent timid recovery tendency of birth values. 

There can also be noticed a convergent evolution of birth rates, once more with the exception of 

Brăhăşeşti commune: the noteworthy differences at the beginning of the period gradually vanish 

after the year 2000. However, this does not stand true in the case of the evolution of the mortality 

rate, which experienced a contrasting manifestation: the rapidly rising tendency of the 90’s was 

followed by a quasi-stagnation (at high values) resulting in a profoundly negative natural balance 

in compliance with a gradient going from the west to the north-east of the county, already caught 

in the trap of an irreversible devitalisation. Nevertheless certain localities represent exceptions to 

this evolution: Tecuci and GalaŃi municipalities- due to a still favourable population structure; the 

peri-urban areas and the commune that represents the object of the present case study - Brăhăşeşti 

(figures 2 and 3). Its extreme vitality, undoubtedly imputable to the strong gypsy community 

living in Toflea, can bear the following explanations: 

- the end of the birth decline in the middle of the 90’s is the result of a complex 

combination between the rural return, the preservation of some numerically significant contingents 

of young feminine population and the resistance derived from a traditionalist demographic 

behaviour generally specific to gypsy communities, especially to compact ones; 

- the relative isolation of the commune cannot be taken into account as long as people who 

practise certain activities are predisposed to an intense mobility on large areas (itinerant 

commerce, collecting reusable materials); 

- the relative absence of a completely modernized behaviour pattern can also be called 

forth, the Romanian population itself in the area later entering the more advanced phases of 

transition (however it crossed them very rapidly as it is proved by the analysis of the evolution of 

the feminine population fertility). 

This hypothesis is also taken into account by certain studies financed by the European 

Commission which certify the existence of a dephased, divergent demographic pattern of the 

gypsy communities in Europe (Gabriella Fésüs et al., 2008, p.13-14);

260 


Figure 2. Typology of the evolution of the natural balance components between 1990 - 2009 

(Source: according of Anuarul Statistic al judeŃului GalaŃi, 2010, Database „Tempo Online” of INS, Bucarest, found in sept.2010) 

- after the 2000 year the increase of the number of Pentecostal followers has brought about 

additional consequences. Known for its moral rigour in respect of family values, this cult was 

introduced in the gypsy community of Toflea in 1992, gradually gaining numerous supporters. The 

field surveys point out that generally Pentecostal families are considerably more numerous without 

necessarily belonging to more disfavoured categories. As a matter of fact, the commune as a whole 

is not included in the category of the least developed communes in GalaŃi county, these ones being 

preferably situated in its north-eastern part (Sandu, 1999, p. 208); 

- the lack of progress in the direction of the social and cultural integration of the gypsy community; 

- the majority of the population is practically semi-literate, school abandonment is 

significant (especially after the primary level of education more than half of the pupils gradually 

give up attending secondary studies) in opposition to a minority attending high schools in Tecuci 

and especially universities. Social contrasts get deeper and deeper: we deal, on the one hand, with 

a pick involved in various (not necessarily illicit) businesses and displaying an ostentatious life 

style and, on the other hand, with a majority which is practically deprived of any means of 

subsistence in the context of the quasi-absence of agricultural lands and of a weak propensity for 

agricultural work. This situation is also due to the fact that most families have never been put in


possession of land by virtue of the semi-nomadic character of their life style. The most part of the 

population can be definitely included into the category of vulnerable communities which have a 

high degree of social risk (Guran and Turnock, 2000, p. 139 - 150). 

‰ 

40,0 

30,0 

Type 1 (Brăhăşeşti commune) 

birth rate 

mortality rate 

‰ 

40,0 

30,0 

Type 2 

birth rate 


20,0 

20,0 

10,0 

10,0 

0,0 

1990 

‰ 

40,0 

30,0 

1993 

1996 

1999 

Type 3 

birth rate 

2002 

2005 

2008 


0,0 

‰ 

40,0 

30,0 

1990 

1993 

1996 

1999 

2002 

Type 4 

birth rate 

2005 

2008 


20,0 

20,0 

10,0 

10,0 

0,0 

1990 

‰ 

40,0 

30,0 

1993 

1996 

1999 

Type 5 

birth rate 

2002 

2005 

2008 


0,0 

‰ 

40,0 

30,0 

1990 

1993 

birth rate 

1996 

1999 

2002 

Type 6 

2005 

2008 


20,0 

10,0 

0,0 

1990 

1993 

1996 

1999 

2002 

2005 

2008 

20,0 

10,0 

0,0 

1990 

1993 

1996 

1999 

2002 

2005 

2008 

Figure 3. Profile of the types of evolution of the natural balance components 

(Source: according of Anuarul Statistic al judeŃului GalaŃi, 2010) 

Another point that needs to be cleared up is whether this strong personalization of 

Brăhăşeşti commune is also due to its extremely favourable structure by age groups in comparison 

to most communes in the county which were subject to a much stronger migration of the young 

population during the last decades of the communist period. 

For this purpose we also analysed the evolution of the feminine population’s (aged 15 - 49) 

general fertility rate during the same period of time. The specific statistical information was 

corroborated with the results of the population censuses of 1992 and 2002. In order to avoid the 

variability of the dynamics of this indicator, which is sometimes subject to circumstantial 

tendencies, the analysis made use of the averages of the four periods of the last two decades. We 

observed the importance of the existence of the gypsy community to the evolution of this indicator 

by comparing Brăhăşeşti commune to the average of a group made up of 9 communes in which 

this minority holds a significant share (at least 5% of the total population according to the census 

of 2002) and to the average of the other 44 communes of the county, thus acknowledging the high 

originality degree of the demographic evolution of Brăhăşeşti commune (figure 4).

262 


‰ 

150,0 

125,0 

100,0 

1990-1994 1995-1999 

2000-2004 2005-2009 

75,0 

50,0 

25,0 

0,0 

Brahasesti 

commune 

communes with 

at least 5% 

gypsies 

other communes 

Figure 4. Evolution of the fertility of the feminine population (aged 15 - 49) from 1990 to 2009 


While all over the whole county this indicator records a continuous decline (stronger in the 

case of those communes that do not have important gypsy minorities), the commune that 

represents the object of the present study stands out by two distinct stages delimited by an attempt 

at rowing up to the general trend of the rural environment of the county (around the years 1999 - 

2000). The last decade even faces a light recovery (especially after the year 2005) up to values that 

have been exceedingly rare in Romania for a long period of time (125 - 130 ‰). This situation can 

also be ascribed to the numerous generation born at the beginning of the 90’s, superposed on an 

extremely favourable structure by age groups, in the context of preserving a high marriages rate 

and a small average age at first marriage, a phenomenon which is typical of gypsy communities on 

the whole. The analysis by age groups of the fertility rate could highlight a possible tendency of 

continuation of the transitory processes that seemed to be ongoing, slowly but surely until the year 

1990, as the evolution of the young population’s share shows (the population aged 0 - 14): 39.1% 

in 1966, 38.3% in 1977, and 29.7% in 1992. In the year 2002 this indicator is significantly higher 

(32.9%), the structure by age groups being even more favourable than during the previous period. 

The keeping of a high fertility rate is certainly connected to the „rejuvenation” of demographic 

structures but also to the absence or precarity of adjustment to the national and regional 

demographic pattern, in contrast with the conclusions advanced by certain authors, which stand 

true only at a regional or zonal scale but not at the local one (Trebici and Ghinoiu, 1986, p. 117). 

The performed summary surveys point out a certain tendency of considerable decrease of the 

family size within the young generation (aged 20 - 30 years) in close connection to their 

educational level. We can state that this community is still ruled by mentalities which are typical 

of a traditional demographic regime, at least from the perspective of the importance and values 

they attach to the phenomenon of birth, the transition to a more advanced demographic pattern 

usually assuming a price meant to provide the young generation’s education and professional 

formation (according to the ideas set forth by Bacci, 2003, p. 217). 

The investigation of Brăhăşeşti commune within the framework of the whole county 

reveals that during the last two decades it has become the main „reservoir” of rural population. Its 

share in the evolution of the county demographic balance has considerably increased (figure 5). 

Thus, while from 1990 to 1995 it provided 4% of the total number of rural live-births, after the 

year 2004 it has constantly exceeded the value of 7% (and even that of 12% in the year 2009) in 

the context in which the decline of births has worsened in most county communes. Its share in the


total number of the rural population has remained relatively constant all throughout this period 

(about 3%) due to the considerable migratory flow it has generated as an expression of its 

undeniable demographic pressure. 

12 

10 

% of total life 

births 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

1990 

1993 

1996 

Figure 5. Evolution of Brăhăşeşti commune’s share in the total number of live-births in the rural environment 

of GalaŃi County, between 1990 - 2009 


Beyond this apparent paradox, we must accept the idea that this community will play the 

role of a population supplier not only for the areas situated in its close vicinity but also for the 

others. The qualitative analysis resulted from direct field observation correlated with statistical 

information certifies the shaping in time of a diffusion area of this population which has brought 

its contribution either to the repopulation of some boroughs which had been left by Jew people (as 

it is the case of Iveşti, GalaŃi county, where the community that came into being in this manner 

already represents more than one fourth of the locality population, or of Podu Turcului - but here 

in a smaller number), or to the setting up of some new communities within settlements in which 

gypsies had not previously existed (Munteni, Umbrăreşti - Deal, Lieşti etc, getting to shares of 5 - 

15% of the total population), or joining small contingents of gypsies, often at relatively large 

distances, as it is the case of Grajduri and Lunca CetăŃuii communes in Iaşi county (figure 6). 

Brăhăşeşti village represents a particular case - the actual territorial fusion with Toflea 

supplied it with a significant flow of population, so that the gypsies’ percentage as recorded by the 

census of 2002 exceeded 13%, the value being certainly underestimated. This quantitative 

contribution also reflects itself in a higher illiteracy rate in comparison to the other villages of 

comparative size in the area: 10.1% in opposition to 2 - 3% in łepu, Gohor, Buciumeni etc. This 

value is undoubtedly imputable to the gypsy population which represents 35.3% of the total 

population of Toflea, this percentage being comparable to that of a neighbouring commune lying 

in Vrancea county Homocea, which holds an important partially assimilated gypsy community. 

This melting tendency experienced by Brăhăşeşti can gradually project itself into an inversion of 

the ethnic ratios as a consequence of the prolification of the gypsy community. 

Their diffusion area has also included a series of sedentary gypsy communities (such as 

those in the communes of Ghidigeni - Gefu and Tălpigi villages, Movileni and Barcea - Podoleni 

village) with whom they have developed family relationships, many times established in the urban 

centres of the region. However their level is low because of the fact that Toflea gypsies preserve a 

certain specific identity which makes them be regarded as a distinct category in the area. 

1999 

2002 

2005 

2008

264 


Figure 6. Dispersion of Toflea population and its connections to other gypsy communities in the South- 

Eastern part of Moldavia 

(Source: censuses taken in 1930, 1992 and 2002 in Romania) 

Another favourite destination is represented by the neighbouring towns: first and foremost 

Tecuci but also Mărăşeşti and Adjud - towns that play the role of railway junction stations; Bârlad 

and especially GalaŃi - the county capital city. The affiliation of a part of the population to the 

Pentecostal cult has recently allowed relationships with similar communities in Transylvania. 

Their main diffusion area practically overlaps the space within which they used to traditionally 

practice an itinerant commerce and carry out services in the field of repairing various containers 

and installations of domestic use (especially alembics). This activity has greatly narrowed after 

1990, gypsies being replaced by numerous private firms that deal with collecting recyclable 

materials, this situation being favoured by the destructing of the industrial activities in the nearby


towns and by the restriction of rail activities in Tecuci, Mărăşeşti and Adjud. They have also 

established privileged (many times illegal) relationships with the iron and steel works in GalaŃi, 

recycling activities getting them in touch with other active gypsy communities in the area. In 

certain cases, the accumulation of a significant financial capital allowed them to develop 

commercial activities (more than 33 officially registered commercial associations according to the 

information provided by Brăhăşeşti mayoralty) or even to get involved in privatising certain 

industrial or service-carrying out units. This latest tendency has shaped a new point of attraction: 

the capital city of the country, which houses societies set up by some of the most flourishing 

entrepreneurs in the village. However these outliving strategies prove to be precarious as a 

consequence of the impossibility of breaking free from the spiral of a chronic underdevelopment. 

The deepening of the intracommunity discrepancies superposed on the population explosive 

increase are susceptible of „feeding” both the internal tensions and the pressures derived from the 

relationships they develop with the population in the neighbouring villages. 

Any summary prevision drawn up by extrapolation of the present tendencies inevitably 

leads to the preservation of an extremely important increasing potential, at least for the next two 

decades, in spite of the population erosion which has been triggered by permanent migration. The 

overpopulation critical threshold has been undoubtedly surpassed if we dwell on the subsistential 

density, the community of Toflea disposing of only about 500 hectares of agricultural land 

(according to field estimations) under the circumstances in which just a small part of the 

inhabitants own agricultural lands and practice agriculture. 

If, against all reasons, the population migration were stopped, the number of inhabitants of 

Brăhăşeşti commune would increase at least with 60% by the year 2030 in the context of the 

preservation of the present increase rate which, as shown by means of the analysis of the general 

fertility rate, does not show signs of decline. The migration process is not liable to erode the 

exceptional demographic vitality as long as it deals with a family, collective rather than individual 

migration. This ensures a surplus of originality to this commune and especially to the gypsy 

community in Toflea which dominates it from the demographic point of view. 

CONCLUSION 

The analysis we carried out by means of direct observation and processing the information 

provided by specialized institutions, prove the strong originality of the demographic evolution of 

the investigated commune, an evolution which is practically fully opposed to the general 

tendencies experienced by the Romanian society. Whether at the local level it can be regarded as 

singular, it is possible that similar situations exist at the national level, too. In the eastern part of 

the country, the commune of Slobozia Bradului situated in Vrancea county, at the north of 

Râmnicu Sărat, has recorded, up to a certain point, an almost identical evolution; a similar 

tendency is also typical of certain gypsy communities in Bacău, Suceava and Iaşi counties. Some 

of them are generally smaller and do not induce effects which resemble those of our case study, 

quite often finding themselves in a more advanced integration stage. Certain studies point out a 

strong correlation between the integration level and the demographic evolution of gypsy 

communities - it is the case of an ample research on the gypsies in Slovakia published by 

Potančoková et al. 2008. Thus, the socio-economic specificity of these communities is doubled by 

a geo-demographic specificity illustrated by distinct spatial and reproductive behaviours that 

scientists have quite rarely approached (Costachie et al., 2010). 

However the present investigation also highlights another reality: although touched by the 

demographic crisis Romania still needs, strictly at the local level, denatalist demographic policies 

which are specific to developing countries. Any delay in the enforcement of some measures able to 

aim at modernizing the demographic behaviour of such communities can contribute to the 

sharpening of certain serious social problems such as those pictured by a valuation report drawn up 

by the World Bank, which bears testimony to the very strong correlation that exists between 

illiteracy and poverty within the gypsy communities in East Europe and particularly in Romania

266 


(Revenga et al., 2002, p. 13 - 14). The actual integration of such communities as the one 

investigated by us also implies an adjustment to the exigencies of a contemporary society as 

regards the management of human resources. 

ACKNOWLEGMENTS 

This contribution presents some results from research projects, entitled „The quality of 

transport infrastructure as a premise of rural spaces differentiation in Moldavia”, financed by the 

CNCSIS research program PNCD-IDEI (code ID-1987). The authors acknowledge while to 

anonymous reviewer for their thoughtful suggestions and comments. 

REFERENCES 

Codrescu Th. (1886), Condica Liuzilor de la 1803, Uricariul, vol VIII, Iaşi; 

Costachie S., Dieaconu D., Teodorescu Camelia (2010), Several socio-economic and demographic aspects of the Gypsies 

(Roma) from their first presences in the Romania and until the Second World War, Revista Română de Geografie 

Politică, vol.XII, no.1, p.91-97; 

Fésüs Gabriella, Rillaers Alexandra, Poelman H., Gáková Zuzana (2008), Demographic Challenges for European Regions, 

Directorate General for Regional Policy, Bruxelles; 

Guran Liliana, Turnock D. (2000), A preliminary assessment of social risk in Romania, Geojournal, Springer, 

vol.50, no.2-3, p.139-150; 

Livi Bacci (2003), PopulaŃia în istoria Europei, Editura Polirom, Iaşi; 

Obreja Al. (1943), ObservaŃii asupra răspândirii Ńiganilor în Moldavia, Lucrările seminarului „Dimitrie Cantemir”, nr. 3, Iaşi; 

Potančoková Michaela, Vaňo B., Pilinská Viera, Jurčová Danuša (2008), Slovakia: Fertility between tradition and 

modernity, Demographic Research, vol.19, p.973-1018, Rostock; 

Revenga Ana, Ringold Dena, Tracy W.M. (2002), Poverty and Etnicity, A Cross Country Study of Roma Poverty in Central 

Europe, World Bank, Washington; 

Sandu D. (1999), SpaŃiul social al tranziŃiei, Editura Polirom, Iaşi; 

Trebici Vl., Ghinoiu I. (1986), Demografie si etnografie, Editura ştiinŃiifică şi enciclopedică, Bucureşti; 

*** Recensământul populaŃiei şi locuinŃelor din18.03.2002 în România, baza de date a INS, Bucureşti; 

*** Anuarul statistic al judeŃului GalaŃi, DJS GalaŃi, 2010; 

*** Tempo-Online, Baza teritorială de date, www.insse.ro. 


June 02, 2011 August 29, 2011 September 14, 2011



THE VILLAGES FROM SĂLAJ IN THE EASTERN PART OF JIBOU 

LOCALITY – DEMOGRAPHIC POTENTIAL - 

Oana - Andreia PUIA ∗ 

University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, „Simion MehedinŃi" Doctoral School, 

N. Bălcescu Blvd., No.1, sect.1, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: oana76puia@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The present analysis follows the natural dynamic of population during the 1990- 

2010 interval using statistical data provided by the National Institute of Statistics (NIS), DSJ 

Sălaj, and data from local level. For the analysed territory, demographic risks are represented 

by the unbalanced sex structure of population, the descendant evolution of natality, to which 

the political-economic factor adds, an in consequence all administrative units are affected by 

demographic ageing. The values of the ageing coefficient show that Băbeni and Letca are 

communes which belong to the fifth demographic risk category (maximum) and the viability 

of these settlements is endangered. 

Key words: demographic risk, population dynamic, communes, ageing, Sălaj 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Essential part of the Planning Territorial Unit Some Valley from Sălaj County (SCDP, 2006; 

DSPTUSV, 2009), the analysed geographic space is characterised by a high degree of rurality, marked 

by the absence of urban settlements. The analysed unit unfolds between the counties Cluj (to the south 

and east); Maramures (to the north) and the rest of the Sălaj County to the west of the allignment of the 

localities Benesat - Surduc - Gârbou. The 14 communes and 83 constituent villages occupy a total 

surface of 852,64 sqkm and comprises 25,818 inhabitants, their number continuously decreasing by 

41.6% compared to the year 1992, when population was of 43,956 inhabitants (figure 1). 

Figure 1. The evolution of the number of inhabitants during the interval 1912 - 2010 



268 


The dynamic of population in the studied area emphasizes two evolution tendencies, 

clearly delimitated: an ascending tendency until 1956, when the maximum number of inhabitants 

is reached (51,632); and a descending tendency, until present, whose increase rate, with a negative 

value, largely exceeded the demographic growth from the first half of the XX-th century, leading 

to the present situation, of demographic retrogression. 

Within the terittorial profile, the numeric evolution of the population presents the 

same characteristics, the difference being given by the rhythm in which the decrease of the 

number of inhabitants in the interval 1912 - 2010 produced, even if for short intervals of 

time some communes registered insignificant increases of population. In table no. 1 it can 

be noticed that the value of the increase rate of the population presents very large 

fluctuations, between -3.7% (Surduc) and -60% (Zalha), most of the studied communes - 

46% having an increase rate of -40%; -50%. 

Table 1. Increase rate (%) during the period 1912 - 2010 

(Data source: calculated by INS, DJS Sălaj) 

Name of locality 

Period 

Băbeni 

Benesat 

CristolŃ 

Gâlgău 

Gârbou 

Ileanda 

Letca 

Lozna 

Năpradea 

Poiana 

Blenchii 

Rus 

Şimişna 

Surduc 

Zalha 

1912-1956 26,9 26,6 32,8 1,0 5,2 4,6 26,9 22,9 13,3 16,8 14,0 - 47,6 23,1 

1956-2010 -51,9 -33,6 -43,4 -42,6 -57,7 -36,8 -54,1 -56,4 -32,0 -44,8 -55,0 - -32,9 -62,6 

1912-2010 -42,5 -15,2 -25,1 -44,3 -55,9 -44,4 -49,1 -54,9 -29,1 -41,1 -48,7 - -3,7 -60,0 

Population density, the direct expression of its territorial distribution, presented in figure 

2, underlines the higher concentration of population within the commune Bensat (55.4 inhabitants / 

sqkm), followed by Surduc (51.7 inhabitants / sqkm), and reduced values of the population are 

registered in Lozna (16.9 inhabitants / sqkm) and Zalha (18.6 inhabitants / sqkm). 

On the whole, the population of the analysed territory continues its descending trajectory, 

started in the year 1956, with a rather alert rhythm after the year 1990, enframing in the national 

tendency of demographic evolution which is characteristic to the countries in transition towards a 

developed economy. In general, this numerical decrease of population is determined by the natality 

decrease, mortality increase, rural-urban migration, which led to unbalances within the population 

structure and to the apparition of the phenomenon of demographic ageing, to which historical and 

environment local factors add (Sorocovschi et al., 2009). 

The study of the natural movement of population starts from the number of births and 

deaths, these being indicators whose action upon the population of a territory is quantitatively 

shown by natality (or natality rate quantified by the number of births per 1000 inhabitants) 

and mortality (or mortality rate quantified by the number of deaths per 1000 inhabitants). 

The present analysis follows the structural dynamic of population during the interval 

1990 - 2009, using statistical data provided by NIS, DSJ Sălaj, the communes’ fiche and the 

local mayor’s offices. 

Natality at the level of the analysed territory presents relatively low values, a situation 

which characterises the entire country, having oscillations in time from 11.18‰ in 1990 to 

9.25‰ in 2005, and at the level of the year 2009 the number of births increased to 267 people, 

and the value of natality became 10.26‰. 

In the territory, the birth rate is different from one commune to another, the highest 

values being in Ileanda (17.3‰), Gârbou, Poiana Blenchii and Rus, and the lowest values are 

characteristic to the communes Băbeni, CristolŃ and Şimişna. We also notice that for 

approximately 57% of the administrative units, the number of births decreased, if we compare 

them between 2005 and 2009 (figure 3).

The Villages from Sălaj in the Eastern Part of Jibou Locality… 269 

Figure 2. The distribution of population density

270 


Figure 3. Population natality between 1990 and 2010 

Instead, mortality registers high values of deaths, enframing, in its turn, in the national 

evolution trend. If natality decreased until 2005, and in 2009 it rectified, mortality had an inversed


evolution, increasing its value from 18.7‰ (1990) to 21.9‰ (2005), and in the year 2009 mortality 

rate reduced almost insignificantly, with only 0.4‰, due to the diminishing of the number of 

deaths, to 559 people, in comparison with the year 2005 (figure 4). 

Figure 4. Population mortality between 1990 and 2010

272 


In territorial profile, mortality shows values significantly differentiated at the administrative unit 

level, starting from 36.6‰ in Zalha and 31.6‰ in Gârbou and up to 11.9‰ in Şimişna and 15.1‰ in 

Benesat, approximately 43% of the communes being situated in the value interval 10 - 20‰. 

National augmentation, the expression of the difference between natality and mortality, has 

negative values, both at the level of the entire territory and at national level, oscillating betwwen - 

1.6‰ (Poiana Blenchii) and -26.9‰ (Zalha). This situation has an important weight upon the 

numerical dynamic of the population, substantially contributing to the descendant tendency of the 

inhabitants of the analysed territory, thus determining population losses and endangering rural 

development by the reducing of the human resource. 

As regards the population territorial movement, this indicator offers us the image of the 

inputs and outputs of a space demography, comparing cumulated value of the establishment and 

immigrations in the territory with the leaving and emmigrations from the territory. In general, the 

balance of the population territorial movement is negative, except the years 2000 and 2005, due to 

the people who established their domicile in the analysed area (in the year 2000 there were 

recorded 424 persons). At the level of the year 2009, in most communes (64%) there were 

recorded population losses, due to the leaving from the locality, the most important loss was 

supported by the commune Poiana Blenchii (-10.5‰). At the opposite pole there is the commune 

Ileanda, which benefited of the input of 64 arrived persons, which contoured a proportion arrived / 

departured of 12.2‰ (table 2). 

Table 2. The rate of the establishment and leaving of inhabitants (‰) 

(Data source: INS, DJS, Sălaj) 

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 

Locality 

Imigration 

rate 

Emigration 

rate 

Imigration 

rate 

Emigration 

rate 

Imigration 

rate 

Emigration 

rate 

Imigration 

rate 

Emigration 

rate 

Imigration 

rate 

Emigration 

rate 

Băbeni 6,11 46,86 9,32 15,39 14,49 13,97 9,85 11,41 18,87 15,54 

Benesat 3,46 22,78 0,00 16,88 21,03 12,01 17,83 8,61 11,95 10,69 

CristolŃ 11,65 46,08 7,59 28,05 80,01 11,10 4,62 10,57 5,70 12,12 

Gâlgău 14,54 51,42 14,24 16,38 23,79 6,12 8,26 9,76 11,32 21,43 

Gârbou 5,09 73,29 19,69 24,70 7,90 13,83 10,78 13,81 14,20 23,36 

Ileanda 10,57 36,99 32,53 24,39 19,85 13,23 17,56 10,03 27,11 14,83 

Letca 2,46 39,73 16,38 12,78 16,40 10,19 14,22 12,84 8,83 15,70 

Lozna 20,05 52,74 34,85 30,70 27,58 9,78 8,27 25,73 23,18 19,32 

Năpradea 5,58 33,85 32,78 17,75 16,19 10,46 12,76 8,73 11,53 16,78 

Poiana Blenchii 6,44 46,89 9,33 18,66 7,30 16,80 7,77 10,87 17,78 28,29 

Rus 0,97 61,11 13,58 17,16 13,78 12,20 20,51 6,83 20,92 12,73 

Simişna 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,73 2,20 8,79 14,38 

Surduc 12,03 35,85 25,07 23,62 9,78 7,34 15,78 13,19 15,75 19,22 

Zalha 1,23 67,94 21,44 29,58 8,43 14,33 6,45 8,30 8,23 10,28 

The population structure represents its division into several categories and groups taking 

into account a series of demographic characteristics, and the study and control of their evolution 

represents the main condition of social development, and also of the limitation of the effects of 

some possible unbalances which might appear in the given territory (Vert, 2001). 

The indicators regarding age and sex are essential demographic traits, the structure on age 

and sex groups having a major importance in understanding other phenomena (natality, mortality 

etc) with a special impact upon economic activities, and the detailed knowledge about these 

structures offers us useful information about the tendencies of population evolution. For the 

analysed geographic space, the structure of population per age groups in the year 2010 (figure 5)


was analysed, and from its interpreting it contours the phenomenon of population ageing, 

emphasized with the help of the indicator of demographic ageing. The value of this indicator is 

given by the direct relationship between old population (60 years old and over) and young 

population (0 - 20 years old) and it is 1.68 at the level of the entire analysed territory. 

Figure 5. The population structure per age group of the eastern Sălaj communes, 2010 

(Data source: INS, DJS, Sălaj) 

In the territory, critical situations are met in the communes Băbeni (259 young persons 

against 780 persons with age of 60 and over), Şimişna (183 young persons against 509 old 

persons) and Letca (324 young persons against 874 old persons). It is worrying the fact that the 

indicator of demographic ageing has supraunitary values in all the analysed communes, varying 

from 1.06 (Năpradea) to 3.01 (Băbeni), existing 4 administrative units where the percentage of old 

population exceeds 40% out of the total of population. 

The population structure on sexes (2010) shows a slowly increased percentage of the 

female population of 51.7% (figure 6) the eastern - Sălaj analysed space exceeding by this value 

the normal unbalance of 1 - 2 percentages in favour of the female population, due to the higher life 

expectancy of women. In the territory, the same dominance of the female population can be 

noticed, except the commune Zalha where there is a balance between the two indicators, also 

mentioning the fact that the commune Băbeni detaches as the administrative unit with the lowest 

number of male population (45.9%). 

Figure 6. The population structure on sexes in the year 2010

274 


In the specialised literature it contours more and more clearly the notion of risk, 

defined by several authors as Bogdan and Niculescu (1999), Ianoş (2000), Cocean (2007) etc., 

in whose vision risk represents the possibility of the apparition of a phenomenon or process 

with negative consequences. Cocean (2007), quoted by David and collaborators (2010) 

underlined that: if in case of natural risks it can appear as events less predictable, wich 

manifest through intempestive leaps from one state to another, in the moment when critical 

energetic threshold are exceeded, the events in the category of demographic risks, analysed in 

the present paper, have got a gradual manifestation. By adding, we also mention the definition 

of demographic risk offered by Surd (2001) ... „an extreme social process (phenomenon), 

dangerous for the individual and society in its whole, whose consequences are materialized in 

social disasters, measured also in the number of victims.” Surd and collaborators (2007) 

concluded that, most of the times, the notion of demographic risk ressembles a manifestation 

of negative type which endangers society, and the higher the number of actions, the closer the 

producing of turbulences to the release phase is. 

In the analysed territory, demographic risks can be due to the cumulated action of the 

demographic ageing process (by the modifying of the population structure per ages in favour of 

those old people) as a long term tendency, with the unbalance of the structure per sexes of the 

population and with the descending evolution of natality, to which we can also add the national 

socio-economic context of a country in transition, which finds itself within the phase of the 

unfolding of the process of joining the EU. On the whole, all the analysed administrative units are 

affected by demographic ageing, a process identified by the calculation of the ageing coefficient, 

and in almost 93% of the communes the female population dominates numerically the male 

population (table 3, figure 7, figure 8). 

Table 3. Demographic coefficients (2010) 

(Data source: calculated by INS, DJS Sălaj) 

Administrative units 

Ageing coefficient 

Feminization coefficient 

number of women per 100 men 

Băbeni 4.06 117.7 

Benesat 2.09 106.9 

CristolŃ 2.69 100.7 

Gâlgău 2.13 106.5 

Gârbou 1.73 101.7 

Ileanda 1.58 114.0 

Letca 3.34 117.3 

Lozna 2.95 113.3 

Năpradea 1.40 105.8 

Poiana Blenchii 2.24 102.1 

Rus 1.95 106.5 

Simişna 3.69 109.8 

Surduc 2.07 104.6 

Zalha 2.76 100.0 

By corroborating the two coefficients, the conclusion is that the analysed space 

comes under the median class of demographic risk, but detaching the communes Băbeni and 

Letca which belong to the fifth category of demographic risk (maximum), where the 

settlements’ viability is endangered. 

It is mentioned that the descending tendency of demographic factor in most of the localities 

from the Eastern part of Sălaj may determine in the future the insufficiency of the necessary of 

human resources for covering the jobs. At present, the analysed space confronts problems like this, 

therefore the authorities from Sălaj should draw up viable economic strategies to create jobs and 

their occupying by local active work power.


Figure 7. The demographic ageing coefficient 

(2010) 

Figure 8. Feminization coefficient (2010) 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

This work was supported by the project POSDRU/88/1.5/S/61150 „Doctoral Studies in the 

field of life and earth sciences", a project co-financed through Sectorial Operational Program for 

the Development of Human Resources, 2007-2013, from European Social Fund. 

REFERENCES 

Bogdan O., Niculescu E. (1999), Riscurile climatice din România, Academia Română, Institutul Geografic, Compania 

Sega - International; 

Cocean P., Vartanoff Adriana and collaborators (2007), Synthetic Approach of the Romanian Tisa Basin, III, 1, Editura 

Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

David Nicoleta, Filip S., Bilaşco Şt., Gligor V. (2010), The demographic potential of Tăşnad micro-region, Geographia 

Napocensis, anul IV, nr. 2; 

Ianoş I. (2000), Territorial systems – a geographic approach, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti; 

Sorocovschi V., Horvat C., Bilasco St., Schreiber W. (2009) Identificarea așezărilor rurale din Podişul Someşan în 

vederea evaluării vulnerabilităŃilor, Geographia Napocensis, anul III, nr. 2; 

Surd V. (2001), Geo-demography, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

Surd V., Puiu V., Zotic V., Moldovan C. (2007), Demographic risk in the Apuseni Mountains, Editura Presa Universitară 

Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

Vert Ctin. (2001), Geografia populaŃiei – teorie şi terminologie, Editura Mirton, Timişoara; 

*** Date statistice oferite de INS, DSJ Sălaj, fişa comunelor; 

*** (2006), Sălaj County Development Plan (SCDP); 

*** (2009), Development strategy of the Planning Territorial Unit Some Valley (DSPTUSV). 


June 07, 2011 September 05, 2011 September 16, 2011



COMMUNITIES BETWEEN PRESERVATION AND DISAPPEARANCE: 

THE DEMOGRAPHIC HAZARD IN BEIUŞ LAND 

Claudiu FILIMON ∗ 

University of Oradea, Department of Geograpy, Tourism and Territorial Planning, 

1 Universitatii st., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: filimonpunct@yahoo.fr 

LuminiŃa FILIMON 

University of Oradea, Department of Geograpy, Tourism and Territorial Planning, 

1 Universitatii st., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: palelumi@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The demographic hazard issue has been more and more approached in the 

geograhpic literature of the last decades, being relevant for a community viability and 

vulnerabilty. The present study is proposing an analysis of the demographic hazard of 

Beiuş area which should mainly highlight those vulnerable areas that have a problematic 

demographic status. In order to achieve the proposed goal, we have methodologically 

used the already known indicators: the demographic dimension of the settlements, the 

feminization coefficient, the demographic ageing coefficient, the economic dependency 

coefficient etc. As a result of this study, there has been highlighted the existence, as 

regards the intensity of the demographic hazard, of several types of settlements: 

settlements in a critical situation, on the verge of extinction, settlements of moderate 

demographic hazard and of discreet, sequential demographic hazard. The question that 

arises is: the critical demographic status of some settlements in Beiuş area is suggesting 

the necessity to intervene in their support (having in mind the „authenticity” derived 

from the preservation of the archaic lifestyle as opposed to globalization) or needs to be 

regarded as a normal evolution of a system with limited development potential. 

Key words: demographic hazard, viability, vulnerability, Beiuş land 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

A settlement's viability, or, on the contrary, vulnerability is best rendered by the human 

component. Within any territorial system, its adaptation to the complex development potential of a 

territory is represented by the migration of young population and labour force from the problematic 

areas towards the more attractive ones. The direct consequences of such a phenomenon are clearly 

rendered by the demographic hazard, one of the specific markers of a settlement's viability. 

The specialized literature in Romania has pretty recently and consecutively approached the 

more complex issue of human hazards, either in papers approaching the hazards of the geographic 

systems (Ianoş, 1994), or in specific papers, mostly approaching the social hazard field: Surd et 

Ardelean (1993), Guran et Turnok (2001). An integrated approach of the human hazard belongs to 



Communities between Preservation and Disappearance: The Demographic Hazard… 277 

Benedek (2002). In 2002, Ramona RaŃiu dealt with the natural and social-economic potential in order 

to assess the vulnerability of the rural settlements in the Someş river field. More recently (in 2010), 

Sorochovschi analyzed the vulnerability of the rural settlements through its defining indicators 

(spatial, physical, social-economic and environmental), the demographic vulnerability being one of 

those. An overall view of the demographic hazards is given by Rotariu's paper (2004). Surd and al. 

(2007) worked out a complex paper approaching the demographic hazard in the Apuseni Mountains. 

The demographic hazard issue in Beiuş land is one of the many aspects regarding the 

viability or, on the contrary, vulnerability of some settlements in this specific area. One of the 

„land-type” regions specific to Romania, Beiuş land, functionally overlaps the area polarized by 

its traditional center, Beiuş, being administratively composed of four towns (Beiuş, Ştei, Vaşcău, 

Nucet) and 21 communes. Geographically, Beiuş land coincides with Pocola Depression (the 

internal compartment of Beiuş Depression) separated by Holod Depression (the external 

compartement of Beiuş Depression) through the Crişul Negru Gorge (Filimon, 2007). 

The natural status of semi-closed depression has triggered, over the centuries, its 

preservation in a relative isolation which allowed the fractionation between the human component 

and its living territory and the individualization of this area with relation to the neighbouring ones. 

As a result, it triggered the emergence of the „land” status under various aspects which can be 

capitalized in the territorial planning through a territorial development strategy focused on its 

establishment as project territory (Filimon et al., 2010). 

The demographic components of Beiuş land are as follows: the total amount of population 

(2002): 83921 inhabitants; the general population density (2002): 42.34 inhab / sqkm; negative 

natural increase -7.2‰; negative migratory increase -1.8‰. The settlements in Beiuş area are 

129, of which 4 towns and 125 villages grouped in 21 communes. 

The most important aspect of originality of these settlements is the high degree of 

disintegration into small and very small villages, at a short distance range, morphology being the 

one that imposed the structure and texture type of the villages of Beiuş. 

The conventional village in Beiuş land has 485 inhabitants, thus being in the category of 

small villages. In these relatively small communities appeared the social space of Beiuş land, that 

certain „genre de vie” in the French literature, as an element of regional individuality. Due to this 

dimensional aspect and the social-economic context of the last decades, some of these settlements 

are on the verge of extinction, the main goal of the present study being their identification. 

OBJECTIVES AND METODOLOGY 

The present study has as its objective the highlighting of the degree of vulnerability of Beiuş 

communities with relation to the demographic hazard. The outline of some possible ways of settlement 

recovery where the demographic hazard is high is also another objective of this particular study. 

The metodology used in the working out of this study is the one already established for this 

kind of analyses. We started from the definition of the demographic hazard suggested by Surd and 

al. (2007), according to which: „...the demographic hazard resides in the incapacity of some 

human collectivities, varying in number, to sufficiently exploit (self-sufficiency) their control and 

affiliation area, thus turning into backed and/or dependent collectivities” (Surd et al., 2007, p. 75). 

In order to achieve the first objective we analyzed the demographic hazard at locality 

level. The used indicators to highlight this phenomenon have been: the demographic 

dimension of the settlements, the feminization coefficients, the amount of the elderly of the 

total population, the amount of the young population, the demographic ageing parameter (old 

/ young ratio), the economic dependency parameter (inactive/active ratio), each and every one 

of them highlighting the favourable and critical situations. 

In the case of village geo-demographic dimension we used the already established 

figures: under 500 inhabitants - small villages, 501 - 1500 inhabitants - medium villages and 

over 1500 inhabitants - large villages. The data source was the population and habitation 

census (2002), at locality level.

278 

Claudiu FILIMON, Luminița FILIMON 

THE ANALYSIS OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC HAZARD MARKERS IN BEIUŞ LAND 

THE DEMOGRAPHIC DIMENSION OF THE SETTLEMENTS 

Within an area of 195,3 sqkm and a population of 83,921 inhabitants, Beiuş land comprises 

129 localities. The 125 rural localities cumulate 60,712 inhabitants, while the 4 towns have a total of 

23,209 inhabitants, representing 27.6% of the total population in Beiuş area. The demographic 

dimension of the settlements in Beiuş land, due to the numerical evolution of the population and the 

social-political factors, represent a geographical feature of this area. The importance of this marker in 

any analysis of the human component is significant, the settlement dimension highlighting, even 

though indirectly, both the habitat potential of the area and the quality features of the population. The 

particularity of Beiuş land, from this perspective, is the high weight factor of small localities (80), 

which is 62% of the total amount of settlements (figure 1). These settlements are mainly subject to 

the demographic hazard by the small number of inhabitants which leads to depopulation. 

Figure 1. Beiuş Land. Demographic dimension of settlements 

(Source: Data from DJS Bihor) 

In the second category, the medium settlements, there are 42 (32.5%), mainly located at the 

limit between the depression hearth and the mountain frame. The large settlements are 2.3% of the 

total, respectively 3: Budureasa, Finiş şi Roşia. In conclusion, although there is a pretty large number 

of settlements, depending on the dominant geo-demographic size, their geo-demographic potential is 

reduced. The human hazard is triggered by the demographic dimension of the locality itself.


THE FEMINIZATION COEFFICIENT 

The feminization coefficient of the population in Beiuş land is part of the recorded general 

trend at national level and clearly indicates situations derived from the local area features. 

This coefficient has an average rate of 104.2 women / 100 men, close to the one recorded 

at national level (105 women / 100 men). The minimum and maximum rate ranges from 79.5 

women / 100 men in Lacu Sărat and 150 women / 100 men in Cucuceni. 

Depending on this average rate there were established 4 distinctive classes (figure 2) which 

divide the localities into favourable or disadvantageous situations. 

Figure 2. Beiuş Land. Feminization coefficient 


Most of the localities belong to the class of 100.1 - 110 women / 100 men (44.1% of 

the total number of localities) and over 110 women / 100 men (24%) (figure 2). By these rates 

and the rural particularity of the area, one can assess that the largest part of the settlements are 

in a disadvantageous situation. 

A specific feature is the dominance of the male population in the case of the towns of 

Ştei, Nucet şi Vaşcău and of most of the settlements in their vicinity, as a result of the 

industrial activity. 

In the class of under 90 women / 100 men and 90.1-100 / 100 men there are 41 

settlements. They are mainly located in the depression hearth and less in the vicinity of some 

industrialized areas.

280 


THE WEIGHT FACTOR OF THE ELDERLY POPULATION OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT 

Given by the average rate of this coefficient, 27.3%, Beiuş land is much higher than the 

national rate (19.4%), the threshold of demographic ageing (12 - 14%) being exceeded by almost 

all localities, except for BăiŃa-Plai and Şoimi (6%, respectively 10%). Although both BăiŃa-Plai 

and Brusturi are part of the very small localities class, they hold the extreme rates of the 

depression when it comes to this coefficient. The former has the lowest number of old persons 

(6%) while the latter is entirely populated (100%). 

Figure 3. Beiuş Land. The weight factor of the elderly population of the total amount 

(Source: DJS Bihor) 

The fall of the localities into one of the four established classes has been done according to 

the weight factor of the elderly population of the total amount of population. A large number of 

localities belongs to the third class, 20.1% - 30% old population, respectively 75 settlements. To this, 

there comes yet another large number of settlements (33, including the town of Vaşcău) where the 

elderly are 30% (figure 3). Together, the two classes hold over 83% of the total number of 

settlements in the depression and certify the high degree of demographic ageing process. In the other 

two classes there are 21 settlements, of which only BăiŃa-Plai, Şoimi, Şuncuiuş and the town of Beiuş 

are in the first class. The high weight factor of the elderly population is the result of the development 

in time of these small rural localities with reduced economical potential which did not allow the 

preservation or the drawing in of the young population. 

THE DEMOGRAPHIC AGEING COEFFICIENT 

By its numerical rates, it confirms the demographic ageing process. The average rate of 2 

old / 1 young recorded in the area under analysis exceeds the rate of 0.42 old / 1 young. This rate is


the result of the numerous old population, doubled by very little young population. The towns of 

Beiuş, Ştei, Nucet and 18 villages have a rate of 0.42 old / 1 young. Most of the localities (figure 

4), i.e. 93 belong to the class of 1 - 3 old / 1 young. The localites in which the coefficient rate 

ranges between 3.1 old / 1 young and 5 old / 1 young arises a serious question regarding their long 

and short term viability. The most critical situation is recorded in 7 localities (Bâlc, Brusturi, 

Câmp MoŃi, Călugări, Coleşti, Criştioru de Sus and Sânicolau de Beiuş) with 5 old / 1 young. All 

these are small localities, located in a natural framework with limited habitat potential. 

Figure 4. Beiuş Land. Demographic ageing coefficient 


THE WEIGHT FACTOR OF THE YOUNG POPULATION OF THE TOTAL POPULATION 

The habitat and human potential of the settlements is better highlighted by this coefficient. 

The young population of Beiuş land is 15.3% of the total population, a much lower rate, we think, 

to the habitat potential of this area. This small rate is explained by the reduced birth rate, as a result 

of a change in the idea of family in the rural area, of the migration of the young population and, 

consequently, reduced fertility. To these factors, one might add, at least temporarily, the lack of 

viable economic solutions which should highlight the resources and the existent potential and 

should attract, or at least maintain the young population with biological potential. 

Depending on the weight factor of the young population, rates over 25% are to be found 

only in 5 settlements (BăiŃa-Plai, MoŃeşti, Cociuba Mică, Şoimi and Câmpani de Pomezeu). These 

rates are explained by the industrial activity or tourism which attracted the young population 

(BăiŃa-Plai, MoŃeşti) or by the numerous gypsy population (Cociuba Mică, Şoimi). 

The settlements belonging to the last class (under 15% young population) are the most 

numerous (67) and those which, long and medium term, can raise serious issues in their 

preservation as administrative entities (figure 5).

282 


Figure 5. Beiuş Land. Weight factor of the young population of the total amount 


The young population, by its rates, absolute or percentage, raises serious questions as 

regards the future of this extremely attractive geographic area. 

THE ECONOMIC DEPENDENCY COEFFICIENT 

This coefficient has been calculated as a ratio between the active and inactive 

population. As expected, the situation is not a favourable one to Beiuş land when this 

coefficient has an average rate of 2 inactive persons / 1 active. 

In addition, we need to mention that part of the active population is almost at the limit of 

retiring and there is not much population left to replace it. The most eloquent example is to be 

found in Bâlc where the coefficient rate is 0.4 active / 1 active, but there is almost no young 

population in this locality of only 17 inhabitants. The high weight factor of the settlements 

belonging to the first two classes (figure 6), 80 localities confirms this assertion. These localities 

are grouped into two areas: the former comprises the settlements located between Beiuş and the 

northern limit of the depression (towards Oradea) while the latter comprises the settlements 

located around the industrial units of the European Drinks & Food Group. 

The settlements in the last class show the most critical situation, being scattered within the 

territory. It is the case of small localities and elderly population. 

The ageing process of the active population and the lack of a representative young 

population to take charge of the process of manufacturing goods and thus providing income, 

raise several questions regarding the economic future of the settlements in Beiuş, especially 

those in the last class.


Figure 6. Beiuş Land. The economic dependency coefficient 


THE DEMOGRAPHIC HAZARD 

Following the analysis carried out through the afore-mentioned coefficients, we have 

worked out a map of the demographic hazard in Beiuş land. 

The main demographic hazard is given by the generalization and accentuation of the 

demographic ageing process, doubled by feminization. Considering the rates recorded 

individually for the afore-mentioned coefficients, the settlements of Beiuş land fall into three 

categories of demographic hazard: high, medium and small hazard (figure 7). 

The most critical situation, on the verge of extinction due to very small demographic 

potential, doubled by an increased degree of ageing population, is to be found in 7 localities: 

Bâlc, Brusturi, Câmp MoŃi, Criştioru de Sus, Hidiş and Sânicolau de Beiuş. They all have 

gloomy insecure future due to the low habitat potential and depopulation. 

In the high hazard category we have 87 settlements, representing 67.4% of the total. In 

their case the demographic hazard manifests itself through the demographic ageing 

phenomenon and the intensification of the feminization process, but, at least on short term, 

there is no risk of depopulation. 

The low demographic hazard, manifested discreetly, sequentially, through one of the used 

demographic coefficients, is present in 35 settlements, respectively 27.1% of the total. The 

demographic ageing is mainly found in Ferice, Căbeşti, Goila, Sohodol, the other coefficients 

showing rates that do not raise a problem, on long term. 

The increased feminization of the population is present in the towns of Nucet, Ştei, Vaşcău 

and villages Budureasa, Săud, due to more intense industrial activity. 

The economic dependency is higher in Brădet, Lacu Sărat, Şoimi, Stînceşti. Here the 

acts of the main actors should focus on solving these vulnerable situations that might trigger 

long-term issues.

284 


Figure 7. Beiuş Land. Demographic hazard 

DEBATES AND CONCLUSIONS 

Beiuş land, an old area of living and human continuity, center of concentrated natural and 

human energies on the upper stream of Crişul Negru, is presently facing the generalization of the 

demographic ageing process. The demographic ageing and the feminization process of the 

population area real issues for the settlements in the depression, especially for the small and very 

small localities. The disappearance of some settlements is a real threat for 7 localities. The 

question that arises is what are the chances to stop this phenomenon, respectively the means to 

diminish the demographic hazard, under the actual social-economic circumstances. 

In the case of the almost extinct localities, the population and habitat census, in progress at 

the moment of this paper's editing process, could confirm their disappearance. We consider that 

any action taken to rejuvenate these localities is tardy, the chances to succeed are slim considering 

the old population and the lack of viable economic programs. 

In the case of other localities, considering the local particularity, the existing tradition, the 

presence of already established economical activities, we consider that a human and economic 

policy oriented towards the preservation of the local distinctiveness and its capitalization could 

solve the present issues. On medium and long term, considering a sustainable development, it is 

important to work out an integrated local development strategy to capitalize the „land type” areas 

and the identity marks of Beiuş land, up to its establishment as a project territory (Filimon, 2007) 

and the setup of the brand of Beiuş land. On short term, the main actions should be oriented 

towards the support of the young population, to ensure an accurate social-economic framework, to 

encourage the development of long term viable economic activities and to capitalize the existing 

local resources not only the human ones. The presence of lohn type units (Beiuş and Ştei) is only a 

short term solution. A field which has generous resources is the tourism, providing that real, not 

speculating investors are drawn up, as well as the encouragement of free initiative of the locals.


The rejuvenation of some traditional economic activities and even traditional crafts 

could contribute to the preservation of the young population. 

Nevertheless, the demographic ageing remains an unsolved issue for all the authorized 

institutions and a challenge for the future generations of Beiuş land. The local young population 

has a fundamental part in solving this issue, a flux of young allochthonous population being able to 

dillute or even lose the authenticity of Beiuş land. 


This contribution represents results from the following research project PN II, TE_287, 75/2010. 

REFERENCES 

Benedek J. (2002), Riscurile umane, în Riscuri şi catastrofe, editor V. Sorochovschi, Editura Casa CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, Cluj- 

Napoca; 

Filimon LuminiŃa (2007), The Romanian „Lands” as Project Territory: Case Study: Beiuş Land, în RRGP, pp. 23-28; 

Filimon Luminita, Ribana Linc, Olau P., Filimon C. (2010), Spatial Planning and Local Development. Beiuş Land 

(Romania) as Project Territory, International Journal Of Energy And Environment, 

http://www.naun.org/journals/energyenvironment/; 

Guran Liliana, Turnock D. (2001), A preliminary assessement of social risk in Romania, Geojournal, nr. 50; 

Ianoş I. (1994), Riscul în sistemele geografice, SCC, XLI, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti; 

RaŃiu Ramona (2007), PotenŃialul socio-economic şi natural în aprecierea vulnerabilităŃii aşezărilor rurale din Câmpia 

Someşană, în Riscuri şi catastrofe, editor V. Sorochovschi, Editura Casa CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, Cluj-Napoca; 

Rotariu T. (2004), Riscuri demografice, în Riscuri şi catastrofe, editor V. Sorochovschi, Editura Casa CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, 

Cluj-Napoca; 

Surd V., Ardelean V. (1993), Geocriminalitatea în Muncipiul Cluj-Napoca, Studia UBB, Seria Geographia, pp. 87-92; 

Surd V., Puiu V., Zotic V., Modovan C. (2007), Riscul demografic în MunŃii Apuseni, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, 

Cluj-Napoca. 


August 21, 2011 Octomber 20, 2011 November 09, 2011



DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC VULNERABILITIES WITHIN THE 

SUBURBAN AREA OF TÂRGU JIU 

Daniela ZAMFIR ∗ 

University of Bucharets, Faculty of Geography, Interdisciplinary Center for Advanced Researches on Territorial Dynamics, 

CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: irdanniela@yahoo.com 

Cristian BRAGHINĂ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cristianbraghina@yahoo.com 

Cristian TĂLÂNGĂ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cristian2851@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to determine the demographic and economic vulnerabilities 

in the suburban area of a medium-size town, considering the level of sensitivity of these areas and 

their interface characteristic between urban and rural places. A series of indicators were considered 

and correlated, and the conclusion is that these indicators resulted in identifying the most vulnerable 

regions from economic, but especially demographic, point of view. After considering this analysis, 

two major vulnerable regions were identified, which means they need urgent measures of recovery 

from both economic and demographic points of view. 

Key-words: vulnerability, risk, population, economy, suburban area 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The concept of „vulnerability” is used more and more often in the professional literature (both 

sociology and economics or geography). According to the explanatory dictionary of Romanian 

language, „vulnerable” means „which can be easily affected or under attack, which has weak points”. 

For over two decades, the collocation „vulnerable population” is used on an international 

scale more and more often, meaning that population which had been hit by deluges and cyclones, 

by the poverty level or exposure to cacoethes (Bourdelais, 2005). The concept of „vulnerability” 

refers to the long-term poverty and social exclusion. This vulnerability implies two components 

(Chambers, 1989): first the risk, the possibility of an event with adverse effect to happen and 

secondly the ability to respond to this event, depending on the level of the resources (psychic, 

economic, social and political ones). 

We decided to analyze the former component - the risk - which in demography means all of 

what can cause a degradation of the structures or result in adverse effects on the demographic dynamics. 

Demographic risk starts mostly as a result of economic vulnerabilities. The economic vulnerability was 



Demographic and Economic Vulnerabilities Within the Suburban Area of Târgu Jiu 287 

approached about a macro-level (country level), considering only the level of development of that 

country reflected on PIB/habitant or more recently about the worldwide economic crisis. 

From geographical point of view, the most important issues are: the increasing effect of the 

risk, the ability to generate structures that can lead to the reconfiguration of territorial relationships 

on various levels of analysis (local, regional, national and even global). Geography has the 

advantage of being looked at beyond the barrenness of statistical data, being tied down to the 

realities in the field (Muntele, 2010). 

As concerns the geographical analysis, practically we will focus on the territorial inferences 

of the geo-demographic and economic vulnerabilities (or better said the risks) on the suburban area 

of a medium-size town in Romania. 

From demographic point of view, there are three major processes that result in a burst of 

unexpected events: the age of population, an old population and the decline of population in a 

specific region. The aggregation of these three processes leads to an indicator of the demographic 

vulnerability (according to the European Commission, Territorial Agenda of the European Union 

2020, 2011). Demographic changes have a lot of economic, social and environmental implications. 

The aging process of the population may have an impact on the macro-economic variables, such 

as: productive capacity, investments and consumption. 

According to European documentation, the changes in population size may have a major impact 

on regional development, leading to an old labour force. A great majority of these regions that have to 

overtake the demographic decline are rural or suburban regions characterized by a low level of income, 

a high level of unemployment and a high level of employment in falling economic sectors. 

The impact on the regional development depends on several factors, such as: the structure of 

population, the level of professional qualification, the productive capacity and the level of regeneration 

of the labour force. The regions in which the populations have a high level of education are better 

prepared for overtaking the effects the demographic changes have on them by a higher level of the 

productive capacity of labour force (due to a higher level of flexibility to the labour market). 


The suburban areas are among the most sensitive regions to the economic and demographic 

changes. In this case it is about a medium-size town with a suburban area composed of the first 

circle of localities. It is undetermined; it is neither urban, nor rural, with both rural and urban 

features, being related more or less to the urban region it occupies (Stoica et al., 2010). 

For identifying demographic and economic vulnerabilities, a series of indicators were 

considered and correlated, and the conclusion is that these indicators resulted in identifying the 

most vulnerable regions from economic, but especially demographic, point of view. 

The selected indicators for identifying the economic vulnerabilities were represented by the 

depressed entrepreneurial activity (characterized by the number of companies, the rate of turnover) 

in 2009, the number of employees (2009) and the rate of unemployment (2009). 

The indicators which describe the demographic vulnerabilities may be the natural balance 

of the population (the average for the period 2000 - 2009), the balance of migration (the average 

for the period 2000 - 2009), the population share of and over 65 years old (2008), demographic 

development (1912 - 2008) and the children birth rate (the average for the period 2006 - 2009). 

Then, there was a process of intercalation of the regions affected both by the economic 

vulnerabilities and demographic ones for identifying the most sensitive regions of the suburban 

area of Târgu Jiu municipality which needs urgent measures of demographic regeneration. 

CASE STUDY 

The municipality of Târgu Jiu is one of the urban centres with the role of a regional pole of 

development (Peptenatu et al., 2009), demographic increasing being a modest one (95,271 

inhabitants in 2008). The area which is polarized by a regional urban centre, still characterized by 

a migration of the population and of the resources from outskirts to the centre of the town, can

288 


develop by maintaining a level of polarization of the regional centre and by implementing an 

incentive policy of the urban-rural partnership practices. 

The analyzed region is composed of 11 administrative units, from which one is urban. In 

conclusion, it is about a fundamental rural region with a population of 44,568 inhabitants 

(representing 11.6% of the total number of people in the county). 

Economic vulnerabilities 

In our opinion, the most important factor in identifying the economic level of the area 

(lacking particular data on the income/inhabitant level) is entrepreneurial activity. This 

entrepreneurial activity was quantified by the interpolation of thematic maps containing the 

number of the companies and the turnover for every administrative unit, resulting in three 

categories (figure 1). Only two units have a medium level from this point of view (Bumbeşti Jiu şi 

Băleşti), the rest of them having a limited level of entrepreneurial undertaking. From this point of 

view, in the north-vest, a region in the suburban area can be distinguished (Arcani, Leleşti, 

Stăneşti, Schela), with both a very small number of companies (below 40) and a poor turnover 

(below 2 million RON). Besides, the predominance, for SMEs, of the tertiary sector is not, we 

might think, an element of economic development, but one of involution (Ianoş et al., 2010), 

considering that a great number of SMEs are to be found in the subordinate tertiary industry 

(especially the trade), whrere the number of work places is limited and the added value is much 

reduced (Braghina et al., 2010). 

Figure 1. The degree of entrepreneurial activity by units 

(Source data: the National Trade Register Office; processed data)


Being strongly related to the development level of the entrepreneurial activity, the number 

of employees and the rate of unemployment are the other two relevant factors in identifying the 

economic vulnerabilities. As regards the number of employees (figure 2), the most insignificant 

values (below 150/administrative unit) are in the localities situated in the north-west region, these 

also having the most significant unemployment rates, of over 20% (figure 3). 

Figure 2. Number of employees by unit 

(Source data: National Institute for Statistics) 

Figure 3. Rate of unemployment by unit 

(Source data: National Institute for Statistics) 

Analyzing the four elements (the number of the companies, the turnover, the number of 

employees and the rate of unemployment), it is discovered a number of five administrative units 

characterized by important economic vulnerabilities: Arcani, Leleşti, Stăneşti, Schela (in a 

compact region) şi Bălăneşti (situated in the estern part of the suburban area). 

Demographic vulnerabilities 

The demographic vulnerabilities, which are much stronger, were identified by means of 

several indicators in terms of long term consequences, and after being analyzed, the conclusion 

was that they can describe the present state of demographic dynamics and structure, and the 

evolution of the two concepts (demographic dynamics and structure) if adequate demographic 

measures and policies are not applied. 

In order to recognize all the changes which occurred in different stages, the index of 

demographic evolution was calculated based on the following ratio: 

Where: 

L d = index of demographic evolution; 

, 

= sum of the square roots of the increasing values between census; 

= sum of the square roots of the decreasing values between census; 

P = total number of people in the locality X.

290 


Figure 4. Type of demographic evolution (according the index of demographic evolution) 

(Source data: National Institute for Statistics, processed data) 

Figure 5. Natural balance of population 

(Source data: National Institute for Statistics, processed data)


The values which were obtained are covering an interval from -4.21 (Dăneşti) and 1.12 

(Turcineşti). The average for the suburban area describes an involution slightly descending (-0.14). 

For a synthetic analysis of demographic evolution of the administrative territorial units in the peri-urban 

area of Târgu Jiu municipality, there were identified two major evolutional categories (figure 4): 

a) descending evolution, 63% of the area being included. This is specific only to the rural 

environment, being grouped in two regions: one in the north-west part and the other in the southeast 

part of the suburban area; 

b) administrative units with an evolution moderately ascending (from 0.1 to 1.12) are four 

altogether, representing 27% out of the total. They are both in the urban and rural environment. 

This pattern of localities in relation to their demographic evolution throughout the XX 

century is very useful in the process of describing the coming evolutional tendencies and of 

determination of the action. Other relevant indicators for population dynamics are the natural 

balance of the population and the balance of migration. 

The natural balance reflects major problems from demographic point of view, none of the 

units of the suburban area registering positive values (figure 5), the values being situated 

between 23.4‰ (Arcani) and -0.8‰ (Bumbeşti Jiu) with an average of -9.88‰ for the entire 

area. Very important for these values is the infant mortality rate, which is very high (in the 

entire area the average is 15.7‰), but also the birth rate which, in some cases is rather low 

(5.9‰). The most questionable regions from this point of view are situated in the north-west and 

the south-east part of the suburban area. 

Figure 6. Share of population over 65 years old 

(Source data: National Institute for Statistics, processed data) 

The balance of migration of population may reflect also a series of demographic 

dysfunctions. In this instance, however, the balance of migration is globally positive (11.1‰), 

but with territorial changes. Some of these localities are characterized by a positive balance of 

migration due to some types of urban sprawl. There are also negative values (- 6.5‰ - Schela, - 

5.4‰ - Bumbeşti Jiu). However the positive balance of migration does not compensate the

292 


natural one, thus resulting situations in which the total balance of population stays negative: 

Bălăneşti (– 8.4‰), Schela (- 20.5‰), ScoarŃa (- 0.6‰) sau Bumbeşti Jiu (- 20.5‰). 

The infant mortality is another problem to be analyzed, being directly related to the 

condition of sanitary system and the living standard. The high values in certain localities 

(Bălăneşti - 30.3‰, Leleşti - 25.6‰, DrăguŃeşti - 23.8‰, Bumbeşti Jiu - 12.1‰, Băleşti - 11.6‰) 

describe that there are still important problems in the suburban area of Târgu Jiu municipality. 

The most important problem is perhaps the one related to the aged population which can be 

quantified with the share of population of over 65 years old in the population total. With an 

average of 27.1% and one administrative unit with a value below 10% (Bumbeşti Jiu - 9.8%). This 

region can be included in the areas with an accentuated demographic level of aging. 

From territorial point of view (figure 6), there are two categories of localities with 

values measuring over 25% (one in the nort-west part and the other one in the south-east part 

of the suburban area). In each region, there are localities with values measuring over 30% of 

the aged population (Bălăneşti - 32.3%) and even 45% (Arcani 49.7%), meaning that there are 

major problems related to the aged population. 

If we analyze the birth-date ration, which has values below 25% in these regions, the 

conclusion is in fact that these two regions are characterized by demographic vulnerabilities. 

Verifying all these indicators, the conclusion is that there are two different regions 

characterized by demographic vulnerabilities: the former is situated in the north-west part (Arcani, 

Leleşti, Stăneşti) and the latter in the south-east part (Bălăneşti, ScoarŃa, Dăneşti), both having at 

least a locality with major demographic problems: Arcani, and, respectively, Bălăneşti. 

Overlaying the two types of vulnerabilities (demographic and economic), the conclusion is 

that there are both four administrative units extremely vulnerable (Arcani, Leleşti, Stăneşti) and 

two administrative units with a lower degree of vulnerability (Schela and Dăneşti). This 

vulnerability is much more accentuated in these regions so as there are also problems referring to 

urban public facilities (the lack of the gas grid and of the sewerage and water-supply systems) and 

infrastructure, but especially to a rather low level of population education (with a share of less than 

2% for those with university education and a share of over 2% for ungraduated people). 

CONCLUSIONS 

It is obvious that for every family or community these two aspects of the vulnerability - 

the level of risk and the feature of responsiveness -, are strongly related to the social and 

economic structures. From an individual or small community point of view, the social 

discrimination and a not so advantageous economic position, with a limited political 

connection, are also motifs for the occurrence of vulnerability, even if the nature of these 

vulnerabilities differs depending on the local or national context (Chronic Poverty Research 

Centre 2009). Socially, the factors which lead to the feature of vulnerability and which affect 

people are represented by a series of social and economic structures. These structures and 

relationships are differing anyway. They can change at a community level, due to the 

economic variations or the state intervention (Morgan and Yablonski, 2011). 

A very evident conclusion can be drawn, namely that for the areas situated in the 

demographic and economic high-risk regions certain rectifying measures and even a strong 

intervention are to come into prominence in order to stop the negative effect of these 

dysfunctions. Unfortunately, as regards the demographic component, the situation can change 

only by means of an appropriate demographic policy (at a national level) or by means of a 

series of economic measures which should improve the attractiveness degree of the area. 

Failing these actions, the social costs will increase exponentially (both of the aging process of 

the population and the increasing of the poverty level, which is high enough). 


This work was supported by CNCSIS - UEFISCSU, project number PNII - IDEI code 1948/2008.


REFERENCES 

Bourdelais P. (2005), Qu’est-ce que la vulnérabilité?, Annales de démographie historique, 2005/2 no 110, 5-9; 

Braghina C., Stoica Ilinca Valentina, Zamfir Daniela (2010), The role of SMEs in diminishing territorial disparities. Case 

Study: Gorj County, Ovidius University Anals. Economic Series, vol. X, 398-402; 

Chambers R. (1989), Vulnerability, Coping and Policy, IDS Bulletin, volume 37, no 4; 

Ianos I., Braghina C., Stoica Ilinca Valentina, Zamfir Daniela (2010), The dynamics and structure of SMES in the current 

economic context. Case study:Gorj County, Revista Romana de Geografie Politica, year XII, no 2, 400-410; 

Morgan R., Yablonski J. (2011), Adressing, not just, managing vulnerability: Policies and Practice for Equity and 

Transformation, International Conference „Social protection for Social Justice”, Institute of Development 

Studies, UK, 13-15 of April 2011; 

Muntele I. (2010), Les risque geo-démographique en Roumanie. Réalités et perspectives, Essays of Geography Seminar 

„Dimitrie Cantemir”, no 30/2010, pp. 73-85; 

Peptenatu D., Pintilii R., Cepoiu Loreta, Drăghici C. (2009), Polycentric Development Strategy – an Efficient Instrument in 

Administrative Decentralization, Romanian Review on Political Geography, XI, 2, 99-111; 

Stoica Ilinca-Valentina, Tălângă C., Zamfir Daniela (2010), Urban-rural interface: general remarks. Application in the 

Romanian system of settlements, Analele UniversităŃii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, tom XX, nr. 2/2010, 238-245; 

*** (1999), European Spatial Development Perspective. Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory 

of the European Union, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg; 

*** (2011), Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020. Towards an Inclusive, Smart and Sustainable Europe of 

Diverse Regions; 

*** (2007), Territorial Agenda of the European Union. Towards a more competitive and sustainable Europe of diverse region; 

*** Data from National Institute for Statistics 


September 06, 2011 November 06, 2011 December 13, 2011



THE EFFECTS OF POPULATION AGING ON RURAL AREAS. CASE 

STUDY: THE SĂRĂłEL HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN (BUZĂU 

SUBCARPATHIANS) 

Ilinca - Valentina STOICA ∗ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: stoicailincavalentina@gmail.com 

Abstract: The article is part of a wider scope of inquiries on population aging, carried out at 

European and global scale, concerning the impact of that process on society’s functional 

organization. Starting from these general considerations, this study sets out to highlight the 

features of population aging in the SărăŃel hydrographic basin, the causes that brought about 

this process, and the manner its effects are illustrated in the rural area. In order to quantify this 

process and achieve an analysis capturing its evolution, the weight of the elderly population 

out of the total population and the population aging index were calculated. 

Key-words: demographic ageing, rural, SărăŃel hydrographic basin, effects 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Demographic aging is a highly topical issue in Europe and worldwide nowadays, in the 

context of concerns related to the impact of the rise in the ratio of the elderly population on 

society’s functional organization. These are mainly grounded in the demographic forecasts, data 

indicating that by 2050 the global ratio of children vs. the elderly will be 1:2; the same ratio in 

China will be 0:7, and in Europe 0:5, where there will be twice the number of elderly people than 

children (Lunenfeld, 2002). 

As a result of these forecasts, several studies have been carried out at European Union 

level, as part of several programs such as: „The Ageing Population and Disabilities” (Programme 

Acronym: LIFE QUALITY), „Ageing, Health and Retirement in Europe” (AGIR), „Future 

Elderly Living Conditions in Europe: Who Will Care” (FELICE), SHARE „Survey of Health, 

Ageing and Retirement in Europe”, and „Extending quality of life in old age - the state of the art 

(EQUAL)” among others ( Lasch et al., 2006). 

In addition, numerous studies were carried out on the impact of demographic aging on 

sections of social policy in various countries: France (Bourdelais, 1999), Holland 

(Balkenende, 2008), Moldova (Paladi, 2008), England and Wales (Grundy and Emily, 1991), 

Australia (Rowland, 2008), Canada (Fougère et al., 2009), Scotland (Loretto et al., 2006), 

Japan (Faruqee and Muhleisen, 2003), among others. 

Population aging is foremost a demographic phenomenon, although its consequences 

expand much beyond the limits of demography. Demographic aging has become a topic in 



The Effects of Population Aging on Rural Areas. Case Study: The Sărățel… 295 

social, economic, healthcare and even cultural debate because of the scale of its effects and its 

persistence (Lutz et al., 2009). 

In the long run, five fields of public policies have to get prepared in order to cope with this 

process: the pension system, healthcare and long-term care policy, workforce occupation, 

migration and integration policy, infrastructure development (Zaidi, 2008). In this respect, certain 

authors identify migration as the factor that might help balance the public pension system (Razin 

and Sadka, 1999; Leers et al., 2004). Others identify, in addition to the rise in the number of 

migrants, encouraging a rise in fertility (Bongaarts, 2004). One other view holds that identifying 

means to keep the elderly population active for as long as possible would also be desirable, as 

there are worries that jobs will outnumber the workforce (Balkenende, 2008). 

Starting from these general premises, the study means to highlight the features of 

population aging in the SărăŃel hydrographic basin, the causes that brought about the respective 

process, and its effects on the rural area analyzed. 

METHODOLOGY 

Population aging means „the process of change in the population’s age group structure, in 

the sense of an increase in the elderly group’s ratio to the detriment of the young group, as a 

visible and long-term trend” (Mihăescu, 2001). 

Population aging is caused by a set of general factors, with particular causes - specific to 

certain subregions - also possibly present. The increase in life expectancy at birth and the 

concomitant decrease in fertility rates are the main factors responsible for an ageing population 

(Lunenfeld, 2002) (figure 1). 

Figure 1. Elements that contribute to population aging 

Source: Lunenfeld, 2002 

At the same time, in addition to these general conditions, emigration plays a very important 

part, or it can actually be the main factor, in certain areas. 

The process of demographic aging can be highlighted by means of quantitative analyses, 

such as the elderly population ratio of the overall population and the demographic aging index. 

The use of these indicators is necessary in order to capture this process in the utmost detail, but 

also to capture the causes that brought about a certain type of evolution. At the same time, the 

effects at a later time on the spatial organization of the area can be monitored. 

In the area analyzed, the available data were used to calculate the ratio of the elderly 

population out of the total population, a method that has the benefit of analyzing a longer time span, 

1930 through to the present. The second indicator analyzed covered the 1966 - 2007 time span, with 

the previous period only covered by remarks, as official data do not allow its quantification. 

The study was carried out at village level, using the information offered by censuses, up to 

2002; in order to highlight the latest trends an analysis of the evolution of the two indicators at 

commune level was carried out, with 2007 the latest year of reference.

296 


CASE STUDY: THE SĂRĂłEL HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN 

The SărăŃel hydrographic basin is located in South-Eastern Romania, in the Central- 

Northern part of Buzău County. It comprises all of 26 rural settlements, grouped in the communes 

of ScorŃoasa, Căneşti and Chiliile, and another 2 villages - Joseni and Scoroşeşti, part of the 

communes of Berca and Odăile, respectively. Population is around 5,800. 

Currently, in terms of population size, most villages have less than 500 residents, with only 

three of them topping that number - Joseni, Policiori and ScorŃoasa, villages located in the central 

and southern part of the area, in a more accessible region, which allows for relatively rapid 

connections to Berca or the city of Buzău, which means the working population prefers 

commuting over emigration. 

The basic economic activity is agriculture, subsistence farming on small-sized tracts of land, 

usually by means of traditional tools; there are farmers’ associations, but only for those tracts of land 

in the plains region. Industrial activity consists in several workpoints, with several oil wells standing 

out in the landscape, and small-scale handcraftsmanship industry operations. As far as the tertiary 

sector is concerned, one can notice assets mainly dealing in trade are predominant, and in the past 

few years there have also been several „feeble” initiatives to stimulate tourism (Stoica, 2009). 

The settlements in the SărăŃel basin have been suffering from demographic aging; in order 

to highlight the scale of that process, an analysis of the evolution of the weight of the elderly 

population in the total population was carried out. 

One general observation is that the weight of the population aged 65 and older has been on 

an uptrend since 1930 and through to the present, with a few exceptions listed below. 

An analysis of the statistical data indicates that by 1930 the weight of the elderly population 

was low, ranging from 2.1% (Grabicina de Jos and Dâlma) to 7% (Păcurile). The majority of the 

settlements (62.5%) featured rates below 5%, which indicated a predominance of the young and 

adult population. 

One could notice that by 1966 the sole village where the ratio of the population aged 65 and 

older had dropped was Poiana-Pletari; by 1930 this village had one of the highest values (6.9%), 

but by 1966 it had dropped to 4.35%. Overall, if one rules out this exception, one can notice that 

the minimal value registered by 1966 (7.7% in Negoşina) is higher than the maximal value of the 

previous year of reference. Half of all villages registered values lower than 10%, with the highest 

values found in Trestioara (14.2%) and Gura Văii (15.2%). The general causes for this rise in the 

elderly population’s ratio are the negative demographic effects of World War 2 (the rise in 

mortality, the drop in birth rate and fertility), but also emigration to the plains region, where 

veterans of the two World Wars had been granted land. 

In the context of heavy migration, the ratio of the elderly population continued to rise, so 

that by 1977 there were values higher than 20% (Chiliile, Glodu-Petcari, GonŃeşti, Valea Verzei). 

The lowest values were to be found in Căneşti (11.3%) and Balta Tocila (11.7%). 

In 1992, for the first time, the landmark rate of 30%, typical for a population suffering from 

demographic aging, is topped in 27% of the villages. 

Lower values are found in the communities in the south of the basin (Joseni - 17.1% and 

Policiori - 17.3%), which merely registered slight increases as compared to the previous time 

interval (0.7% and 0.8% respectively); the highest values are found in the villages of Glodu- 

Petcari (33.5%) and GonŃeşti (46.7%) (figure 2). 

The causes for the steep post - 1966 rise in the elderly population ratio were grounded 

in the high levels of emigration, with groups of migrants bound for outside the area analyzed, 

especially for Buzău, Râmnicu Sărat and the commune of Berca. To a lesser extent, they also 

left for Bucharest, Ploieşti, Braşov or other cities at a greater distance (Stoica, 2008). 

The immediate demographic effect of the departing population consisted in a negative 

natural growth rate and a decrease in fertility among others. In the long run, in the context where 

migration growth rate remained a negative one, the effects gained in scale, and the balance previously 

ensured by positive natural growth in rural areas was profoundly altered, so that nowadays the effects of


the socialist policy of over-emphasizing the importance of cities, and supplying them with workforce 

and raw materials from the rural regions, are full-blown. 

Figure 2. The evolution of the elderly population ratio in the villages in the SărăŃel basin 

In this context, by 2002 elderly population ratios remained high, but the overall increase is 

no longer as steep as that of the 1977 - 1992 interval; there were even instances where the ratio 

dropped - in Deleni (more than 10%), Gura-Văii and GonŃeşti. Those were not signals of a 

demographic rebound, but they could rather be explained by a higher mortality rate. The majority

298 


of the settlements (57.7%) featured 31% and higher ratios, the highest being in isolated villages 

such as Budeşti (46.7%) or Poiana-Pletari (49.2%). During this time interval, the villages in the 

southern part (Joseni and Policiori) continued to feature the lowest ratios (below 20%). 

At commune level, one can notice a similar evolution, characterized by an increase in the 

elderly population ratio; the ratio rose to higher rates post-1992, more than 23.8%, in all three 

communes (figure 3). 

Figure 3. Elderly population ratio (1930 - 2007) 

The population aging index (PAI) is calculated by matching the population aged 65 and 

older against that aged 14 and younger; in the area under analysis, it was calculated at village scale 

for the 1966 - 2002 time span, and at commune scale for the 1966 - 2007 time span. 

During the time span analyze, communities in the region were characterized by an overall 

upward trend, whose values rose steadily, the main causes being the population’s emigration (with 

all of its direct and indirect effects), the rise in the population’s levels of education, and the drop in 

birth rates, among others. 

Depending on the values of that index, several types of evolution can be identified: 

- in half of the villages, the values reached their peaks in 1992, in then registered slight 

drops (Policiori) or even steep drops (GonŃeşti, where PAI dropped from 2,100% to 566.7%, in the 

context of a high mortality rate); 

- settlements where the index values rose throughout the time interval analyzed, especially 

as a result of emigration during the communist era (Negoşina, Şuchea, Chiliile, and others); 

- in Căneşti values were on a downtrend until 1977, with a steady rise thereafter, as a result of 

the increase in emigration in that interval, an increase in the ratio of people migrating from the adult 

age group into the elderly age group, a drop in birth rates and an increase in mortality; 

- in Grabicina de Sus, a drop could be noticed by 1977, followed by a rise up to 1992, with 

then values reaching 0, because by 2002 the population of the village was own to 3 - adult and 

elderly people - which prevented the calculation of the index (table 1). 

Table 1. Population aging index (1966, 1977, 1992, 2002) (%) 

Data source: Censuses from 1966, 1977, 1992, 2002; processed data; 

Settlements 1966 1977 1992 2002 

Căneşti 39,1 37,6 181,8 197,1 

GonŃeşti 60,0 93,3 2100,0 566,7 

Negoşina 26,6 50,4 170,5 194,7 

Păcurile 27,9 51,4 88,5 226,7 

Şuchea 35,7 49,1 162,2 244,4 

Valea Verzei 43,5 82,0 172,0 125,7 

Chiliile 32,6 105,7 259,1 275,0 

Budeşti 34,7 45,2 135,7 700,0


Creveleşti 40,3 73,1 177,8 400,0 

Ghiocari 40,0 51,6 340,0 311,1 

Glodu - Petcari 59,0 88,3 440,0 800,0 

Poiana Pletari 12,7 95,0 550,0 1133,3 

Trestioara 61,8 78,2 233,3 280,0 

ScorŃoasa 49,5 90,1 181,4 160,8 

Balta Tocila 35,0 45,9 215,2 206,3 

Beciu 43,8 87,1 265,7 195,5 

Deleni 37,9 71,4 200,0 104,0 

Dâlma 44,3 93,9 266,7 554,5 

Golu Grabicina 27,7 45,7 130,6 167,7 

Grabicina de Jos 35,8 59,2 200,0 151,7 

Grabicina de Sus 46,2 46,0 258,3 0 

Gura Văii 66,0 81,6 251,6 170,0 

Plopeasa 30,2 83,2 263,8 231,4 

Policiori 37,9 62,4 79,5 79,4 

Joseni 31,4 71,1 100,6 104,4 

Scoroşeşti 41,30 47,73 181,43 164,29 

Figure 4. Degree of population aging (2002)

300 


A net difference can be perceived between 1966 and 2002 values, in the sense that by 

1966 there were some villages that had escaped the influence of this process (with values 

below 30%, with as low a rate as 12.7% in Poiana Pletari), but values rose steadily after that 

year, so that by 2002 one could say demographic aging was in a very advanced phase; 

moderate values (as compared to elsewhere in the area analyzed), below 10% could only be 

found in Policiori, Deleni and Joseni. In all other villages, values indicated an advanced and 

even very advanced state of population aging. 

The most intense manifestations were found in the villages of Budeşti, Glodu-Petcari and 

Poiana Pletari (1,133.3%), with the last village also registering the peak value for 2002 (figure 4). 

At commune scale, the highest values of the population aging index remained constant 

throughout the entire time interval analyzed; in the commune of Chiliile (the most isolated of 

communes), some of the villages suffered from depopulation and a birth rate that came close 

to 0 in the past few years (figure 5). 

Figure 5. Population aging index (1966-2007) 


Once begun, population aging has a series of effects on the population and communities, 

which are visible in the functional organization of the space. In the rural areas inside the SărăŃel 

basin this can be grouped into: 

a) effects on the population structure, in the sense of the population growing prone to high 

mortality and the persistence of low birth and fertility rates, which favors in the long run, the 

persistence and intensification of population aging. 

Nowadays, as this the values of this index rise, the population of certain villages is almost 

exclusively made up of elderly people (for instance Budeşti), which will bring about, if the current 

conditions persist, a severe shrinking of the population in the future, and the very disappearance of 

certain settlements. Even in the villages where young people are nowadays present but population 

aging degree is high, the youth tend to leave those settlements. One other effect is that of the rise 

of the inactive population ratio. 

b) shrinking of the surface of the villages; while in the past the younger population, driven 

by constraints of space, would build their homes on the outskirts of the village, the reverse 

phenomenon occurs nowadays, in the sense that old houses are abandoned and decay after their 

owners’ death, which causes the incorporated area to drop in the long run. 

c) modifications in the economic structure of the settlements, by means of an increase in 

the ratio of uncultivated tracts of land and a decrease in livestock. 

Most local residents own tracts of farmland in several distinct villages, and the elderly (as 

their capacity to work the land drops) work increasingly small surfaces of land, with those located 

farther from home the first to be abandoned. Under these conditions the local work part of the land 

they own close to their homes, and lease the rest, or in extreme cases lease all of it and live on their 

pensions or aid received from their children.


Simultaneously, there is a gradual drop in livestock, as elderly people tend to cut down on 

the heads of cattle they own, as they get older. 

At the same time, a population in an advanced state of population aging and with an 

obvious trend towards an intensification of that process is much less or not at all attractive for 

potential investors, who need young or adult workforce, as well as a guarantee for a future renewal 

of the active population, in order to set up their production facilities in the respective area. 

d) pressure on public social policies, by means of high costs related to public system 

pensions, as well as those related to healthcare and social assistance services. 

e) most of the time, a population suffering from population aging will also have a 

conservative mindset, and will be reluctant to novelties, which means it finds it very difficult to 

accept innovations, even if they would ease farming tasks. At the same time, accustomed to their 

traditionalist way of life, the population is unaware of the potential at hand and distrusts changes 

that might improve their living standards. This resistance to innovation depends to a large degree 

to the one’s education, as fieldwork analyses indicated a clear difference between the higher-and 

secondary-education population and those with primary education only. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The process of population aging influences all other sections of society, ranging from 

organization of the communities and through to the mindset of the local communities’ representatives. 

Inside the SărăŃel hydrographic basin, the normal course of evolution of the villages was 

profoundly and irreversibly altered by intense migration to outside the area analyzed. If an analysis 

of the elderly population’s weight of the total by 1930 indicated a young population, the situation 

nowadays has undergone a complete reversal. The villages where the current situation is most 

dramatic are those located in the northern part (Budeşti, Poiana Pletari, Creveleşti), or along the 

isolated high-altitude reaches inside the basin (Păcurile). At the same time, an analysis of the 

population aging index indicates an upward general trend, whose values steadily rose throughout 

the time span analyzed. 

To conclude, the process of demographic aging, acting in concert with other factors (limited 

accessibility, isolation, low income levels, and others) have had – and continue to have – multiple 

effects in the area analyzed, most of the times contributing to the deterioration of the rural area. 


This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/89/1.5/S/58852, ’Project 

Postdoctoral programme for training scientific researchers’ co-financed by the European Social 

Found within the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources’ Development 2007-2013 

and by CNCSIS –UEFISCSU, project number PNII – TD code 397/2007. 

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May 23, 2011 August 12, 2011 Octomber 15, 2011



CHARACTERISTICS OF DEMOGRAPHICAL DYNAMICS IN AREAS 

OF URBAN INFLUENCE. CASE STUDY: INFLUENCE AREA OF 

RÂMNICU VÂLCEA CITY 

Constantin Cristian DRĂGHICI ∗ 

University of Bucharets, Faculty of Geography, Interdisciplinary Center for Advanced Researches on Territorial 

Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cristi7772001@yahoo.com 

Daniel PEPTENATU 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: peptenatu@yahoo.fr 

Radu-Daniel PINTILII 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: pinty_ro@yahoo.com 

Florentina-Cristina MERCIU 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: krysten1009@yahoo.com 

Loreta Andreea CERCLEUX 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: loretacepoiu@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The article captures the main characteristics of the demographic dynamics in the 

influence area of Râmnicu Vâlcea city, between 1985 and 2007. In this respect, we analyzed 

the evolution in numbers of the population in the area of influence in the respective period, as 

well as a set of indicators such as birth rates, mortality rate, natural increase and the vitality 

index in order to identify the changes of quantitative and qualitative nature that influenced the 

mass of population in the area of influence during the period analyzed. 

Keywords: population, evolution in numbers, birth rate, mortality rate, natural balance, 

vitality index. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

In geographical terms, the city is the most complex system at work in a territory. No matter 

its size, as a result of its polarizing capacity, the city exerts its influence on the surrounding space 

(Ungureanu and łurcănaşu, 2008). Furthermore, the city is considered „an optimal, open, 

thermodynamic and informational system” (Ianoş, 2004, p. 4), a system that develops and survives 

thanks to the multitude of relationships it establishes with the other, neighboring systems in the 



304 

Constantin Cristian DRĂGHICI, Daniel PEPTENATU, Daniel Radu PINTILII,... 

territory. All these ties the city establishes with the surrounding space, ties which indicate a mutual 

dependence, eventually shape the area of influence of the respective urban center. This allows us 

to assert that the area of influence of a city is the primordial element in identifying and 

individualizing the main systems of localities (Ianoş, 1987). At the territorial level, this complex 

system is grounded in two sub-systems: the city itself and its area of influence. Both components 

are closely bound, by way of a multitude of relations, generated especially by the city, a major 

consumer of resources (Pintilii et al., 2008; Drăghici et al., 2009). This is an explainable situation, 

as the city is in a state of constant development, and it practically obtains most of the resources it 

needs from its area of influence (Ianoş, 1987; Negoescu, 1998; Mănescu, 1999; Istrate, 2008; 

Peptenatu et al., 2010a; Peptenatu et al., 2010b). 

In this context the analysis of the relations established between the city and its area of 

influence becomes an important stage in understanding the transformations that impacted on the 

urban settlement, and especially the way it will evolve in the coming period. Among the multitude 

of ties, demographic ties are very complex, which can be explained by the force of the attraction 

the polarizing city exerts, especially on the workforce. 

The changes of a socio-economic nature that have influenced Romania of late have left 

their imprint on demographic dynamics, too, especially in the case of cities and indirectly on the 

cities’ areas of influence (Istrate, 2008). In general, population dynamics are linked to the 

population’s natural movement and mobility in the territory, as they are among the main elements 

that convey a big picture of the way a city’s area of influence has evolved in terms of 

demographics (Staşac and Stupariu, 2010). The main factors that influenced, in time, the number 

of inhabitants in a certain area of influence are the birth rate and mortality rate, as well as 

population exchanges between the area of influence analyzed and outer regions. 

Population is the most active component in the dynamics of an area of influence, and in 

this respect the analysis of the dynamics of the population can be deemed an important stage in 

the study of areas of urban influence, and especially in territory planning and implementing a 

viable social policy (Cicharska, 2011). 

METHODS 

The analysis of the dynamics of population was conducted to encompass the entire area of 

influence, at city and commune level. Statistical data were processed and investigated, obtaining 

graphical and cartographical representations of various indicators that were used in the detailed 

analysis of the studied area. In order to ensure the accuracy of the representations, the statistical 

data used come from both population censuses (1912 - 2002) and annual series for the time from 

1985 to 2007. Also the influence area of Râmnicu Vâlcea city has been established by overlapping 

three areas of influence, previously obtained (influence of health area, influence of cultural and 

educational area and the influence of transportation area) at a time resulting in a likely area of 

influence. The result is an asymetric expansion space, totaling a number of 33 localities (37% of 

total number existing settlements in the country) and with a population of 129.325 people (about 

31% of the total number of country residents) (Drăghici et al., 2009). 

RESULTS 

Numerical evolution of the population 

The most general indicator used in the description of a certain population refers to its size or 

numbers. In order to ensure a strict delimitation of human communities, the size of the population is 

always associated with the categories of space and time. 

The evolution in numbers of the total population of the area of influence features an upward 

course, in general, but with certain fluctuations, a situation that allows a division into two distinct 

stages: 1912 - 1977 and 1977 - 2007 (figure 1). 

The 1912 - 1977 stage registered a net increase of 39,046 inhabitants, with the exception of 

the 1941 - 1948 time period, when there was a drop in the number of inhabitants.

Characteristics of Demographical Dynamics in Areas of Urban Influence… 305 

The 1948 - 1956 period saw the total number of inhabitants increase by 7,047, resulting in a 

positive total growth rate of 5.76%. Thus, 9 of the localities inside the area of influence register total 

growth rate values of more than 10% (among them, 5 feature total growth rates of more than 15%: Băile 

Govora - 27.30%, Băbeni - 22.15%, Voineasa - 19.26%, Băile Olăneşti - 18.06%, Călimăneşti - 16.13%). 

Figure 1. Numerical evolution of the population (1912 - 2007)

306 


During this period, 5 localities stand out as they register negative values of the total 

growth rate, 2 of them registering very high values for that indicator: Ocnele Mari (-39.34%) 

and Buneşti (-29.33%). 

The 1956 - 1966 period meant an increase in population numbers from 122,255 to 128,077, 

which meant a net growth of 5,822 inhabitants, or a total growth rate of 4.55%. The emergence of 

large industrial facilities in the area, as well as the attraction of certain urban centers, caused the 

depopulation of certain rural settlements, while on the other hand the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea 

becomes an important hub of attraction in the area. 5 localities stand out with positive growth rates 

of more than 20%: Voineasa (58.14%), Malaia (27.36%), Brezoi (23.44%), Buneşti (22.29%). 

However, the number of localities with positive growth rates is 18, or more than 50% of the total 

of administrative units analyzed. Drops in the number of inhabitants are registered in 15 localities, 

drops reflected in the value of the total growth rate to negative values. Among them, 3 localities 

stand out, with steep drops in the population: Ocnele Mari (-21.06%), Milcoiu (-14.57%) and 

Goleşti (-12.34%). 

The 1966 - 1977 period registered a total growth rate of 7.61%, meaning an increase in the 

number of inhabitants by 10,549. During this period 8 localities (Runcu, Milcoiu, Dănicei, Goleşti, 

Stoeneşti, Berislăveşti, Păuşeşti and Bărbăteşti) are those that register negative values of the total 

growth rate. The commune of Runcu stands out among them, there the value of the total negative 

growth rate is the highest, -14.74%. The other localities register positive values of the total growth 

rate, and several situations can be discerned: 

- steep positive evolution, with outstanding values, characteristic of 9 localities (values 

exceeding 500 inhabitants). 3 localities stand out: Călimăneşti (1,360 inhabitants), Voineasa (1,325 

inhabitants) and Malaia (1,067 inhabitants); 

- moderate positive evolution, with values ranging between 200 and 500 inhabitants, in 11 

localities: Buneşti, Vlădeşti, Mihăeşti, Olanu, Brezoi, Păuşeşti - Măglaşi and others. 

- low positive evolution, with less than 200 inhabitants: Sălătrucel, Muereasca, Stoileşti, 

Nicolae Bălcescu, Băile Olăneşti. 

The 1977 - 2007 stage meant a drop in the number of inhabitants in the area of influence 

from 138,626 people to 125,621 people (13,005 inhabitants). The main cause of this outstanding 

negative evolution was the migration of the population, both domestic and abroad, caused by the 

socio-economic conditions brought about by the post - 1990 changes. 

The 1977 - 1992 period registered a negative total growth rate of -8.14%, the lowest rate in 

the post - 1977 stage. Only 5 localities register positive values: the towns of Băbeni -13.14%, 

Călimăneşti -11.35%, Băile Govora -9.06%, Băile Olăneşti -2.78% and Brezoi -8.48%. The 

exception is the town of Ocnele Mari, where the total growth rate is negative (-7.35%), a situation 

mainly due to its proximity to the most important polarizing city, that is the city of Râmnicu 

Vâlcea. In the other 17 localities the total growth rate registers negative values, with the highest 

value found in the commune of Voineasa (-75.92%). Other localities with high negative values 

are: Malaia (-73.55%), Milcoiu (-36.86%), Runcu (-31.51%), and Goleşti (-23.69%). This steep 

drop has several causes: 

- first of all the drop in economic activity as a result of certain production facilities closing 

down after 1990, but also as the result of the completion of work on certain economic assets (the 

hydrotechnical work on the Olt and Lotru rivers); 

- the high degree of isolation of certain localities, which brought about the migration of the 

young population to towns in the near vicinity or to the polarizing hub; 

- the change in the status of certain localities from rural into urban areas, which resulted in 

an increased attractiveness for the population in the neighboring localities; 

- the little-developed infrastructure at commune level, which caused the migration of the 

population to urban settlements with a superior level of social infrastructure. 

The 1992 - 2002 period is characterized by the continued downtrend but with a lower 

intensity than in the previous period (-1.33%), with the observation that the trend is reversed in the


case of the towns. In the case of the towns this drop can be explained by the reorganization that 

encompassed industrial units inside the towns, with the aftermath of the loss of jobs and the 

population’s return to their home communities. At an individual scale, the situation is as follows: 

- 8 localities registered positive growth rates, with the highest being those registered in the 

localities: Bujoreni - 10.86%, Băbeni - 8.35%, Dăeşti - 8.04%. Mention should be made that these 

growth rates are mainly registered by the rural localities in the first ring of settlements around the 

city of Râmnicu Vâlcea; 

- 25 townships posted negative growth rates, with the most massive depopulation registered 

in the commune of Voineasa where the value stood at -30.50%. 

The 2002 - 2007 period is characterizes by a trend towards a drop in the population, but the 

value is smaller than during the previous period, i.e. -0.71%. The following matters can be 

highlighted: 

- 8 localities register positive values of the total growth rate, 5 of them having registered 

positive values in the preceding period as well. The steepest growth rates are registered in the 

localities Bujoreni, Vlădeşti, Păuşeşti-Măglaşi, Budeşti and Dăeşti; 

- the other 25 units registered negative values of the total growth rate, with the highest 

value registered by Dănicei (-7.25%). 

Birth rates 

The analysis of this geo-demographic variable was meant to highlight the intensity of birth 

rates across environments (urban-rural) and across the territory with the goal of identifying the trends 

of future evolution of the localities inside the area of influence of the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea. 

The average birth rate during the 1985 - 2007 period fluctuated between a minimum of 

8.61‰ in the commune of Milcoiu and a maximum of 14.29‰ registered in the commune of 

Muereasca. The highest values of the average birth rate, above 12.7‰, are registered in 7 

localities, more exactly: Brezoi, Sălătrucel, Berislăveşti, Muereasca, Bujoreni, Frânceşti and 

Stoileşti. For the overall area, the birth rate values ranged from a maximum of 16.6‰ in 1987 to a 

minimum of 8.4‰ in 2007 (table 1). 

The outstanding growth during the 1985 – 1987 period was due to the legislation passed by 

the Romanian state in the field of demographic policies. Furthermore, in 1987 the birth rate in 15 

localities registered very high rates, which exceeded the average rate of that year, 16.6‰. Among 

them, stand out the localities of Sălătrucel - 23.9‰, Brezoi - 22.6‰, Muereasca - 20.8‰, Milcoiu 

- 20.8‰. The trend continued on into next year, 1988, when the average birth rate in the area of 

influence of the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea stood at 16.38‰. 

Furthermore, those two years saw the highest number of live births in the entire time period 

analyzed: 2,169 in 1987 and 2,133 in 1988. The next year the birth rate dropped slightly, but it 

remained at a high value - 16.23‰. 

The post - 1990 socio-economic changes left their mark on the demographic behavior of 

inhabitants of the area of influence of the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea. Practically, starting 1990 and 

through to 2007, the drop was a constant one, with a slight rise in 1997 and 2005. Subsequently, 

by 2007, 21 localities register values below the mean average of the area of influence. Among 

them, the commune of Dănicei stands out, with the lowest value, 3.4‰ (other localities with low 

values are: Şirineasa - 5.4‰, Runcu - 5.4‰, Goleşti - 5.5‰ and Galicea - 5.8‰). 

Mortality rate 

Socio-economic factors have a special importance in determining the evolution of mortality 

rate. The ever-rising level of economic development led to an improvement of living conditions of 

the population, which meant improved diets, improved healthcare services; if one adds shorter 

working hours and higher wages, all these factors contributed to the drop of mortality rate. The 

average value of the mortality rate in the area of influence of the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea during 1985

308 


- 2007 remained between 12‰ - 14‰, with a peak in 1997, with 14.91‰ (values exceeding 14‰ 

were also registered in 1996 - 14.34‰ and in 1998 - 14.63‰), and a low in 1986, 11.65‰ (table 1). 

If one analyzes the situation across the two environments - urban and rural - one can notice 

that the population in the urban environment registered the lowest values of the average mortality 

rate, below the annual average rate of the area of influence, values that endured throughout the 

time analyzed. Furthermore, by 2007, 4 of the towns registered a mortality rate below 10‰, a 

value below the mean average of the entire zone that year - 11.92‰. This situation can be 

explained by means of the higher ratio of young and adult groups of the total population. 

In exchange, in the case of localities in the rural sector the mortality rate values were 

higher, above the annual mean average registered throughout the time period. As a supporting 

argument, one can mention that in the time period analyzed 22 localities registered mortality 

rate values above 13‰, 21 of them communes (the exception is the town of Ocnele Mari), and 6 

of them actually exceed 16‰ (Milcoiu - 19.65‰, Runcu - 18.99‰, Dănicei - 17.96‰, Goleşti - 

16.24‰, Stoeneşti - 16.05‰). 

Table 1. The average birth and mortality rate in the influence area of Râmnicu Vâlcea for 1985 and 2007 

(Source data: calculated data) 

Nr. 

Average birth rate Average mortality rate 

Localitate 

Crt. 

(1985 - 2007) 

(1985 - 2007) 

1 BĂBENI 12,11 9,08 

2 BĂILE GOVORA 8,95 10,30 

3 BĂILE OLĂNEŞTI 12,69 11,49 

4 BREZOI 13,63 9,68 

5 CĂLIMĂNEŞTI 12,02 11,83 

6 OCNELE MARI 11,60 13,20 

7 BĂRBĂTEŞTI 9,62 15,77 

8 BERISLĂVEŞTI 13,75 12,92 

9 BUDEŞTI 11,61 12,06 

10 BUJORENI 14,03 13,09 

11 BUNEŞTI 12,66 13,42 

12 DĂEŞTI 12,44 13,08 

13 DĂNICEI 10,86 17,96 

14 FRÂNCEŞTI 13,39 13,32 

15 GALICEA 11,48 13,55 

16 GOLEŞTI 10,77 16,24 

17 IONEŞTI 11,03 14,52 

18 MALAIA 11,98 9,40 

19 MIHAEŞTI 10,91 13,89 

20 MILCOIU 8,61 19,65 

21 MUEREASCA 14,29 13,47 

22 NICOLAE BĂLCESCU 12,13 13,97 

23 OLANU 10,52 14,56 

24 PĂUŞEŞTI 10,34 14,17 

25 PĂUŞEŞTI –MĂGLAŞI 11,35 14,08 

26 PIETRARI 10,52 14,94 

27 RUNCU 10,95 18,99 

28 SĂLĂTRUCEL 14,10 11,97 

29 ŞIRINEASA 11,08 13,90 

30 STOENEŞTI 10,21 16,05 

31 STOILEŞTI 13,01 13,95 

32 VLĂDEŞTI 12,28 12,31 

33 VOINEASA 9,82 7,56


Natural balance (natural increase) 

The evolution of the natural balance in the time analyzed follows, in general, the same 

course as the evolution of birth and mortality rates. Positive values of the natural increase rate are 

observed for the first six years (1985 - 1991), with a first peak registered in 1986 and 1987, 4.59‰ 

and 4.15‰, respectively, and a second peak, of smaller magnitude, in 1989 - 4.07‰. The lowest 

values in the entire region are regularly found after 1993, although negative values were observed 

as early as 1991 (-0.04‰). This drop occurred in the context of the constant drop of the birth rate 

and the mortality rate remaining at relatively the same levels. 

By 1986, 29 localities registered positive natural balance values and only 4 of them 

registered negative values of that indicator (figura 2). However, out of the 29 localities, only 13 

administrative units posted values that topped the mean average of the area of influence, 4.59‰. In 

the latter group, values above 9‰ were registered in the localities: Sălătrucel - 12.58‰, Budeşti – 

10.93‰, Stoileşti - 9.71‰, Galice - 9.36‰, Băile Govora - 9.23‰, Brezoi - 9.12‰ and 

Muereasca - 9.01‰. Negative values were registered only in 4 localities: Runcu (-8.15‰), Milcoiu 

(-4.85‰), Bărbăteşti (-1.62‰) and Pietrari (-0.82‰). 

By 2007 the situation had reversed, so that there were 27 localities that registered negative 

values and only 6 localities where the natural balance was positive. Therefore, there were 20 localities 

that featured rates above the -3.51‰ mean average, and 4 of them featured values above -10‰: 

Păuşeşti-Măglaşi (-13‰), Dănicei (-16.25‰), Bărbăteşti (-11.42‰), Milcoiu (-10.50‰). 

Figure 2. Natural balance in the influence area of Râmnicu Vâlcea for 1986 and 2007 

(Source: calculated data) 

The 6 localities with positive natural balance values were: Muereasca - 3.23‰, Malaia - 0.52‰, 

Bujoreni - 4.01‰, Budeşti - 1.23‰, Călimăneşti - 0.11‰ and Ocnele Mari - 0.86‰. These very low 

values of the natural increase rate can be explained by the drop in the birth rate and the mortality 

rate remaining at a relatively constant value. There are also localities where the ratio of people 

aged 60 and over is high. This situation is due on the one hand to the low birth rate and on the 

other hand to the shrinking young population group, as a result of migration to localities where 

economic outlooks are positive. 

The vitality index 

Information on this index allows one to issue forecasts on the evolution in number of the 

population, as well as the structure in terms of age groups. The mean average value for the entire area 

of influence of the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea was 91%, with an 85% value for the rural environment 

and 115% for the urban environment. During the time period analyzed, one can notice an increase of 

that index up to 1986, when it reaches a peak at 138% (figure 3). The next period stands out with a 

drop of that index to 71% by 2007, and thereafter the index value fluctuated from 65% to 71%, with 

an uptrend in the last year.

310 


The evolution of the birth rate follows the same general trend in the two environments, urban 

and rural, with the mention that while in the case of rural localities the downtrend continues after 

2001 (from 68% to 64% by 2007), localities in the urban environment register a slight increase in the 

value of that index (from 83% to 91% by 2007). 

Figure 3. Vitality index (1985 - 2007)


Evolution across the territory, by 1985, indicates that three communes - Voineasa, 

Berislăveşti and Malaia - feature values exceeding 200% (Voineasa - 311% ), 18 localities feature 

vitality index values ranging from 100% to 200% (this category includes the 6 towns in the area of 

influence) and 12 localities with values below 100% (Runcu - 56%, Pietrari - 83%). 

By 2007, the situation is completely different from the situation early in the time analyzed, 

so that there are no more localities where that index would exceed 200%, and there are only 6 

localities with values exceeding 100%, more exactly 2 towns (Călimăneşti - 101% and Ocnele 

Mari - 107%) and 4 communes (Budeşti - 115%, Bujoreni - 144%, Muereasca - 139% and Malaia 

- 108%). The other localities register values below 100%, and some actually below 50% (Dănicei - 

17%, Păuşeşti-Măglaşi - 33%, Runcu - 35%, Goleşti - 38%, Milcoiu - 39% and Şirineasa - 44%). 

CONCLUSIONS / DISCUSSION 

To conclude, one can remark that in the time period analyzed, the number of 

inhabitants in the area of influence posted an overall increase (26,041 inhabitants). 

Furthermore, the peak was reached in the 1980s, when a very high birth rate was also 

registered (16.6‰ in 1987) as a consequence of the pro-birth policy adopted by the Romanian 

state at that time. However, starting 1990, there has been an obvious downtrend as far as the 

number of inhabitants in the entire area is concerned. 

This drop is grounded in the socio-economic transformations of society at this time, 

transformations that inevitably influence the area of influence of the city of Râmnicu Vâlcea 

(Mălăescu, 2009). There is the additional factor of migration abroad in search of better jobs 

(Staşac and Stupariu, 2010). The extant situation as far as the post - 1990 number of 

inhabitants is concerned is reflected by the very low values of the natural increase rate, as the 

result of the drop of the birth rate and the relatively constant mortality rate at this time. In 

addition, the vitality index values for the time period analyzed, but especially for 2007, 

indicate a downtrend for the number of inhabitants in the area of influence of the city of 

Râmnicu Vâlcea as a result of the very low birth rate. 

One solution that would temper the drop in the number of inhabitants could be the 

development inside the area of influence of those complementary branches of the economy that 

would be capable of ensuring a sustainable development, so that that development would 

eventually be reflected at the individual level. This thing can only be achieved by creating a 

multiple-center network that would practically ensure a more efficient distribution of the 

development, at both zonal and especially regional scale (Ianoş et al. 2009, Peptenatu et al., 2009, 

Peptenatu et al., 2010; Humeau et al., 2010). 


This work was supported by the research project Territorial Management Based on Growth 

Poles Theory (UEFICSU-PNII-Idei, 1950), strategic grant POSDRU /89/1.5/S/58852, Project 

Program for postdoctoral researchers in science education, co-financed by the European Social 

Fund within the Sectoral Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007 - 2013. 

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July 12, 2011 Octomber 25, 2011 November 23, 2011



WAYS OF MANAGING THE URBAN-RURAL INTERFACE. CASE 

STUDY: BUCHAREST 

Ilinca-Valentina STOICA ∗ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: stoicailincavalentina@gmail.com 

Cristian TĂLÂNGĂ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cristian2851@yahoo.com 

Cristian BRAGHINĂ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cristianbraghina@yahoo.com 

Daniela ZAMFIR 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: irdanniela@yahoo.com 

Abstract: Management of the urban-rural interface is a challenge at European level, in the 

context of the current concerns about optimizing urban-rural linkages. In this context, the 

present article analyzes the characteristics of the urban-rural interface of the city of Bucharest 

(tackled at a mid-territorial scale) and the ways its sustainable and equitable management can 

be accomplished. At the same time, the article also analyzes the post-1990 changes that 

occurred inside that interface, under the influence of various forces and actors, with varied 

interests, which brought about a certain manner of structure and functional organization. 

Key words: urban-rural interface, Bucharest, territorial relations, space, management 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

In the context of the current urban expansion, „rural areas are no longer outside the city, but 

become an area „in-between” urbanized spots (Horlings and Marsden, 2010). „Whilst the physical 

and functional boundaries of urban and rural areas are becoming ever more blurred, the 

interdependencies are simultaneously becoming more complex and dynamic, containing structural 

and functional flows of people, capital goods, information, technology and lifestyles” (CURS, 

2004, quoted in Smith and Courtney, 2009). „These areas are characterised by a wide variety of 

land uses expressed in a complex, diverse and highly fragmented morphology” (Antrop, 2004, 

quoted in Madsen et al., 2010). 

In this context, urban-rural ties are under the scrutiny of European decision-making 

institutions, this concern being emphasized within documents such as ESDP (European Spatial 



314 


Development Perspective, adopted in 1999 by the ministries of the 15 states that were EU 

members at that time), the Lisbon strategy, the Territorial Agenda of the European Union (2007), 

or the Green Paper on territorial cohesion (2008). In May 2011, the ministers responsible for 

Spatial Planning and Territorial Development in the EU adopted Territorial Agenda of the 

European Union 2020, which revised the 2007 document. According to that document „urbanrural 

interdependence should be recognised through integrated governance and planning based 

on broad partnerships” (Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020). 

Simultaneously, „The CAP towards 2020”, „proposes improving the links between rural 

and urban areas as a means of contributing to the balanced territorial development of rural 

areas” (Talbot and Courtney, 2011). „In EU discourses, urban-rural linkages are usually 

constructed from an urban perspective, with rural areas conceptualised as residuals between 

dynamic urban growth nodes. References to urban-rural linkages, where in evidence, have 

generally been confined to the domain of Spatial planning and Cohesion policy” (Talbot and 

Courtney, 2011). Thus, their inclusion in the CAP toward 2020 is a signal concerning the 

rethinking of urban-rural linkages from the point of view of rural policies. 

„However, while there have been various studies concentrating on certain aspects of ruralurban 

linkages such as employment, migration, commuting and landscapes, there are few 

academic theories and concepts concerning rural-urban relationships per se” (Davoudi and 

Stead, 2002, quoted in Smith and Courtney, 2009). The current study’s approach is the analysis of 

the linkages and interdependences that are established between the two types of spaces. 

In Romania’s case, several types of linkages can be established across the land, depending 

on the size of the polarizing city and the characteristics of the surrounding rural space. Linkages 

can therefore be: 

- dynamic interaction linkages 

The polarizing city brings about a radical transformation of the surrounding rural space 

(Bucharest, or other large cities, such as Cluj Napoca, Iaşi, and others), by means of gradual 

expansion into that space, alongside the emergence of new residential spaces and the conduct of 

various economic ventures. In this context, the rural area is an outlet for the overcrowded urban 

space. Initially, in the first phase, several activities start to be concentrated from the urban area, 

punctually, and new residential spaces are built, which brings about the development of basic 

infrastructure. In the second phase, one notices an increase in the attractiveness of the respective 

area in the land and the development of certain activities on bigger surfaces, around the areas 

developed initially, or individually, in their vicinity. Later on, companies begin to be attracted by 

that space where a general well-defined infrastructure is available, lower costs of buildings or 

tracts of land, so that some of the operations in the urban space are relocated. At the same time, the 

benefit is that they can resort to the specialized workforce in the urban space. Gradually, this space 

sees its development level rising close to the urban one, and it can even be incorporated into that, 

administratively. At the same time, the development of the adjacent rural territory leads to the 

strengthening of the ties with the urban environment. 

- stable interaction linkages 

The city lacks the necessary force to bring about massive changes, and its influence is only 

visible on limited spaces, and the impact on the rural space is quite limited. Thus, the city supplies 

to the rural area a range of services (commercial, educational, medical, cultural, and others) and 

jobs. At the same time, the urban sector is supplied with resources from the rural sector. In this 

case, in some situations a range of activities begin to be located in the interface, as well as a series 

of buildings with residential purposes, located in a diffuse manner. In Romania, this situation is 

typical of medium-sized cities, whose interface is usually represented by the first ring of 

administrative-territorial units. 

-indifference linkages 

The city determines isolated changes, with a limited or insignificant impact, as it lacks the 

capacity to bring about transformations in the rural space. In general, in this situation, the degrees

Ways of Managing the Urban-Rural Interface. Case Study: Bucharest 315 

of development of the two types of environments are close, so that the interface is all but 

inexistent, as the characteristics are relatively the same. The difference is determined by the 

concentration in the urban space of certain administrative, commercial or educational services. 

This situation is in general typical of small towns in Romania. 

The ties existing between the two types of spaces can change in time, depending on a 

series of catalyst factors, which may bring about their consolidation or stabilization. 

„However, rural-urban linkages also vary according to local historical, political, sociocultural 

and ecological factors” (Tacoli, 1998). 

„Rural-urban interactions can be divided into two categories: 1. linkages across space 

(such as flows of people, goods, money and information and wastes); and 2. sectoral 

interactions, which include 'rural' activities taking place in urban areas (such as urban 

agriculture) or activities often classified as 'urban' (such as manufacturing and services) 

taking place in rural areas” (Tacoli, 1998). 

The whole of the urban-rural flows transiting the area between the two spaces make up 

a transcalar field, which represents the urban-rural interface. This actually represents a 

transition zone, created at the intersection of two entities with distinct characteristics and 

which are in constant transformation, by means of the acquisition of characteristics, 

especially, from the adjacent urban space. 

This zone is „no longer seen as just a boundary ‘in-between’ the city and the country; the 

interface is characterized as a process where identification and location, place and identity, are 

being contested and reconfigured” (Kaiser and Nikiforova, 2006, quoted în Masuda et al., 2008, 

quoted in Stoica et al., 2010). 


In the context of the current concerns about the way to approach the urban-rural interface, 

this study sets the goal of analyzing - by way of a case study - the characteristics of the interface 

and the way a sustainable and equitable management could be achieved, for the benefit of the 

communities involved. 

The urban-rural flows that transit and shape the interface determine the differentiated 

organization of its structure, depending on their volume and intensity. Thus, across the territory, 

the interface can be approached on three levels of analysis, as follows: micro-territorial, midterritorial 

and macro-territorial (Stoica et al., 2011). 

The micro-territorial level can be assessed by means of an analysis of the modifications that 

emerge in the structure of the land use. This represents the territory next to the border separating 

the urban and rural areas, and it is included in both types of spaces, as a transitional strip. 

The mid-territorial level can be considered - in case of the Romanian space - the first ring 

of administrative-territorial units around the urban area. In some cases it can be expanded to the 

second ring, too, depending on local particularities. 

The macro-territorial level consists in the administrative-territorial units adjoining the urban center 

that can make up an urban-rural association complex. Its borders depend on the degree of complexity of 

urban-rural linkages and it can be determined by means of quantitative and qualitative criteria. 

As far as the urban-rural interface is concerned, approached on any of the three levels 

of analysis, the question arises concerning the way its sustainable management could be 

accomplished. This is a challenge, as, although a change of direction is attempted at the level 

of European policies in the sense of reconsidering urban-rural linkages, the process is a 

difficult one because of the diversity of the types of flows transiting different spaces, 

characterized by a certain level of development and interacting in different ways, bringing 

about a certain manner of structure of the land. „Spatial development policies which have 

attempted to integrate rural and urban dimensions have often failed because they were based 

on inaccurate generalisations about the relationship between the two” (Tacoli, 1998). We 

consider a model of management has to be created, on the basis of the results of studies

316 


conducted punctually, with the purpose of identifying those successful scenarios, which 

would allow the later use on large areas, according to the principle of good practices. 

To that goal, in the current work an analysis will be conducted of the manner management 

of the interface can be achieved, by a means of a case study, covering Bucharest, whose interface 

is approached at mid-territorial levels, that is the first ring of administrative units. Choosing the 

mid-territorial level is motivated by the fact that it represents the space where the action of urbanrural 

linkages is at its most visible. Its borders were considered from the administrative point of 

view, as it was the only way to conduct quantitative analyses in addition to the qualitative ones, 

which allow the study of the evolution of the characteristics of that space. 

At the same time, the micro-territorial level is difficult to quantify across the land, as the 

statistical data do not allow a dynamic analysis. Instead, a limited analysis is rather easier to 

conduct of the changes occurred in the manner of use of the tracts of land. 

The quantitative analyses (conducted at mid-territorial level), are used with the goal of 

identifying the way the analyzed area’s structure was organized post-1990, as a result of the 

changes brought about by the legislative changes, which influenced the volume and type of the 

flows transiting that area. Special attention must also be paid to understanding the mechanisms that 

determined a particular type of evolution. 

CASE STUDY 

As far as the urban-rural interface of the city of Bucharest, at mid-territorial level, it 

consists, across the territory, in a first ring of localities, comprising 16 administrative-territorial 

units (figure 1). Circa 175,000 inhabitants live in that area (National Institute of Statistics, 2009). 

Figure 1. The urban-rural interface of the Bucharest (mid-territorial level) 

The evolution of these administrative-territorial units was heavily influenced by their 

proximity to Bucharest, especially in the post-1976 period, when a law was passed that banned the 

population from settling in Romania’s big cities. In that context, these served as „dormitory” 

towns for the population attracted by the numerous jobs, the result of the intense process of forced 

industrialization the capital city was subjected to. Thus, by 1989, their population rose a lot,


because of the high rate of immigration (some settlements actually saw the number of inhabitants 

double - Voluntari, Pantelimon, Cernica, Glina, Măgurele) (Ianoş, 1990). 

„However, immediately after the change of the communist regime, the rules concerning the 

unique property, the restriction of urban housing as well as the one regarding the sprawl of the 

built space of cities and towns have been abrogated” (Suditu, 2009). 

As a result, in the first few years of the transition, the population settled directly in the 

capital, so that the rate of immigration dropped. Later on, overall, one can notice the general 

evolution of the rate of immigration relatively stagnated, with slight fluctuations, followed, starting 

2003, by a visible increase in values. While, before 1989 immigrants to these townships were 

people wanting to settle as close to the capital as possible, after 1989 there is a noticeable reversal 

of flows, the trend being that of the migration of the Bucharest population with high and medium 

income, wanting to buy homes close to the capital city. The highest values were registered in 2008. 

In all, during 1990 - 2009, more than 74,000 people settled in the communities analyzed, 49.7% of 

them heading for Otopeni, Popeşti-Leordeni, Pantelimon and Voluntari. 

An analysis of the evolution of the number of inhabitants inside the urban-rural interface, 

starting 1990 and up to the present, reveals that the steepest growth rates were registered in Bragadiru 

(103.5%), Otopeni (59.7%) and Mogoşoaia (53.4%), and the lowest was registered in Măgurele (0.8%). 

Figure 2. The number of inhabitants (2009) and population increase between 1990 - 2009 

An involution as far as the number of inhabitants is concerned was registered only in 

Clinceni, whose population dropped by 2.3%. By 2009, the biggest number of inhabitants was 

registered in Voluntari (more than 33,000 inhabitants) (figure 2), followed by Pantelimon and 

Popeşti-Leordeni. Nevertheless, the biggest part of the administrative-territorial units (68.8%), 

feature populations of less than 10,000 inhabitants, who account for 46.5% of the total population

318 


between them. Thus, while in the communist time the interface was in general „static”, with 

borders clearly defined across the landscape, and very difficult to change (against the background 

of socio-economic restrictions), in the post-1989 years the mechanisms used to modify the limits 

of the interface were no longer enforced by a central authority, but influenced by regional and 

local factors (Stoica et al., 2010). These factors determine the organization of the interface 

structure across the land and the fluctuation of its limits. 

In this context, the proximity to the city of Bucharest and the position of certain settlements 

along the main access routes brought about their rapid development, and they were declared 

towns, which can be considered an intermediary stage between the big metropolis and the adjacent 

rural area. Thus, 7 towns are located in the first belt of administrative-territorial units, Otopeni 

acquiring that quality in 2000, Popeşti - Leordeni and Voluntari in 2004, and the others in 2005 

(Pantelimon, Măgurele, Bragadiru, Chitila). These towns registered a strong development, marked 

by an important increase in the number of inhabitants and the built-up stock, under the impact of 

pressure generated by the location in the close proximity of a big urban center. 

Declaring those urban settlements is a manner of managing urban-rural linkages by way of a 

specific policy, as those towns represent an intermediary stage between Bucharest and the deep rural. 

The increase in the number of inhabitants of the administrative units analyzed occurred 

simultaneously with an increase in the number of dwellings and the improvement of social and 

town infrastructure. As far as houses are concerned, their number increased (figure 3), as a result 

of the completion of several real-estate projects, in the context of high demand coming from the 

inhabitants of the city of Bucharest. Thus, new residential areas emerged on the border with the 

metropolis, especially along the road transport routes, as a bridge linking the metropolis and the 

surrounding space, areas that practically confirm the phenomenon of urban expansion. 

Figure 3. Index of housing construction period and the number of new houses built between 1990 - 2009


Thus, more than 23,500 new houses were completed during the 1990 - 2009 interval, most of 

them in Voluntari (more than 5,400) and in Popeşti-Leordeni (more than 3,200). At the opposite end, 

there are less attractive areas (with less than 1,000 new homes built), located in the South-East 

(Pantelimon, Cernica, Glina), South-West (Măgurele, Jilava), and in addition in Chitila and Tunari. 

In order to determine the ratio of new dwellings in the stock of buildings in the analyzed 

area, an index of housing construction period was calculated, matching the number of new houses 

built during 1990 - 2009 against the total number of extant houses by 2009. 

The results reveal that in all 34.6% of the current volume of constructions was built after 

1990 (figure 3). Moreover, values exceeding 40% are registered in half of the administrative units. 

The first townships to be attractive for real-estate investors were Otopeni, Mogoşoaia and 

Voluntari, before 2000, and then later on, as the degree of interest across the land increased, and 

the price of land rose, the center of attraction gradually spread to the other townships, too. 

In order to highlight the characteristics of the new dwellings, the dynamics of living area 

per house and per person were analyzed. As far as the living area per house is concerned, one 

noticed that by 2009 it featured values ranging from 46.1 sqm per house to 80.6 sqm per house. 

The highest values were typical for Mogoşoaia and Voluntari, and the lowest values for Chitila 

and Glina, respectively (figure 4). 

In the past 19 years there was a noticeable increase in the living area per house in all 

administrative-territorial units, with the highest values (above 40 sqm per house) being typical of 

Mogoşoaia and Voluntari, and the lowest typical of Glina and Măgurele. 

Figure 4. The evolution of living area per house (sqm per house) 

As far as the living area per person is concerned, it can be noticed that by 2009 it registered 

values ranging from 12.2 sqm per person to 36.2 sqm per person. The highest values (above 30 

sqm per person) are typical of the south-western area (Domneşti, Clinceni, Bragadiru), as well as

320 


Otopeni and Voluntari. Starting 1990 and up to 2009, the living area per person rose by the highest 

rates (more than 20 sqm per person) in Voluntari, Domneşti and Clinceni (figure 5). Living area per 

person rose by low rates - less than 5 sqm per person - in Pantelimon, Cernica, Chitila and Jilava. 

Figure 5. The evolution of living area per person (sqm per person) 

As a result of the changes brought by the legislative modifications of December 1989, in 

the area analyzed, the economic profile of the settlements underwent a series of transformations. 

Thus, „the communist period was characterized by forced industrialization in the first belt of 

localities around Bucharest and by excessive ruralization of the localities placed outside that belt” 

(Ianoş et al., 2010). As a result, on the border between Bucharest and those settlements, heavy 

industrial areas developed gradually, especially machine construction or chemicals industrial 

facilities. This also had an effect on the structure of the active population of those communities, in 

terms of the increase of the ratio of the population employed in the secondary sector. At the same 

time, the development of those industrial facilities brought about the establishment and 

consolidation of production and human-resource ties with the metropolis. 

Under the new social-economic conditions of the post-1990 years, the old industrial 

facilities, bound to the city’s economy, changed the field of activity, significantly downsized 

operations and/or, for the most part, went bankrupt. „The free-space stock favored the 

development of varied service activities (finance-banking, social headquarters for companies, 

business centers, technological parks, a.o.). Gradually, some decision centers of foreign capital 

companies moved or settled from the very beginning in the Bucharest periphery or even in the 

metropolitan area” (Ianoş et al., 2010). A significant development was registered by those 

companies that operate in the field of trade, or in the foods industry. The location of certain 

commercial services on the border of the city of Bucharest gradually won over other


investments, as well, which concentrated especially close to the main access routes. As a result, 

there was an increase in the ratio of the employed population working in the tertiary sector. 

At the same time, the normal connections between the city and the surrounding area 

continued as far as services and supplying the city with agri-foods products was concerned, given 

the high ratio of farmland in the territorial structure of the rural communities, as well as the extant 

demand for agri-foods products on the market of a city with more than 2 million inhabitants. This 

situation also influenced preserving a part of the population employed in the primary sector. 


Nowadays, in Romania, the urban-rural interface zone, no matter the size of the polarizing 

city, registers management deficiencies, as, typically, local authorities in the rural space are willing 

to accept any type of investment coming from the urban area that would lead to boosting the rural 

space by means of the creation of new jobs, an increase in local tax revenue collected, and the 

possibility of an increase in attractiveness across the land. On the other hand the urban space 

considers the rural area as a „pressure valve” it can use, either for new constructions, or for 

relocation of certain activities. At the same time, there is a clear influence felt of the agents in 

urban areas, whose organizational capacity and financial means are much higher than those of the 

entities in the neighbour area. In this context, the development of this space is chaotic, without 

very clear norms and without apparent benefits for the local population. 

How can be managed a space, with a complex structure, located near the biggest city in 

Romania, a space where new residential areas have developed in the past 20 years, and a space 

where various enterprises located chaotically across the area conduct operations? The particular 

manner of the current urban expansion determined the apparition of certain dysfunctions that 

prevent the normal functioning of the ties between Bucharest and the adjacent urban area. 

Nowadays, the deadlocks are obvious and they are apparent in the field of transportation, the 

unfolding of infrastructure works or leisure spaces, among others. In this context, it is obvious this 

area must be approached in an integrated manner, as the degree of interdependence of the linkages 

between the two areas is significant. 

However, the sustainable management of the urban-rural interface is dependent on the attitude 

of local authorities, who issue distinct local strategies and policies, which may generate cooperation 

ties or, on the contrary, conflicts, which shape the interface’s development patterns later on. At the 

same time, the local authorities’ actions are subordinated to the regional and national policies that 

determine specific directions for development, which are supplemented by local policies. A full 

spectrum of actors is at work in this area of interference (starting from local communities and 

through to various institutions), with varied interests as far as the interface’s later features are 

concerned. The sustainable management of such an area involves those actors’ cooperation, by 

means of the presence of joint approaches of matters of mutual interest (Stoica et al., 2011). 

In this context, in the case of the urban-rural interface of the city of Bucharest, too, a 

development strategy is necessary, that would allow the working together of the actors involved, with a 

view to identifying a way for joint management. Its goal is to optimize the extant ties and achieve a 

sustainable structure of the interface proper. Declaring some of these settlements towns was a means of 

managing this interference space, but that lewd to the creation of a degree of independence of those 

communities, which practically led to a fragmentation of the urban-rural interface. 

At the same time, the challenge that arises is that of identifying means to manage a space 

structured beforehand, which features a certain functional organization. In this context management can 

only lead to optimizing the extant ties and suggest directions for later development. 

CONCLUSIONS 

While in the communist period, in Romania, the urban-rural interface may be considered to have 

been „static”, that is with all but unchanged limits, in the context of certain very strict laws, which

322 


enforced certain restrictions, in the context of the abrogation of those laws after 1989, limits become 

dynamic. 

The urban-rural interface of the city of Bucharest was structured in the past 20 years, 

under the impact of various forces and agents that brought about a specific functional 

organization. Urban expansion occurred in the absence of clear regulations, which brought 

about the random emplacement of certain residential complexes and certain economic 

ventures. The result was the emergence of certain dysfunctions as far as the unfolding of 

urban-rural linkages is concerned, which stands out in the field of transportation, certain 

infrastructure works and waste storage, among others. 

In this context, managing it is a difficult but necessary process, which ought to lead to the 

collaboration of local authorities in the direction of identifying an integrated approach to that 

interference space. The enforcement of such a direction must lead to optimizing the extant linkages 

between Bucharest and the adjacent rural area and to identifying the actions to take at a later time 

with a view to clearly regulating the manner urban expansion will unfold. 


This work was supported by CNCSIS - UEFISCSU, project number PNII - IDEI code 1948/2008. 

REFERENCES 

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strategies and new rural-urban relations, Working Paper Series No. 55, The Centre for Business Relationships, 

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Ianoş I., Cercleux L., Pintilii R. D. (2010), Remarks on identity building of rural and urban communities in the Bucharest 

metropolitan area, Analele Universității din Oradea, seria Geografie, Tom XX, No. 2, 173-183; 

Ianoş I. (1990), Satele foarte mari din România, Terra, 1-4, 32-37; 

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from Jutland, Denmark, Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography; 

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Braila bipolar area (Romania), manuscript; 

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Romanian system of settlements, Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, tom XX, nr. 2/2010, 238-245; 

Suditu B. (2009), Urban sprawl and residential mobilities in the Bucharest area – reconfiguration of a new residential 

geography, Human geographies, Vol. 3, No. 2, 79-93; 

Tacoli Cecilia, (1998), Bridging the divide: Rural-urban Interactions and livelihood Strategies, in International 

Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods Programme, 

Gatekeeper Series, No 77; 

Talbot H., Courtney P. (2011), Improved urban-rural linkages as an EU rural development policy measure, Regional 

Studies Association (RSA) Annual International Conference in Newcastle (17th- 20th April), http://www.regionalstudies-assoc.ac.uk/events/2011/april-newcastle/papers/Talbot.pdf; 

*** (1999), European Spatial Development Perspective. Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory 

of the European Union, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg; 

*** (2011), Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020. Towards an Inclusive, Smart and Sustainable Europe of 

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*** National Institute of Statistics. 


September 02, 2011 November 24, 2011 December 13, 2011



SPORTS AND LEISURE TIME TOURISM – A WAY OF REVITALISING 

EMERGENT SPACES FROM THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF 

BUCHAREST 

Radu - Daniel PINTILII ∗ 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: pinty_ro@yahoo.com 

Florentina - Cristina MERCIU 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: krysten1009@yahoo.com 

Daniel PEPTENATU 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: peptenatu@yahoo.fr. 

Andreea - Loreta CERCLEUX 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: loretacepoiu@yahoo.com 

Cristian Constantin DRĂGHICI 


Dynamics, CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cristi7772001@yahoo.com 

Abstract: The aim of this article is to analyse and present the way new forms of tourism 

contour and develop in the metropolitan area of Bucharest. In the last period, a 

revitalising and opening of the touristic phenomenon from the metropolitan area of 

Bucharest can be noticed, with a special accent on the niche of sports tourism. This form 

of tourism, relatively new in our country, tends to become a dominant form of tourism 

for a European capital where the possibilities of spending leisure time are somehow 

limited for its inhabitants. This fact is emphasized by the increase of the number of 

leisure sports centres in the last years (sports clubs for vaulting, golf courses). In 

parallel, cultural tourism, which is a form of tourism with tradition for the metropolitan 

area of Bucharest, also benefits of favourable conditions. In the second part of the 

article, the attention is centred upon the tourists’ profile, comparatively presenting the 

two tipologies which present distinct characteristics from the point of view of the socioeconomic 

profile, as well as of the touristic motivations, globally. 

Key words: urban tourism, recreation spaces, golf tourism, recreation, Romania 

* * * * * * 



324 

Radu-Daniel PINTILII, Florentina-Cristina MERCIU, Daniel PEPTENATU, ... 

INTRODUCTION 

In the last years, tourism was included in urban policies, becoming a key factor in 

explaining several socio-spatial processes of the large towns. The reasons which explain the 

presence of tourism in urban strategies, both analytical and applied are diverse. There could be 

indicated some of the effects associated with socio-economic transition, urban crisis and the 

passing from the fundamentally industrial economy to tertiary economy. The new urban model 

shows a new hypostasis of towns, respectively that of entertainment centres or „entertainment 

machinery” (Lloydy Nichols, 2000 quoted by Diego and Barrada, 2010). 

The process of metropolitanisation is different according to predominant opinions 

concerning the urban development. It is strongly connected with the selection of the services’ and 

activities’ concentrations and with social polarization and spatial fragmentation. It is mainly 

associated with very big cities (Ionescu and Crenicean, 2009, p. 67). 

In this period, a large consuming of space is developed, usually materialized by the urban 

extension beyond the limits of large cities, thus affecting the dimension of agricultural areas and 

more, becoming more and more limited. As a result, the quality of the territory and urban 

experience, the opportunities of recreation, cultural activities, creativity and innovation, power and 

the capacity to influence or to create positive images, became essential elements for success in the 

towns’ competition on the world market (Cavuta, 2011). 

At present, almost all the cities, or at least the most important ones, needed to adapt to these 

new tendencies, leading to an intense competition, materialized by the building of a new urban 

picture, by cultural innovation projects (shows, festivals), as well as by the building of some 

facilities of general or touristic infrastructure (commercial centres, recreation centres, stadiums, 

museums and so on) (Diego and Barrada, 2010). 

There are many positive examples of recent development of sports and recreational tourism 

in many countries where until recently this form of tourism trends almost did not exist (Greece, 

Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and others) (Vujko and Plavša, 2011, p. 95). 

The sport related holiday is a growing segment of tourism and therefore a relevant field of 

research (Gibson, 1998 quoted by Barros et al., 2010). 

However, in OMT specialists’ opinion, sports tourism is not perceived as a special segment of 

the touristic offer, but it is enclosed in the category of touristic motivations as: „leisure time, 

relaxing, holiday” (Ciampicacigli and Maresca, 2004 quoted by Iancu and Siddu, 2009, p. 190). 

However, sports tourism represents an original product, supposing the integration of its own elements 

into recreative touristic activity. Sports tourism is defined as „a trip done in the free time in order to 

practise a sports activity, or as a spectator at different sports events on a determined period (less 

than a year) outside the residential space” (Gibson, 1998 quoted by Iancu and Siddu, 2009, p. 190). 

The increase of the free time duration represents a common factor, both for the touristic 

activity, and for the sports activity, which contributed to their amplification along the time. The 

scale of free time, contents and forms of consumption have direct connection with the 

development of human personality, with possibilities of satisfying needs of self-realization 

(Ratkowski et al., 2010, p. 115). 

The relationship between sports and tourism develops based on the positive image of sports, 

as a fundamental activity practiced in the free time, reaching new valences, from the simple physical 

activity to the competitive character, playful activity and health recovery (Di Marcoet et al., 2004). 

The development of an area for sports and recreational activities within the sports and 

recreational tourism primarily depends on the natural and geographic predisposition of the location 

and the affinity of tourists and their fitness and health predisposition (Weed, 2008; Plavša and 

Romelić, 2009 cited by Vujko 2011). Sports centres from the analysed space and which have a 

recreational role are mostly situated in the field area (The Romanian Plain). Situated in a plain 

area, the characteristics of the field, from the altitudinal point of view, but also of its reduced 

degree of fragmentation, indicates the suitability for the development of golf courses and 

equitation fields in the metropolitan area of Bucharest.

Sports and Leisure Time Tourism – A Way of Revitalising Emergent Spaces… 325 

Sports activities have a pure recreational role and they are meant to contribute to an 

increase of good humour amongst the practitioners (tourists). Is is knows that attracting tourists in 

recreational sports activities is based on a strong recreation motivation. The activities practiced are 

a way of combating stress and thereby they have positive effects upon health and physical 

condition (Vujko and Plavša, 2011, p. 95). An example in this respect is golf, which from the 

psychological point of view allows satisfying the tourist’s needs of hyper-stimulation and of 

feeling active, as the protagonist of his/ her own holiday, by experiencing his/ her motric abilities. 

In numerous cases, in a competition with other players, the desire to win is stronlgy present, thus 

being developed a strong competitive spirit (Perussia 1984 quoted by Iancu and Siddu, 2009, p. 

192). Practising golf is an optimal way of combining a dynamic physical activity with relaxation 

moments, due to the pleasant natural environment in which the golf game takes place (Neulinger, 

1981; Castelli and Guasco, 1984; Ingham, 1986; Perussia, 1989 quoted by Iancu and Siddu, 2009, 

p. 192). In its turn, the free time psychology overlaps in certain aspects with sports pshychology, 

due to the fact that activities dedicated to free time are mostly sports activities (Horn, 1992; 

Russel, 1993; Lombardo and Cavalieri, 1994). 

METHODOLOGY 

The methodology used within this study supposed a combination of specific methods in the 

Geography field and the sub-domain of tourism Geography in particular (field displacing, the 

mapping of touristic objectives). Also, field displacing was continued by the causal analysis of 

spatial distribution of touristic resources in the analysed space. The analysis of the location of 

recreation sports centres reflect a tendency manifested at world level of localising and rapid 

extension around large cities, sustained by intense touristic flows, represented by urban population. 

Unlike cultural-historical objectives, whose presence is under the influence of the historical and/ or 

social factors, the location of recreation centres represents a result of a cumulation of factors, 

which explains the present socio-economical picture of Bucharest’s influence upon metropolitan 

area. The analysis of recreation sports objectives was followed on a larger period of time (2000 - 

2010) and it underlined an accelerated dynamic of building sports centres in the last years around 

the first nucleus of localities which surround the capital. The graphical representation was meant to 

indicate the expansion of touristic phenomenon/ sports touristic establishments in the nortehn part 

of metropolitan narea: the „necklace” of recreation centres, which can be also explained by the 

more and more intense and motivated touristic request, with a recreational purpose. Also, the 

impact determined by the building of these recreation centres in the spaces where they were 

installed was emphasized. 

RECREATION PROJECTS BETWEEN DISPUTE AND FAILURE IN THE 

METROPOLITAN AREA 

Bucharest, as a European capital (a status achieved in January 2007), tends to inscribe on a 

new direction of improving its urban image, which from the touristic and cultural point of view is 

less visible, compared to other European metropolises. This thing, on the one hand, is due to the 

presence of touristic resources with a limited character, but also to the lack of a coherent policy of 

conservation and rehabilitation of the inherited patrimony, but also to the complex functions which 

the Capital exerts at national level, the latter exceeding in largeness the touristic vocation. This 

direction is necessary, on the one hand because of the difficulty of adapting to the new economic 

context, marked by the diminution of the industrialization process. At the same time, joining the 

European Union represents an action which imposes a change of the way of conceiving the 

development strategies, in accordance with the directives imposed at European level, the 

development of services and last but not least the accomplishment of some projects of urban 

renovation, with direct and indirect effects for tourism being primary.

326 


On the other hand, these actions are meant to contribute to the improvement of urban 

image, with the aim of becoming an attractive town for tourists, in this respect being started 

actions of building some new elements of infrastructure for tourism. 

The transformation of touristic type is unfolded in parallel with those of the process of 

urbanisation of the territory adjacent to the capital-city, reflected by the externalisation of the 

forms of touristic arrangement in the metropolitan area. The tendency reflects the normal course of 

the post-modern evolution of the town, by the alignment to the models from the occidental 

countries and their adapting to local conditions in a more or less coherent manner: the failed try to 

create a recreation park of large dimensions nearby Bucharest (Dracula Park). The problem of the 

achievement of this wide range project faced a series of critics, which are either connected to the 

lack of a fundament, which should lead to the historical and cultural symbolics, or to choosing an 

inappropriate location. Therefore, the project of creating the theme park „Dracula” around 

Bucharest, still from its launching as idea, created a lively debate, which generated the discussing 

of the character of inefficiency, as well as of its location (the establishing of the location nearby 

Bucharest would have taken the famous story of prince Dracula out from the historical context) 

and thus the project entered the phase of decline before it was started. The attempt to organise this 

space, with a recreation role, produced contradictory results, as it inscribes on the line of 

producing some stereotypes, which would have as an effect losing the cultural-historical identity 

of the country, transposed in the consciousness of foreign tourists by the story of prince Dracula. 

The only connection with the city’s history is connected to associating the reign court established 

in Bucharest by the prince Vlad łepeş, as well as of the document of attesting the capital city, 

which had the prince’s seal. 

THE PARTICULARITIES OF RECREATIONAL TOURISM IN THE 

METROPOLITAN AREA OF BUCHAREST 

The development of large cities supposes services’ externalisation, usually in the areas of 

influence, a fact which is noticed in case of the territory adjacent to Bucharest, too. Services 

externalisation presents a larger extension in the North and West part of the capital, within which 

commercial services prevail (Cepoiu, 2009). In the assembly of services developed in the influence 

area of the capital, in the last years there are to be mentioned especially touristic services, as they 

are often represented by the organising of some recreation spaces (Pintilii et al., 2010). 

Recreation spaces from the influence areas of towns are a continuation of those from inside 

the towns, most of the times. This fact is due, on the one hand, to the lack of space inside the urban 

centre, recreation spaces being usually in accordance with their size. In the metropolitan zone there 

are areas with characteristics which allow the transformation of these spaces into recreation areas: 

more reduced values of pollution, landscapes less affected by anthropisation. The localising and 

organising of sports fields with a recreational role around the capital are conditioned by economic 

factors, too: more reduced costs of the lands in this area. 

For the inhabitants from large cities, characterised by agglomeration and pollution, touristic 

experience is important, as it represents a form of evadation from the urban space, strongly 

industrialised and with a limited offer regarding the recreation possibilities or a pleasant ambient. 

This area tends to be dedicated to tourism in a greater and greater measure, offering 

possibilities of using directly or indirectly specialised workpower. 

Although touristic activities were not determinant in the metropolitan area up to present, 

these occupied an important place among the services developed in the last years. Tourism 

development in the metropolitan area of Bucharest, as a result of attracting a larger and larger 

number of tourists, may determine a touristic specialising of the territory, representing, at the same 

time, a form of expressing the process of urban regeneration by leisure activities, which are named 

in the specialised literature as „industrialisation of leisure time” (Brenda-Vázque et al., 2001) or 

as „places to play” (Sheller and Urry, 2004). Thus, these territories circumscribed to metropolitan 

area will become attractive for tourists, at least from the recreational point of view.


But it can be noticed that the tendency of building sports fields in the metropolitan area of 

Bucharest is not recent (the sports centre from Snagov was created long ago, or the creation in 

1925 of the first golf course in the country, at Băneasa, at the initiative of the business man colonel 

Grabell). It is also noticed that in the last years, an exponential increase of the sports fields in the 

metropolitan area of Bucharest city at the level of several types of sports activities (the number of 

horse racing centres doubled in the last years). Another characteristic of the present period, as 

regards the dynamic of sports centres in the metropolitan area of Bucharest is connected to the 

apparition of sports golf courses, an action of touristic entrepreneurship, which distinguishes by 

large investments flows and attractiveness for an important number of tourists. At the same time, 

obvious hallmarks in the territory are generated: the golf courses are ususally of large dimensions 

and they present at the same time a series of arrangements which reshape the original relief, thus 

obvioulsy marking the territory, from the touristic point of view. 

The building of recreation spaces also determined a dynamic of building structures of 

touristic welcoming. 

Golf tourism 

Practising the touristic sports activities is in relation with the preference of spending the 

free time in a pleasant way in open recreation spaces, evading from the agglomerated urban space 

for a few hours or during the week-end. The touristic potential in general, but the weekend' s in 

particular, situated in the metropolitan area of Bucharest raises by the dominant anthopic features, 

diminunishing the natural ones (Pintilii et al., 2010). 

Golf courses represent, lately, a 

special extension at the level of the 

analysed space, which reflects by the 

action arranging some recreation areas 

within residencial complexes built in the 

last years in the localities around 

Bucharest. These are frequented mostly 

by the capital’s inhabitants. Building the 

recreation touristic establishments is an 

occasion to develop the metropolitan area 

from the touristic point of view. This 

process permitted the development of 

some poles of recreational interest. 

Although the oldest golf course was 

established in Bucharest at the Diplomatic 

Club, still it presents a limitation which 

impedes the practicing of this sport by 

professionals (the golf course has got a 

limited surface). 

In the last years, there is a more and 

more accentuated tendency of building 

golf courses in the metropolitan area of the 

capital, from among the most recent 

mentioning the golf course from Tunari 

and the Complex Golf & Country Club 

Bucharest situated at 5 km distance from 

Figure 1. The map of recreational centers situated in 

the capital, between Chitila and Buftea, in 

the metropolitan area of Bucharest 

the commune Zurbaua (figure 1). The 

latter has an impressive length (6,350 m), 

consisting of golf courses with different degrees of difficulty, also presenting water obstacles and

328 


sand bunkers 1 . These elements confer particularity to the golf course, which supposes running 

through a challenging route, even for the experienced golf practitioners. This kind of 

establishments are built in order to create a high difficulty for the golf courses, this being the 

extremely attractive element for those with experience and who are motivated for coming again, 

also representing the motivation to try new golf courses in other countries, too. Flat golf courses 

are used by the beginners. 

Due to the special characteristics of the golf course, the complex may receive international 

tours, in which professional golf players can participate. The golf courses and the club quarter 

occupy half of its surface (approximately 3,500 m). 

The investment of approximately 7 million euros was financed by a Swiss firm in 

partnership with Romanian entrepreneurs. The complex is made up of 3 distinct parts: a 

professional golf course of 18 pathways (baskets / bowls) for professionals, a course of 6 

pathways, meant for those who want to practise, as well as for those less experimented; a 

residential area with 240 - 300 units for accommodation (apartments, single-family houses, villas) 

of superior confort, with a unique location and with view directly to the golf courses and partly to 

the Buftea forest. The offer is completed by a 4 stars hotel, grounds and a tennis court, a 

restaurant, a bar, a lounge, conference halls and commercial surfaces (not only connected to golf) 

etc. The association of recreational factor with accommodation services and meals’ serving 

represents a frequent practice at international level, achieved with the purpose of facilitating the 

continuation of the tourists’ stay, especially as at the golf centres’ level there are frequently 

organized sports contests with duration of 2 or 3 days 2 . 

There can be also mentioned two projects, which have as main objective the organizing of 

two golf courses at Snagov, as well as in Giurgiu county (Greaca commune), projects which need 

the creation of some public-private partnerships, as they impose two conditions: courses with a 

large spatial extension and high financial investments. 

It must be also mentioned that business tourism associates with golf tourism. This 

continuation, in touristic-recreational plan, of the business activity, represents an appropriate way 

to establish a climate favourable for collaboration between business partners. Thus, it can be 

explained the presence, not casual at all, of the structures of touristic welcoming. The presence of a 

golf playing tourist generates a stay of 3 or 4 days for foreign tourists. In case of national tourists, 

the practicing of this sport can be achieved both during the week and during the weekend. The 

relatively large period of the stay is also explained by the golf courses which can take place during 

several days. This allows the golf player to dispose of free time to visit the attractions of the 

touristic destination. 

Golf is included among the sports which need high costs regarding the field rent and/or the 

game instruments, to which the costs for accommodation, meals and the entrances to the cultural 

objectives add. All these lead to an increase of the total costs of the stay (Iancu and Siddu, 2009). 

Equestrian tourism 

Although the first equitation clubs opened nearby the capital (the Club of Equitation 

Bucharest 1994 and Ecvalahid in 1998), the tendency in the filed of recreational equitation was to 

draw away from the big cities and to build a recreation offer which will enclose the pleasure to ride, 

recently associated to agrotourism, too. Also, a doubling of the number of vaulting clubs in the last 

years can be noticed, these being built around the capital or at relatively small distances from it 

(figure 1). At the level of the metropolitan area of Bucharest, most of the stud farms are private 3 : 

- Corbeanca CS Hipocan with a number of 50 - 70 horses with modern facilities for horse 

treatment and sports club; 

1 www.golf-bucharest.ro/doc/ComunicatdePresa.pdf 

2 http://www.golflifestyle.ro/ro/articol/25-Country-Club-Baneasa-Primul-teren-de-18-cupe-din-Rom%C3%A2nia 

3 

www.ecvestra.ro/cluburi


- Otopeni: sports club Tracus Transilvania Magna cu 15 - 20 de cai; 

- Snagov: sports club Arkadia Horse with 20 - 25 horses; 

- Mogoşoaia has a school with the title of Equestrian Academy, sports clubs; 

- Dor Mărunt (Călăraşi county); 

- Jegălia (IalomiŃa county) - administered by Romsilva; 

- Buftea CS CadenŃa; 

- Ostratu CS HipicHolandia; 

- CS Piccadilly between the localities Săftica and Tâncăbeşti; 

- Ciofliceni: sports club Asil Horse Farm; 

- Ciorogârla: CS Hipic; 

- Domneşti: CE Agrointernational. 

At the same time, in the metropolitan area of Bucharest it can be noticed the touristic 

development of the elements of architectural heritage, by their arrangement as spaces of receiving 

some events related to tourism (cocktails with the occasion of business meetings, conferences). 

Also, arrangements were done for the practicing of different sports activities, as tennis and horse 

riding. In this respect, it can be mentioned the Stirbey domain from Buftea, which rents the rooms 

inside the establishment for different corporate events (business meetings, dinners, training, indoor 

and outdoor team-building) and private events (receptions, parties, balls, conferences, seminars, 

workshops). Also, the possibility of practicing equestrian tourism is offered, a spacial alley for 

riding being arranged in this purpose. The alley has got approximately 700 metres, by the 

riverside, but for this purpose there can be also used the winding alleys of the park. For children, 

there are recreation areas with animals (ponies’ enclosures). 

Figure 2. Area for equestrian tourism – Stirbey 

Domain 

Figure 3 Mogoşoaia lake and nautical sport 

arrangements 

The practicing of equestrian tourism, as a form of touristic recreation, supposes several 

requests, which start from the way of selecting and breeding caballines, up to the organising of 

specific tourist activities. 

In this respect, there can be mentioned the following activities which attract an important 

number of internal and external tourists (Simon, 2008, p. 373): 

- promenades at a slow pace and/ or gallop walks; 

- resistance contest with the horse or with a team of horses; 

- medium and small mammals’ hunting with the help of the horses; 

- walkings by sledge, cart and carriages dragged by horses; 

- parade and circus shows;

330 


- contests of derby type, which include obstacles, manege, gallop, trotting; 

- continental (European) and world championships; 

- etological equitation with a therapy role. 

The development of vaulting centres has the purpose to diversify the forms of sports 

tourism, developing local touristic resources, too. 

Nautical tourism 

One of the oldest sports clubs for natation form the influence area of the capital was built at 

Snagov, thus putting into value the presence of the natural lake with the same name. The natural 

lake Snagov has a length of 13 km and it occupies a surface of 570 hectares, being built for the 

practicing of nautical sports, recreation walkings and fishing, too. 

The establishing of the sports club represented a large scale action, represented by the 

building of an olympic base of swimming for canoeing. Between 1935 and 1936 there are 

mentioned canoeing courses on the Snagov Lake, organised by the Sports Club Rapid. 

Subsequently, the olympic base was used for recreation activities, too. 

Because Snagov represents one of the most known recreation oases around the capital, on the 

one hand for the priviledged position (only a few kilometres distance), but also for the forms of 

recreation it offers, a local tourism agency offers the possibility to accomplish the Snagov circuit during 

the week-end in the summer, for one day (on Saturday or on Sunday), leaving from Bucharest. It is also 

included the guiding for the entire journey. Snagov’s circuit consists of two journeys: 

- Blue Journey (on the lake) by boat 

- Red Journey (on the road) by Titicar. This means of transport is very smart, made up of 

one wagon of small dimensions (18 seats) dragged by a tractor. The road journey has the main aim 

to visit the cultural touristic attractions from Snagov organised on 3 differemt routes 4 . In Snagov it 

was also developed a fishery complex (the pond from Tâncăbeşti), being divided into two basins 

for professional fishermen and the second for amateur fishermen. 

The Mogoşoaia Lake was anthropically arranged for different recreational activities. 

In Otopeni there were proposed works for building a Sports Complex, which will comprise 

three competitional swimming basins, two olympic basins and a polo basin, to which other three 

public swimming basins for practicing and recreation add. Its building is envisaged to finish this 

year, and the sports complex will represent the main sports base of swimming in the country. One 

of the economic effects generated by the building of the sports complex is to ensure the population 

access to facilities for practicing sports. This complex is part of a larger project which contains: a 

multi-valent concourse with approximately 5,400 seats, a hotel, and several commercial spaces 

with sport destination. The natation sports complex from Otopeni is about to be accomplished by 

the programme „Swimming basins” achieved by the National Campaign of Investments „C.N.I.” – 

S.A, developed by the Ministry of Public Works and Settlements, at present the Ministry of 

Regional Development and Tourism 5 . 

THE TYPOLOGY OF SPORTS TOURIST 

The new forms of anthropic touristic attractions from the influence area come in contrast 

with cultural attractions whose age confers them special attributes. At the same time, the two types 

of anthropic touristic attractions share the mass of tourists in two distinct categories, both as socioeconomic 

profile, and from the point of view of touristic motivations. 

In case of touristic attractions with a recreational role (sports establishments: swimming bases, 

sports centres of vaulting, golf clubs), the touristic request presents a series of distinctive attributes: 

there are usually middle aged persons, with high financial possibilities (sports recreational 

4 www.snagov.ro 

5 

www.mdrl.ro/_documente/transparenta/consultari_publice/consultare71/nf.pdf


establishments mentioned, except for the swimming basins, suppose the allocation of important 

financial resources, especially as it is necessary to rent the instruments useful for practicing sports). 

Sports tourism itself presents under three forms, generating varied types of tourists 

(Ciampicacigli and Maresca, 2004; Gibson, 1998 quoted by Iancu and Siddu, 2009): „leisure 

sports tourism” or „active sport tourism referring to people who travel to take part in a sport 

event sport tourism” which refers to people who travel to watch a sporting event and „nostalgia 

sport tourism” which includes visits to sports museums or stadiums. 

It is appreciated that the dynamic of touristic population shaped on sports tourism will 

intensify once the intense promotion and their extension in the territory, the increase being due to 

international arrivals, as this category of touristic request is much better informed and they 

frequent more largely the forms of tourism with a recreation role. 

In case of cultural tourism, whose attractions are represented by the diversity of culturalhistorical 

and religious objectives, it addresses a special category of the touristic request, usually to 

young tourists (including children), but also to middle age persons attacted by the history and 

culture of the capital’s area and its surroundings. Numerous historical events related to the capital 

and its leaders hallmarked the space around it (the Palace from Mogosoaia – the summer residence 

of the ruler Constantin Brâncoveanu, the Ştirbey Palace). The segment of tourists which practice 

cultural tourism is defined by a series of specific attributes: lower and average incomes, numerous 

flows in certain time intervals, having as main motivation the desire of knowledge. 

Besides cultural-historical ojectives, there are the religious objectives, able to generate 

touristic flows, attracted by other touristic motivations and they present a dynamic which varies in 

time, being more intense with the occassion of religious holidays. At the same time, these 

resources from the metropolitan area were brought into the public’s attention and into the attention 

of potential visitors by the insistence upon the cultural image, promoted by media, but also printed 

forms of promotion, as leaflets, which emphasized the programme of the public transport courses 

in order to provide access to religious objectives, as they are representative for the metropolitan 

area of Bucharest (the monasteries Cernica, Pasărea). 

Although both types of touristic resources belong to the category of anthropic attractions, 

still they differ by the touristic movements they generate, different as duration: in case of sportsrecreational 

tourism, the journeys/ stays can be both during the week and in the week-end. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Sports tourism supposes the excursion is subordinated to accomplishing a sports 

experience, the holiday place being identified with the space where the favourite sport will be 

practiced. We can assert that sport has become a universal behaviour of recreative life. 

The establishment of sports fields with recreational role nearby the capital city is the result 

of the adapting to the West European touristic model, but it is at the same time the result of some 

economic factors: the costs of fields are more rduced in the nearby territory of the town. On the 

other hand, metropolitan areas of large cities present a series of advantages: large surfaces of 

ground, suitable for being arranged/ organised as recreation spaces, landscapes unaffected by 

pollution or by the process of excessive urbanisation. At the same time, the organising of open-air 

recreational spaces needs large surface, big cities presenting the disadvantage of their absence in 

their interior. The placing of recreation centres in the influence areas presents an advantage from 

the perspective of the power to attract the population from the urban centres localised at small 

distance, which represent the main source of touristic circulation, motivated to escape in the free 

time outside the urban space which is „suffocating”. 

Sports tourism is an activity practiced at large scale at world level, whose touristic rquest is 

growing, becoming an important segment of the present tourtistic market. 

The tourism from the metropolitan area of Bucharest presents a new and distinct model 

compared to urban tourism, developed inside the city, which is different as motivations, 

dynamic, duration and costs.

332 



The methodology used in this article was elaborated within some research projects: the 

strategic grant POSDRU/89/1.5/S/58852, Project „Postdoctoral programme for training scientific 

researchers” cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectoral Operational Program 

Human Resources Development 2007 - 2013 and Territorial Management Based on Growth Poles’ 

Theory (UEFICSU-PNII-Idei, 1950). 

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House, Craiova, XII, 97-106; 

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GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, Years III, no. 1, vol. 5, 44-51; 

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and Geosites, Year IV no. 1, vol. 7, 115-121; 

Sheller Mimi, Urry J. (2004), Tourism mobilities, places to play, places in play, Routledge, New York; 

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www.mdrl.ro/_documente/transparenta/consultari_publice/consultare71/nf.pdf 

www.snagov.ro 





INTERNAL TOURISM MOVEMENT AND THE MAIN ROMANIAN 

TOURIST DESTINATIONS (THE PERIOD 1990 - 2008) 

Alexandru ILIEŞ ∗ 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania / University of Gdansk, Department of Geography and 

Regional Development, 4 Bazynskiego st., 80-952 Gdansk, Poland, e-mail: ilies@uoradea.ro 

Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: iliesdorina@yahoo.com 

Cezar MORAR 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: cezarmorar@yahoo.com 

Ioana JOSAN 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: ioanajosan@yahoo.co.uk 

Abstract: The Romanian political space at the turn of 2nd and 3rd millenniums experienced 

systemic-structural mutations marked by deep political regime changes, by the replacement of 

the Socialist „planned” economy with the market economy and especially by diversifying the 

area of population mobility within Romania. This study, through analysis of the quantitative 

and qualitative elements outlines the state of Romanian tourism by the tourism movement. 

There are considered the main tourist streams consisting of Romanian and foreign tourists 

registered in the establishments with tourists' accommodation functions in the period 1990- 

2008, by the structure, direction and volume to the main Romanian tourist destinations. 

Political, psychological, technical and economic thresholds are relevant in this study for the 

domestic and international tourism in post-Communist period. 

Key words: Romania, tourism, tourist flows, domestic tourism, tourist destination 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

In terms of tourism potential the political-territorial Romanian system can be appreciated that 

it is constituted of many complex elements, varied, with unique, inedit and spectacular attributes. The 

shape of the tourist flows, the direction and structure are determined by the quality of tourism offer 

proposed. From this point of view, Romania is among the countries that have a remarkable potential, 

not enough capitalized, with a living rural world, anchored in many places in an archaic way of life, 

traditionalist and whose priceless value is expected to be considered and adequately capitalized. If in 

the modernized world of the Western and Central Europe, the rural and urban differences are 

∗ Corresponding author 


334 


insignificant, the Romanian rural tourism for example features original actors and structures, real and 

invaluable. This study considers the tourist flows of Romanian and foreign tourists officially 

registered in the establishments of tourists' accommodation functions, who have been accommodated 

for at least one night. Tourist flows are measurable and contribute substantially to define the real 

tourist function of the economy for a territorial political (sub)system. 

THE CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAME 

The survey is based on the information and data from field trips and from official statistical 

sources. By using verified tools in the literature (Wall, 1993; Williams, 1998; Hall, 2000; Ianoş, 

2000; Cocean, 2005; Veal, 2006; Ilieş et al., 2008) we analyze the optimal management 

parameters and the quantitative and qualitative characteristics generated by the volume and the 

dynamics of the domestic and international tourist flows. Using specific statistical methods, 

analytical and mapping tools we will obtain answers to so called „triple” questions where?, why? 

and how? (Ilieş et al., 2012) in order to identify the factors that determined the amount and sense 

of mobility and its effects on the Romanian tourism system. There are analyzed the quantitative 

and qualitative parameters that structure and size the internal tourist flows by the number of 

Romanian and foreign tourists and the major tourist destination areas. 

The proposed approach logic is based on flexibility - a key concept in territorial planning 

(Cunha, 1998; Gunn and Var, 2002; Cândea et al., 2003; Cocean, 2005; Ilieş, 2007; Ciangă and 

Dezsi, 2007, p. 26; Muntele and Iatu, 2007), while in the territorial and political systems the 

typology of planning is based on the systemic plan (Williams, 1998; p. 127 - 129; Martinez, 1994; 

Ianoş, 2000; Cocean, 2005) where the change of an element disrupts the entire system, requiring as 

fundamental method decoding the structure and understanding its operation (Ianoş, 2000). Thus, 

the interdependence of the four key elements: space and time as an ongoing basis, activities and 

communication as tools for action and dissemination, generate guidelines in elaboration of 

territorial development models system of turistification (Cazelais et al., 2000), that has the ability 

of being implemented at different scales, aimed at different hierarchical levels of intervention from 

local, regional, to international ones (Dinu, 2002; Williams, 2006; Lew et al., 2008). 

DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS AND RESULTS. QUANTITATIVE AND 

QUALITATIVE SPECIFIC TOURIST FLOWS PARAMETERS 

Evaluation of the quantitative and 

qualitative components of a territorialpolitical 

system is modeled at local and 

regional levels by the tourist flows by the 

inter-dependencies relations between them 

and by the natural and anthropogenic 

determinants. 

The particular configuration of the 

tourist flows is based on (Ilieş et al., 

2012): the absolute and relative 

Figure 1. Tourist flow according with official 

registration at tourist destination areas 

geographical position, the morphological 

characteristics of the relief, accessibility, 

the communication system, the specific 

quantitative, qualitative and structural of the human resource, the economic development 

level, socio-economic and political conditions etc. In terms of structure, the Romanian tourist 

flows includes two categories (figures 1 and 3): those who use the official accommodation 

infrastructure and those who are not registered in such structures, using accommodation from 

friends, relatives or acquaintances. 

These situations generate for example differences between the flow of foreign tourists who 

are registered with the entry in Romania and those who use specific accommodation infrastructure. In

Internal Tourism Movement and the Main Romanian Tourist… 335 

terms of economic efficiency for the hospitality and tourism industry, an important role for the 

domestic and international tourists it is played by those who use at least for one night the 

accommodation infrastructure. Also, an important role in determining the size, orientation and 

structure of tourist flows it is played by the quality and diversity of the tourist offer. 

The tourist flow considering the number of arrivals in tourist accommodation 

This chapter considers the tourist flow registered in the accommodation units that can 

generate a greater economic efficiency. There are analyzed the quantitative and qualitative 

parameters that structure and size the internal tourist flows by the number of Romanian and foreign 

tourists. In the Romanian political space in the last 20 years there have been significant changes 

quantitatively and structurally determined on the one hand, by the accommodation diversification 

from 6 types in 1985 to currently 13 types, plus the increase of the degree of comfort. Twenty years 

after the fall of Socialism, the Romanian tourism has values still below those recorded in the last 

years of that period. Thus, in the interval 1985 - 1989, considered the last „five of the Socialist 

planned economy” it was registered a slow increase in the number of registered tourist 

accommodation from 11.959 million to 12.971 million people people (Romanian tourism peak year). 

The following period has decreased continuously (figure 2) reaching a minimum of less than 5 

million tourists in the range 2000 to 2002 (4.847 million people in 2002, figure 2). This occurred on 

the background of gradually introducing the visa system and of reducing the enthusiasm and 

curiosity of foreigners especially for the ex-socialist Romanian space. The NATO and EU accession 

perspective, the increase in trust and confidence in the Romanian tourist areas correlated with the 

economic growth have stimulated the quantitative and qualitative reorganization and resizing of the 

tourist flows determined by the recording numbers in the establishments of tourist accommodation. 

Thus, since 2003 the number of tourists registered an upward trend, but not as expected. In 2008, 

their number reached only 7.125 million people, a value to just over half of the year 1990 (12.297 

million). The domestic tourist flow determined on the base of entries and records in the 

establishments of tourists' accommodation consists of two categories by the area of origin: 

Romanian and foreigners (figure 2), which generates an internal and international flow. 

11500 

11000 

10500 

10000 

9500 

9000 

8500 

8000 

7500 

7000 

6500 

6000 

5500 

5000 

4500 

4000 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

number of arriv als (thou) 

Romanian Tourists 

Foreign Tourists 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1999 

2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007 

2008 

Figure 2. Romania. The tourist flow considering the number of arrivals 

(Romanians and foreigners) in tourist accommodation in period 1990 - 2008 

(Data sources: Romanian National Institute of Statistics, 2010; www.insee.ro) 

In this idea, the size of international tourist flow consisting of foreign tourists registered in 

accommodation (with high economic efficiency for the Romanian tourism through the use of 

specific services) had a fluctuating trend in the period 1990 - 2000 when the lowest values were 

recorded, of under 0.8 million in 1995, 1996 (the minimum of 0.762 million) and 1999. The

336 


biggest decrease was recorded between 1990 - 1995, with a reduction of almost half from 1.4 

million to 0.76 million. This decrease is not an effect of reducing of the number of tourists, but to 

the informal accommodation (friends, relatives), or to their failure to be registered in the statistics 

of these structures. The situation was caused by laws vacuum and especially by the structural and 

asset changes at the level of accommodation. Since 2000, the number of registered foreign tourists 

gradually increased from 0.795 million in 1999, to over 1.5 million foreign tourists stays in 2007 

(figure 2). Of the total tourist flow using accommodation, the foreign component had a certain 

stability in the period 1990 - 1996 with an average share of 12%, followed by a continuous upward 

trend with a maximum of 24.6% in 2005. After this date due to the increase in the total number of 

tourists, the foreign share has stabilized around 22.0% (figures 2 and 3). Increasing the number of 

foreign tourists is due to the amplification and diversification of tourism types from which the 

business tourism has grown significantly. An interesting aspect is in the interval 2000 - 2002, years 

with the lowest number of tourists registered in Romania, it was registered an increase in the share 

of foreigners from 17.6% to 20.6%. 

8000 number of foreign tourists arrivals (thou) 

7500 

7000 

6500 

6000 

5500 

5000 

4500 

4000 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

with official accomodation 

without official accomodation 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1999 

2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007 

2008 

Figure 3. Romania. The tourist flow considering the number of arrivals of foreign tourists, 

with and without tourist accommodation in period 1990 - 2008 


The annual domestic tourist flows consisting of Romanian tourists for the period 1990 - 

2008, considering the structural aspect and the number of tourists, register a similar trend to the 

foreign tourists one, but with an opposite trend in terms of share of Romanian tourists in the total 

volume of tourist flows recorded. The maximum value of 10.8 million tourists registered in 1990 

was not reached in any year of the period under review, moreover, following an absolute minimum 

of 3,848 million tourists in 2002 their number increased continuously, to a value of only 5.659 

million domestic tourists in 2008. Among the causes that have generated the first downward trend 

include: restriction of former Socialist wellfares (Cocean, 1995, p. 105), reducing the living 

standard and the leisure life by subsistence activities, the political instability and unfavorable 

international Romania's image, the rising prices of tourism services and lower population incomes, 

the large differences in price-quality ratio for services, the inadequate infrastructure of modern 

requirements in terms of quality and quantity etc. Also, since 1995 the share of Romanians in the 

total tourist flow decreased gradually from 89.2% in 1995 to 75.4% in 2005, following a slight 

growth to 79.4% in 2008 (figure 2). 

The main tourist destinations of the analyzed tourist flows, according to official statistics 

recorded by the National Romanian Institute of Statistics are the tourist resorts, the seaside, the 

Danube Delta, the capital of Bucharest and the county capitals, other urban and rural settlements


etc (figure 4). For example, the 2008 tourist flow registered in Romania in accommodations 

consisted of 7.125 million tourists of which 1.466 million foreign tourists (20.5%). The most 

attractive tourist destinations have been the capital Bucharest and the county capitals which 

attracted 47.2% of the tourists stay (3.363 million), followed by the urban and rural settlements in 

Romania with only 15.4% (1.101 million), the mountain resorts 14.0% (0.998 million), the seaside 

11.7% (0.833 million) and the spa resorts 10.2% (0,728 million), at the opposite being the Danube 

Delta with 1.34% (0.096 million). 

4000 no tourists (thou) 

3500 

3000 

Seaside 

Mountain 

County residence town 

Spas 

Danube Delta 

Other localities 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Figure 4. Romania. The main tourist destinations according with numers of arrivals in 1994-2008 


2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

no. tourists (thou) 

Romanians 

Foreigners 

Seaside Spas Mountain Danube Delta County 

residence towns 

Other localities 

Figure 5. Romania. The main tourist destinations according with 

numbers of foreigners and Romanians arrivals in 2008 

(Data sources: Romanian National Institute of Statistics, 2010; 

www.insee.ro) 

After the origins, 

considering the areas of 

destination, the spa resorts have a 

share of 96.3%, the seaside 95.0%, 

followed by the mountain resorts 

with 89.5% reflect the dominance 

and the orientation of flows 

consisting of Romanian tourists, 

while the representative flows 

consisting of foreign tourists 

accounted for 32.7% in Bucharest 

and county capitals, 17.7% in the 

Danube Delta and 15.7% in other 

rural and urban areas. 

Comparatively, in 2002, when the 

internal tourism flow registered the 

lowest value of 4.847 million (of 

which 20.6% foreigners), the 

internal structure on destinations 

had the same order except other 

urban and rural settlements with only 12,0% (comparative to 15% in 2008). Higher percentages 

than 2008 were recorded in 2003 at the seaside (14%), the spa tourism (13%), in the same time 

pointing out the stability of the mountain tourism (14%). In terms of numbers, all 2008 values are 

higher than those recorded in 2002 (figure 5). 

The domestic tourist flow of 5.659 million Romanian tourists structured on domestic 

destinations shows the dominance with a share of 40% of the capital Bucharest and of the counties 

capitals, and a share only of 1.4% for the Danube Delta. The mountain resorts are preferred by

338 


15.8% tourists, other settlements by 16.5%, the spa resorts by 12.4% and the seaside by 13.9%. In 

case of the internal flow of foreign tourists (figure 3 and 4) the situation reflects the main types of 

tourism, the Bucharest and county capitals attract 75.1% of the total, followed far from other 

localities with only 11.8%, the mountain resorts 7.1%, the seaside 2.9%, the spa resorts 1.8%, 

while the Danube Delta registers 1.16% of the foreigners stay in 2008 (figure 5). 

Both the Romanian and foreign tourists preferred in the analyzed period the hotels in the 

average rate of 81%, with a maximum value of 84.6% recorded in 1993 and a minimum of 75.5% 

in 1990. The most consistent foreign tourists flow accomodated in hotels or motels was recorded 

in 2007, with a total of 1.404 million (20% of total) representing 90% of the total registered 

foreign tourists in that year. 

Figure 6. Romania. The counties destinations according with numbers of arrivals in 2008 


In terms of regional destinations, at the county level in 2008 at the 41 counties and capital 

Bucharest, the domestic tourist flow consisting of the total 7.125 million foreign and Romanian 

tourists was oriented mainly to (figure 6): ConstanŃa 13.7% (0.978 million) in the seaside, the capital 

Bucharest with 13.4% (0.952 million) the main destination for the cultural and business tourism. On 

the following places there are the counties Braşov 8.2% (0.582 million) with the mountains areas and 

the famous resort Poiana Braşov, Prahova 5.9% (0.417 million) with the chain of climatic resorts in 

the Prahova Valley, Cluj 5.5% (0.392 million) the most important cultural and business center of 

Transylvania etc. With close values and above the national average of 2.4% (11 counties) there are 

the counties Sibiu 4.0%, Timiş 4.0%, Vâlcea 3.3%, Suceava 3.2%, Bihor 3.2%, Mureş 3.2%, Arad 

2.6%, Iaşi 2.3% and NeamŃ 2.2%, Argeş 2.0% etc. The least attractive counties are: Sălaj 0.2%, 

Călăraşi 0.2% and Olt 0.2% each with 0.017 million tourists (figure 6). 

CONCLUSIONS 

The analysis of tourist flows in Romania between 1990 - 2008 and consisting of Romanian 

and foreign tourists, officially recorded in the tourist accommodation structures, largely reflects 

the stage of development, dynamics, quality and volume of the existing tourist offer in Romania. 

The thresholds that marked the political and economic developments of the Romanian politicalterritorial 

system, overlapping the transition from Socialist to the market economy, the EU and


NATO accession, the increased area for the expression of freedom of people movement without 

visa regime etc, are extremely obvious in the statistical values recorded during this analyzed period 

of time. Also, diversifying the tourism types and the tourist accommodation structures led to the 

continuous restructuring of the tourist flows establishing tourist destination areas. Whether we are 

talking about well known tourist regions or about counties, we have noticed a continuous 

repositioning of their hierarchy generated by the number of registered foreign and Romanian 

tourists. The top positions were almost in all cases the „tourist” counties such as Brasov, 

Constanta or Prahova, or established tourist destinations such as the seaside resorts or the climatic 

and spa-climatic resorts. At the same time the proposed study may be useful in developing the 

regional strategies to increase the attractiveness of both the well known tourist regions and also of 

those having enough resources, but not promoted and developed to their potential. 

REFERENCES 

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ASPECTS REGARDING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF 

TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN THE APUSENI NATURAL PARK 

(ROMANIA) 

Ribana LINC ∗ 

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning, The Territorial Studies and Analyses 

Centre (CSAT), Oradea, Romania, e-mail: ribanalinc@yahoo.com 

Stelian NISTOR 

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning, The Territorial Studies and Analyses 

Centre (CSAT), Oradea, Romania, e-mail: snistor@uoradea.ro 

David TURNOCK 

Geography Department, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, U.K 

Abstract: Located in the heart of Apuseni Mountains, the Apuseni Natural Park, provoked 

passionate controversy related to its legal status, the management areas, the touristic 

megaprojects, the promotion of more or less decent touristic activities. The natural and human 

resources are fabulous and are widely recognized abroad and are struck with his foot in all 

directions. But the touristic activities causes many damages such as: air pollution in summer 

period, water pollution in karsts areas, soil pollution, especially with waste products in huge 

quantities, the reduction of natural areas, destruction of flora and fauna, degradation of 

landscape aesthetics through doubtful touristic infrastructure, the effect of overcrowding 

during summer periods. To all these effects, which accumulate from year to year, one could 

add the pressure of rural communities which has land within the park territory, because along 

centuries the forest supplied the inhabitants with significant incomes. Recently, a strong lobby 

is made, sometimes at the edge of the legality, in order to allow real estate projects. But, aside 

from nebulous discussions and confrontations on the development of mass tourism in the park 

area, we should mention that there are initiatives to promote a decent tourism development. 

Key words: Apuseni Natural Park, tourism potential, degradation, impact 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The Apuseni Natural Park (ANP) is located in the western part of Romania and in the 

central–north-western part of the Apuseni Mountains (figure 1), within the coordinates of 46°26’ – 

46°45’ lat N and 22°32’ - 23°5’ long E. In this geographic space, the ANP occupies an area of 

75,784 hectares, established by Law no. 5 / 2000, stretching on the administrative territory of three 

counties (Cluj - 40.15%, Bihor - 31.92% and Alba - 27.92%). The Park also constitutes the 

territory of 16 communes and properties which belong to other 25 communes, so that 47 

∗ Corresponding author 


Aspects Regarding the Environmental Impact of Tourism Activities in the Apuseni Natural … 341 

settlements and 2 holiday villages (Boga and Fântânele) are integrally on the park`s territory and 

partly other 8 settlements on the park`s limits (ANP Adm., 2007). 

Figure 1. Geographical position of the Apuseni Natural Park 

within the Apuseni Mountains 

Professor Alexandru Borza from Cluj Napoca is the predecessor of the idea of law 

protected natural elements of Bihor Mountains (in 1924); he proposed the establishment of a 

natural park (an approach with no space completion). Prominent scientists followed, in the fight 

with bureaucracy and inertia: Emil RacoviŃă (mid 30s), Marcian Bleahu (the 50s - 60s), Zeno 

Oarcea (the 70s), Ana Marossy (the 70s - 80s - who managed to obtain the protection of 20 

reservations on the actual park, situated in Bihor County - Marossy, 1975) etc. 

After the major change of the political regime in December 1989, the legal status of this 

vast area was also changed: by the Government Emergency Ordinance no. 7 / 1990 the „phantom 

parks of the 70s, including the one in the Apuseni Mountains...” were re-established (Bleahu, 

2004) (about 13 national parks). The first official statute was established in 1995 by Law no. 137 / 

1995 (environment legal framework) when all existing reservations and natural parks were listed 

in the category of „reservations of national level”. Law no. 5 / 2000 and Law no. 41 / 2000 

established its surface (75,784 hectares) and the title of „natural park”, and based on Order of 

Ministry no. 850 / 2003 and HG 230 / 2003, the Natural Park enters under the administration of 

the National Forest Authority - ROMSILVA. 

By the internal zonation (ANP Adm. 2007), NPA comprises management categories 

starting with the most restrictive (strict protection areas, 1st category UICN) where human 

activities are completely excluded, to the most permissive management category of protected 

areas in Romania (natural park, 5 th category, UICN) as areas where the development of 

traditional communities is promoted, in harmony with nature. According to the UICN 

classification, the ANP is a protected area, included in the 5 th management category. The 

internal zonation of the ANP comprises 4 management categories.

342 

Ribana Linc, Stelian NISTOR, David TURNOCK 

Overall, on the park territory there are numerous natural reservations and natural monuments 

(figure 2). This variety of habitats and natural geological, flora and fauna elements, has allowed ANP enter 

an important European project: Project Phare CBC „Romanian-Hungarian Corridor for the Preservation 

of Biodiversity” and also in Natura 2000 (European Union protected areas network). 

Figure 2. Protected areas of the ANP 1 

1 Some of the caves (class A reservetion) are not on the map as their location is secret (for their protection), in accordance 

with H.G. no 57/2007, art. 44, paragraph „h” and Law no 49/2011 which seem to put into practice the expression „live 

hidden to keep clean”, http://www.humpleu.ro/pesteri.html


A FABULOUS TOURISTIC POTENTIAL 

If we tried to find a single word to describe the Apuseni Natural Park, it would be 

„fascinating”. It`s hard to find another area defined by karstifiable rocks that bear such a great 

variety of endo and exokarst forms on limited area. 

From the relief point of view, the Apuseni Natural Park overlaps partially the Vladeasa and 

Bihorului Mountains. In these complex mountain structures, limestone gives the relief distinct 

touches of originality and uniqueness by altitude karst plateaus, a hydrographic network dense to 

the boundaries and unordered on the surface karst and by a deep karst hard to find by its rich 

forms, ancient habitation traces or fossils, thus proving a unique touristic value throughout the 

Romanian space (Pop, 1997; Linc, 1998; Moş, 2008). 

On the surface, the karstic relief is defined by small close karst bassinets (Ponor Glade, 

Ocoale-Scărişoara Basin, Barsa Pit, Vărăşoaia Glade), drained by streams with very short surface 

flows. They alternate with karst plateaus (Padiş, Lost World) where there are numerous sinkholes 

of different sizes which mark the underground waterflows as well as extended limestones 

pavements (Bătrâna - Călineasa), gorge sectors (Galbenei, Someşului Cald, Ordâncuşei etc.) or 

defiles (Arieşului Mare Defile). 

An extraordinary endokarst has developed in depth, with monumental caves (Valea Rea 

Cave, Pojarul PoliŃei, Piatra Altarului, Bear Cave, Micula`s Cave, Măgura Cave, Cetatea Rădesei, 

Humpleu Cave, Coiba Mică and Coiba Mare etc.), profound pit caves (V 5 Pit Cave, Fortress of 

Ponor, BorŃig, Scărişoara), spectacular karst springs (Ponor, Galbenei, Crişului Negru, Tăuz etc.) 

About 1,500 caves have been accounted for within the park boundaries, some of them 

national records (Bleahu, 2004; ANP Adm., 2007; www.parcapuseni.ro). For example there are: 

- one of the most spectacular karst phenomena in the country (CetăŃile Ponorului) 

- the largest ice cave (Scărişoara Ice Cave, with an ice volume of 75,000 m 3 (Silvestru and 

Ghergari, 1994; Perşoiu, 2003); 

- the most ornated cave, with unique crystallizations. Valea Rea Cave stands among the 

first 10 cavities on Earth from a mineralogical point of view. 37 different minerals can be found 

here as speleotems (aragonite, gypsum, quartz, celestite, malachite, rodocrozite etc. – a 

miniature museum!), many decribed worldwide for the first time in a speleic environment. This 

is one of the most complex caves in the country (20 km long) and contains forms of a 

mineralized hydrothermal paleokarst (including native gold), relict hydrothermal endokarst and 

cold water endokarst (Damm et al., 1996); 

- the most beautifully concretioned cave in Romania (Piatra Altarului); 

- the most maze-like cave in Romania (Pârâul Hodobanei cave - with 22,142 km of 

topographically represented galleries, along an extension of only 820 m long (ramification 

coefficient 27.0). 

- the deepest underwater cave (Tăuz Kartst Spring - siphon no. 2 is the deepest underwater 

passage explored in Romania, 85 m deep). 

- the deepest cavity in the country (V 5 Pit Cave, also called the FaŃa Muncelului Pit Cave) 

with a 642 m drop (unfinished mapping); 

- the largest romanian underground lake (in the GheŃarul de sub Zgurăşti Cave). An 

interesting meteorological phenomenon was reported in this cave by R. Jeannel and E. G. Racovita 

(1929): mist formed into the light beams that penetrates through the cave entrance at noon. 

The authors assume that it is a phenomenon of water condensation around the new formed 

ions, which is a process similar to the Wilson effect. Another interesting element is the presence of 

moss on the chamber floor. It is Thamnium alopecurum L. and Oxyrrhynchium praelongum 

(Hedw.), forms that grow under water and show the lake maximum water rise level 

(ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%C8%99tera-aven_ghe%C8%9Barul_de_sub_Zgur); 

- the highest density of karst forms on surface unit; 

- the largest underground vertical waterfall in Romania (Ventilator Cascade: 82 m, in the 

Valea Rea Cave);

344 


- cave paintings have been discovered 

recently in Coliboaia Cave (Sighiştel Valley), 

thought to be over 30,000 years old. „The cave is 

closed at the moment and won`t be opened to the 

public, just for the better preservation of the 

findings” (V. Lascu, President of the Romanian 

National Speleology Federation, http://www.experienceromania.ro/Pestera_Coliboaia, 

http://www.ebihoreanul.ro/stiri/ultima-or-31-1/ 

picturile-din-pestera-coliboaia-unice-in-europacentrala-si-de-est-96610.html, 

http://www.adevarul.ro/actualitate/social/Cele_mai_ 

vechi_desene_din_lume-intr-o_pestera_din_Bihor 

_0_546545942.html). 

Another unique natural feature is Groapa 

Ruginoasa (R. Hole), an immense torrential organism 

(below Mount Tapu, 1746 m) having the shape of an 

amphitheatre, formed and strongly deepened in a thick 

layer of quartzite sandstones and reddish-purple 

Permian shale overlapping limestones dissolved in 

time. Surface and vertical erosion are very active so 

Ruginoasa Hole expands before our eyes. At present, 

its size is estimated at about 600 m in diameter and 100 

m depth. Figure 3 shows schematically the Ruginoasa 

Hole in four time sequences, just to illustrate this 

accelerated evolution. 

The ANP also shelters five permanent ice 

blocks, called underground glaciers: Scărişoara 

(on Scărişoara Plateau) and Focul Viu (Padiş) are 

the most famous and appreciated by tourists (figure 

Figure 4. The ice from Focul Viu 

Cave in 2007 

(Source: R. Linc) 

Figure 3. The evolution of Ruginoasa Hole 

The backgroung is the topographic map scale 

1:25,000 (year 1996) For the year 1886 I used a 

Franciscan map scale 1:28,800, for the year 1939 a 

drawing to scale 1: 20 000 plan and for 2009, the 

orthorectify image 

(Source of maps: Bihor County Council) 

4), along with the ice blocks of BorŃig, Barsa (Padiş) and 

Vârtop (Casa de Piatră area). 

Apart from them, there are some caves that house 

permanent but smaller ice masses (the case of Onceasa 

or Vârtop pithcaves) or seasonal ice coming from 

accumulated snow, which may melt in warm years 

(GheŃarul de sub Zgurăşti). 

In terms of hydrography, the surface streams of the 

ANP area belong to several hydrographical basins: 

Crişului Negru, Someşului Mic and Arieşului Mare. 

In karst areas the surface hydrographic network is 

unorganised and there is a phenomenon of karstic difluence, 

which is the subterranean transfer of the waters beneath the 

surface watershed. Following the hydrological markings 

made by using ecotracers, numerous interconnections have 

been identified between hydrographic basins of the rivers 

Arieş, Crişul Negru and Someşul Mic and also between 

different tributaries of the same basin. The most distinct 

example is represented by the endoreic basin Padiş-CetăŃile 

Ponorului, tributary, in the antepliocene era to the Arieşului 

Mare Basin, but which at present, discharges 95% of its


waters towards Crişul Negru and the rest towards Someşul Mic and Arieşul Mare (Adm. ANP, 2007). 

In Someşului Mic Basin, at an altitude of 1,050 m lies the storage lake of Fântânele, 

formed as a result of damming the Someşului Cald Valley downstream of its confluence with Beliş 

stream. Due to the presence of this reservoir, a small mountain resort has developed (Fântânele) 

and in the neighbour villages, second residences like holiday homes are appearing rapidly. 

From the biogeographical point of view, the ANP area stands out by its rich flora and fauna 

(northern, south-Mediterranean, Central-European, eastern and Euro-Asian elements can be found 

here, together with numerous endemic and relict elements unique in the country. About 1,700 plant 

and 850 animal species have been identified in the ANP. 

Generally speaking, the general scheme of Carpathian levels is present here (batch deciduous 

forests: Carpinus betulus, Acer pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior, Cerasus avium etc), beech 

forests (defined by Fagus silvatica), coniferous forests (defined by the species Picea abies), ended by 

the sublevel of subalpine meadows. On this background, major alterations appear, due to local relief, 

climate, soil features and lately, especially in the last century, due to human intervention. 

Among the endemic flora species of the park, there are: Transilvanian lilac (Syringa 

josikaea), sconite (Aconitum calibrotryon ssp. skarisorensis), pink (Dianthus julii wolfii), violet 

(Viola josi), several forms of hawkweed (Hieracium bifidum ssp. biharicum, H. sparsum ssp. 

porphiriticum, H. kotschyanum etc.), Edraianthus kitaibelii (a plant firstly described here) and 

Melamphyrum bihariense (Adm. PNA, 2007). 

In the park fauna, there is a pregnant, well represented underground fauna of invertebrates. 

A great number of species are endemic and many of them inhabit just one cave (insects are well 

represented, choleopteres especially (ANP Adm. 2007). 

Some of the caves are of a greater importance also because of the bat populations they 

shelter (caves in Sighiştelului Valley, Humpleu, Poarta lui Ionele, GheŃarul de sub Zgurăşti, Coiba 

Mare etc). Thus, out of the total of 29 species of bats in Romania, 19 live in the park. 

The large mammal fauna is represented by 45 species, generally common to mountain forests 

and there is also the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), recently reintroduced in the upper basin of the 

Crişul Pietros - Boga Valley. Today it is present also in Groapa Ruginoasă, CetăŃile Ponorului, 

ScăriŃa. Another action of repopulation successfully accomplished in the years 1970 - 1980 addressed 

the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), which was endangered as a result of excessive hunting. 

The large mammal fauna is well represented by populations of wolf (Canis lupus), lynx 

(Lynx lynx), bear (Ursus arctos), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild 

boar (Sus scrofa), wild cat (Felis silvestris) and polecat (Mustela putorius). 

The strong human pressure - the area has been populated since ancient times - manifested 

especially by deforestation of vast surfaces covered with forests, replaced by grasslands. A strong 

negative impact of the human activity is shown by the alteration of the components and distribution 

of the fauna within the park area (in time, some species have disappeared or are about to disappear). 

Unusual habitats, developed especially in the spruce forests and determined by the presence 

of excess water at higher altitudes, are represented by turf moors which form either on siliceous 

sublayer (Molhaşurile de la Izbuce, Pietrele Onachii, peat bogs of Călineasa, Barsa, Onceasa), or 

on karst where the bottom of the dolines gets a silt waterproof coat (Padiş). 

Among them, formed on siliceous sublayer and included in the strict protection area, 

particularly beautiful and interesting from the scientific point of view are Molhaşurile de la 

Izbuce (figure 5) with six types of habitats, most important being: olygotrofic peatbogs 

(„tinoave”) very well preserved with numerous endemic elements and glaciar relicts, which 

cover a surface of 85.94 hectares. 

Flora is defined by the presence of peatmoss (Sphagnum cymbifolium sin. Sphagnum 

palustre), but among the „famous” plants, there are: sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), an 

insectivore plant, as well as mugo pine (Pinus mugo) which live here, at the lowest altitude in 

the country. These peatbogs preserve plants and animals that died long ago. Here and there 

„bottomless tarns” appear, giving the landscape a special aura with their black waters (figure 5).

346 


Figure 5. Marshes „Molhaşurile” of Izbuce 

(Source: L. Nistor, taken from helicopter, 2010) 

The main tourism areas in the park are: Padiş - CetăŃile Ponorului, Boga - Aleu Valley, 

Chişcău - Peştera Urşilor cave, Sighiştel Valley, Vârtop - Arieşeni, Gârda - Scărişoara, Fântânele 

Lake, Vlădeasa - Stanciului Valley and Albac area (figure 6). 

TOURISM ACTIVITIES AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT: „WILD 

TOURISM” MARKS NUMEROUS OBJECTIVES 

The human intervention on the environment leads, among other consequences, to a 

degradation of the tourist patrimony by its depletion and reduces the attractiveness of tourism 

resources. Surely the tourist practice needs a quality environment but in return, the quality of the 

environment is threatened by tourist development (Rapport general, OCDE, 1980). 

In parallel with the unprecedented development of leisure activities, a constant growth of 

the intensity of the pressure put on the natural or human environment components was recorded. 

This leads gradually to an overload of the components in some sectors which generates the 

phenomenon of tourism (Deszi et al., 2006). 

In the Apuseni Mountains in general but mosly in the ANP especially its southern half, 

motzi`s hamlets (groves) form poor community groups (Buza et al., 2001) which, after the strong 

socio-economic changes that occurred in Romania after 1989, entered an acute demographic, 

social and economic decline. 

For a long time in the area of the ANP a decrease of the human pressure upon the 

environment by overgrazing and other agricultural activities has been a priority and also the 

reduction of deforestation (let us remember that the motzi are thought to have had a „flourishing 

wood civilization”) and the ecological and sustainable alternative seemed to have been tourism 

(through its variety: rural tourism, agro-tourism, eco tourism, mountain tourism), so that people 

can have an alternative to their secular occupation by practicing pluri-activities (agriculture, timber 

and tourism (Abrudan and Turnock, 1999). 

One of the strongest arguments for adopting another lifestyle for the mountains inhabitants 

is the transformation of the traditional villages in „holiday villages” (Surd, 1992) and the rural 

facilities to become ago tourism facilities. There were villages and hamlets fit for the change: 

Cărmăzan, Casa de Piatră, Ocoale, Oncăseşti etc. But it`s a long way from the idea to practice and 

other settlements became „holiday villages” (some uninhabited until then- like Boga or Vârtop or 

sparsely populated - like Ic-Ponor, and then there were the second homes becoming more 

numerous in the proximity of Fântânele lake. Another idea was to create some over-communal 

centres that should be able to preserve the traditions and prevent the depopulation and migration to 

the adjacent valleys (Surd and Turnock, 2000). 

In the Apuseni Natural Park the environment offers lots of quality tourist attractions but it 

seems that the current tourist practices aren’t the most suitable for this protected area so that the 

negative impact upon the environment components is detached from afar.


Figure 6. Representative touristic areas and objectives within ANP 

1. Padiş - CetăŃile Ponorului area; 2. Boga - Aleu Valley area; 3. Sighiştelului Valley area; 4. Vârtop -Arieşeni area; 

5.Gârda - Scărişoara area; 6. Beliş - Fântânele Lake area; 7. Stanciului Valley - Pietrele Albe area; 8. Chişcău - Urşilor 

Cave ethno-touristic area; 9. Albac area

348 


The first acts of deliberate destruction of the endokarst environment were recorded in the 

19 th century, made by the fossils hunters (Caves Onceasa, Măgura etc.) or theft of speleotems 

(generalized in the subterranean environment). Starting with 1970 when tourism started to develop 

explosively (and uncontrolled at that time), cave damaging has taken worrying dimensions (ANP 

Adm., 2007). Most caves in Sighiştelului Valley were affected in this way (Măgura Cave most of 

all).and in general all the caves that are accessible without any gear and special training. Or, 

another example: in early 70s, Valea Fagului Cave discovered while mining works advanced, was 

almost entirely devastated. The cavity sheltered remarkable, unique speleotems and aragonite 

crystals. They were extracted to be sold on the market. Later, after 1990 the cave bear (Ursus 

spelaeus) bones smuggling appeared and its main target in the park perimeter was Onceasa Cave. 

Ancient artefacts are also trade objects for smugglers (the case of Vârtop Glacier where, in the 

stalagmite ceiling three footprints of a Neanderthal man were discovered in 1973. One of them, 

harvested when it was discovered, is in the „Emil RacoviŃă” Speleology Museum in Cluj-Napoca 

but the other two were stolen in the early 90s. The speleotems in Măgura, Corbasca, FânaŃe, V11 

Caves are most endangered now, because these cavities do not have efficient protection systems. 

Actions having totally or partially destructive character are diverse and complex and they 

address both territories which undergo strong tourism pressures and the ones characterized by lack 

or precarity of tourist amenities (e.g. lack or bad state of accommodation, access and special 

equipment – ladders, indicators, trails etc.) that determines the dispersion of tourists on large areas, 

having negative consequences upon some of the environment components. Among the many 

natural environment prejudices, the most frequent are: 

- air pollution - a consequence of increasing car traffic in summer, as access in the park is 

permitted to all kinds of vehicles (from the heavy trucks which exploit and transport wood or work 

at the access road to Padiş, to individual cars, very numerous in July-August or SUVs that can 

reach places hardly accessible until recently). Dust from unpaved access roads adds to car 

discharge pipe emissions and at the end of summer the heavy smoke from burning garbage (e.g. 

Glăvoi Glade). We should also mention the air pollution in the cave environment, by an increased 

temperature, CO 2 accumulations emitted by carbide lamps and by visitor`s breath We should also 

mention the air pollution in the cave environment, by an increased temperature, CO 2 

accumulations emited by carbide lamps an by visitor’s breath. 

For example, ithas been noted that at Focul Viu glacier, during the hight of the season 

(august), the melting process of the ice mass has accentuated (the high temperatures of the external 

environment might have contributed as well in the last years). The good news ist hat measures 

have been taken and the acces of tourists has been denied for the last few years inside the pitcave 

and the ice mass can be admired from a balcony. Although we are not the partisans of using 

physical barriers to isolate valuable objectives and we rather believe in the power of upbringing, 

we know that this goal requires a period of time. 

- rivers and small streams pollution - in karst areas, the latter vulnerable even to small 

human interventions. For example, in Boga holiday village (with about 200 house numbers 

including boarding houses) there is not even one water treatment plant and the situation is the 

same for Gârda village which has Scărişoara glacier on its area or, the case of Vîrtop, packed with 

villas, guesthouses and second homes. We mustn`t forget the small second homes in the proximity 

of Fântânele Lake which most of the time do not observe the rules of protection against sewage 

pollution. Car washing in the small streams is also added to all those troubles as well as waste that 

can be found along riverbeds (especially plastic bottles). 

- soil erosion and pollution. Soil erosion in the tourism area occurs along the many paths 

and trails that cross the park through all directions, in camping areas and in sightseeing spots. We 

must specify however, that most of the soils are heavily eroded by forest exploitation and the 

erosion caused by tourists is by comparison, insignificant. But more important is the pollution of 

soil by depositing domestic waste and insufficiency of waste disposal system. This is a chapter we 

could insist on more...Waste disposal problem is common to tourism regions because of the


concentration of tourist facilities on area unit or because of the temporary concentration of the 

number of tourists. Every year about 40,000 tourists walk on the park paths and the mountains of 

garbage they leave behind aren`t cleared off because it isn`t ....profitable (these are stated by 

mayors of communes that have their territories in the park) - www.jurnalul.ro/stire-descoperirearomaniei-08/gunoaiele-apusenilor. 

The area Padiş-Fortress of Ponor is considered the heart of the 

park, on the one hand because of its geographical position and on the other due to great number of 

first rank tourist objectives. However, there are only two places tourists coming in „summer 

human flood” can accommodate in and mostly in tents: Padiş Plain and Glăvoi Glade (also known 

as „La Grajduri”. At La Grajduri there are a few wire mesh trash bins but their capacity is too 

small compared to the garbage quantity produced. Garbage light fractions are carried by wind 

(sometimes by animals) and get into the frail CetăŃilor stream that crosses Glăvoi Glade and flows 

in the underground of the Fortress of Ponor. 

But apart from the fact that the two places have no minimum endowments for a decent 

hygiene, the brutality of the tourists has no borders, as new (illegal) camping places appear 

constantly (most of them in Ponor Glade), accompanied by garbage procession and all tourist trails 

are marked by plastic bottles, beer ans, plastic bags etc. And on the ice block of Scărişoara, traces 

of cigarette ash can are seen. Tourists are often caught cutting firewood or washing their card in 

the small mountain streams. 

- land use by reducing natural spaces..In the park area, the reduced natural spaces are 

mostly a result of other economic activities like massive deforestation. For centuries motzi (a 

part of the mountain inhabitants of the park) have earned their living by woodworking but the 

29 th century society bears the guilt of the deforestations „to the scrap”. However tourist 

activities aren`t entirely blameless either, as tourism development draws up accommodation 

buildings, equipment and tourism infrastructure that threaten free spaces. If until the 90s there 

wasn`t much of a visible tourism infrastructure, nowadays there are a few places where 

holiday villages have developed, or mountain resorts: for example Boga Valley (wild and 

isolated until recently), with many buildings with most various architecture, spread along the 

valley and up the slopes. Or on the Fântânele Lake banks, at 1,050 m altitude where a 

flourishing resort has appeared. A lot more can be added: the Ic Ponor holiday village, 

Aleului Valley tourist complex, but most of all, the chaotic buildings in Padiş (with wooden, 

cardboard or tin boxes – in different degradation stages, or small shop booths), lots of second 

homes built in the proximity of Fântânele Lake, Vârtop, Gârda, Horea Glade etc. 

- destruction of flora and fauna. Environmental pollution and the reduced natural spaces are 

responsible for a reduced biodiversity by altered and fragmented habitats and the attendance 

excessive use of the natural areas drives to disappearance of animal and vegetal species as a result 

of tourists conduct (negligence, vandalism, stepping on vegetal cover, abusive picking of berries, 

setting up fires at random etc.). We should mention that, in the camping areas, the vegetal cover 

suffers a lot because of the density of „fires”, technically almost at every tent entrance there is a 

bigger or smaller fire (depends on the taste and the fuel used). Vandalism is a not insignificant 

negative consequence of tourism activities. For example in the proximity of the BorŃig pithole a 

delicate flower still appears from place to place (lilly of the forest - Lilium martagon) which is 

picked by tourists, pulled out by their roots (it won`t even resist a few days until they get home !). 

As we have mentioned above, there are lots of traces of cigarette ash on the ice block of Scărişoara 

or many trees with different messages „tattooed” on their trunks... We mustn`t forget the fish 

poaching and trout is in great demand. 

Another example of tourists` uncivilized behaviour is the great number of ATVs and 

snowmobiles „by which some visitors leave the permitted access paths and seek for sectors with 

more thrill” (ANP Adm., 2007). These practices are difficult to control and have a high 

destructive potential (both physical and aesthetic) by damaging paths and walking trails, 

increasing erosion on slopes and grasslands degradation. Their noise is incomparably greater 

than that of cars and it disturbs wild animal populations.

350 


- landscape degradation. Plunging in equipment and modern infrastructure often draws 

along an aesthetic degradation of landscape. On the one hand the style and architecture of those 

implants isn`t always in harmony with traditional buildings nor at the due scale and on the other 

hand tourism development is sometimes anarchic and dispersed, thus degrading landscapes. 

Without further comments, the locations mentioned above (Boga holiday village but most of all 

Padiş) are deformed by such buildings which do not integrate architecturally and tire the eye with 

their bright colours or degradation and obsolescence, thus producing a visual pollution. 

- overcrowding effect. The concentration in space and time of the tourist sojourns brings to 

overcrowding and overloading of the tourist structures and infrastructures that harm the environment 

and the quality of life. In the Apuseni Natural Park that is the situation especially during summer and 

mostly in July-August when, in the allowed camping places (and not only) there is an enormous 

density of tent, circulation on walking trails is crowded, and many times tourists almost bump in each 

other. However during the last years, maybe as a result of the economic crisis, the number of tourists 

has dropped dramatically, which has reduced a bit the human tourist pressure in the park (figure 7). 

Another aspect of this point of view is weekend traffic congestions that cause air and noise pollution 

and increased energy consumption (petrol or diesel). In winter the area Vârtop-Arieşeni is the most 

crowded because of winter sports and the easy access on DN 75. 

The inadequate behaviour of a tourist is frequently used as an excuse by others, thus 

producing a cascade of cumulate destruction to the habitats and nature in general. These 

manifestations haven`t been controlled much up to the present. There are a few spots on the park 

territory where all those problems cumulate: Glăvoi Glade, Padiş Plain, Boga Valley, Sigiştelului 

Valley, RăchiŃele Cascade etc. The uncivilized 

conduct of the tourists has also a major negative 

impact on the frail subterranean environment. We 

cannot forget about the theft of the „stone flowers” 

(crystals, stalactites, stalagmites etc.) sold on a 

flourishing black market and about the disappearance 

of the „petrified footprints of the Neanderthal man” in 

Vârtop Cave, which is by now history. Some of the 

caves are true ossuaries that allow researchers the 

acces to a rich and well preserved material, 

represented by cave bear (Ursus spelaeus), along with 

other bone pieces that belong to hyena and cave lion 

etc (Bears, Măgura Cave, Micula`s, Onceasa Caves) 

(Onac, 2000). But the wider access of tourist masses 

brings this thesaurus to considerable damages. 

A systematic inventory of the ANP caves hasn`t 

been made yet, and even less for the cave fauna; there 

are only punctual pieces of information for some of the 

known caves. Protecting this fauna (which in some 

caves includes endemic species of insects or strictly 

protected species of bats), is possible only by strict 

records of tourists` access in those cavities and not only 

Figure 7. In the summer of 2010, the 

lodging pressure on Glăvoi Glade is 

much reduced compared with former 

years. As we can see, there are a lot of 

vehicles 

(Source: L. Nistor - taken from helicopter) 

there. In 2006 - 2007, the ANP Adm. Has established 

an approval system for the spelean activities in the park; 

it works quite well and most of the tourists who practice 

caving in the park area make use of a punctual or 

periodic approval. The results are collected through 

reports and included in the park data base. 

In august 2009 and august 2010 when the top of 

the tourism activities is recorded in Padis, we applied


some questionnaires to tourists available for this activity. 

Some of the key questions refer to the „personality” of the ANP (e.g. : „are you familiar 

with the significance of a natural park?”, or „do you consider the ANP a tourist attraction?”), 

and also to the opportunity to develop mass tourism by building large scale real estate (e.g. „how 

do you think tourist activities affect the general and particular quality of the ANP?” or „do you 

agree with the development of a tourism resort in Padiş?” or „what do you think is the role of 

rural communities situated in the park vicinity?”). 

Regarding the geographical personality of the Apuseni Natural Park, most of the 

respondents answered that it has unique, with wild landscapes, great diversity and beauty, but they 

had no idea of what a natural park is. However, at the other aspect almost all (90%) answered 

categorically that mass tourism will destroy the beauty of the region but some investments are 

needed to create ecological toilets and clean the park (that is to clear off the garbage). Again, they 

new nothing about the role of the communities surrounding the park. 

LATENT (OR NOT) CONFLICT SITUATIONS 

Regions that benefit from a quality environment, favourable to tourism development are 

facing the following dilemma: either they encourage the development of this economic activity 

and therefore must accept some degradation of the environment or, on the contrary, give propriety 

to preserving the environment and give up the potential revenue from tourism. This problem is 

acute in economically disadvantaged area where the environment quality is the only exploitable 

source and this is the case of many mountain regions. 

The Apuseni Natural Park is an inhabited area and people must earn their living in one way 

or the other. Before the 90swords like „rural tourism, eco-tourism, sustainable development etc” 

weren`t used very often and tourist activities in mountain areas (except the consecrated resorts like 

Prahova Valley or Stâna de Vale (Bihor County) were reduced. 

After the official pronouncement of the Apuseni Natural Park, the mountains inhabitants 

were forced to give up their old and pretty good income source which was forestry (after the 

Revolution in 1989 timber theft has become a mass activity for many rural communities, thus 

supplementing their income especially when Romanian economy was slowly but surely 

collapsing). At that point a hidden conflict started to smoulder. On the other hand, the 

development of tourism infrastructure - especially accommodation - was favoured and „real estate 

projects that kept at the limit of the law” gained ground (www.jurnalul.ro/stire-descoperirearomaniei-08/gunoaiele-apusenilor). 

More recent are the conflicts between tourism developers and nature defenders who fight 

for stopping this economic activity. One of the locations most argued on is Padiş where until 

recently there were a few poorly maintained houses and boxes and an undeveloped campsite. 

After 2000 after the Romanian economy recovered a little, the interest in this magical land has 

grown dramatically and lots of unauthorized odd looking kiosks, terraces and accommodation 

buildings (boxes, a hut). More recently S.C. Compania de Turism, Hoteluri şi Restaurante Padiş 

S.R.L. (CTHRP) - the local tourism company, has a real estate undertaking of wide scope along 

the forest road that leads to Ic Ponor, which is building a mountain ski resort with 2,000 beds and 

the entire related infrastructure and has already purchased 86 hectares of land in the heart of the 

park, near a strictly protected area (research reservation - Molhaşurile de la Izbuce). 

In order to obtain the necessary approvals, this project had to pass through the ANP 

Administration Advizory Council which includes all the administration of the communes on the 

park land) and the gauntlet of the Scientific Council. The promoters of the project say that to the 

date it passed the Advisory Council (December 2007), they had already invested 2 million euro 

and they wanted to change the „strictly protected area” statute in „sustained development area”. 

Although it passed the Advisory Council, the project hasn`t pass the Scientific Council so for the 

moment it is stuck at the Ministry of Environment and Forests.

352 


At one point, citing the massive attack of bark beetle (Ips typographus) in the park forests, 

the mayors of five Bihor communes situated on the park land submitted a memorandum in which 

they demand among other things the annulment of the park (!) on the ground that the right of 

property was not respected (and thus they are unable to use their grasslands and forests as they 

please!). It is interesting that so violent reactions from local communities were only registered in 

the Bihor part of the park, the other two sectors (Cluj and Alba Counties) have a relatively good 

collaboration between the ANP Administration and the locals, especially in agro-tourism and rural 

tourism. This proves that striving for Padiş is far from an end, especially since legislation changes 

frequently and allows smart lawyers to make interpretations freely. 

HOWEVER, THERE IS HOPE FOR CIVILIZED MOUNTAIN TOURISM 

Leaving aside the discussions and nebulous confrontations on mass tourism development in 

the park perimeter, we should mention that there are also initiatives for a decent tourism 

development and promotion. 

Thus, in October 2009, The Apuseni Natural Park was awarded at the Gala Awards EDEN 

(European Destinations of Excellence) from Brussels http://ziuadecj.realitatea.net/eveniment/eveniment - 

parcul-national-apuseni-destinatie-de-excelenta-a-romaniei-16206.html). The European Union has 

declared the Apuseni Natural Park a tourism destination of excellence and consequently, it will 

benefit from tourism promotion in Europe, have its own web page on the official EDEN web site and 

will be included in the European Destinations of Excelence, which facilitates experience exchange. 

The main objective of the EDEN project is to promote sustainable tourism development models. 

Then there is another project in progress, in Pietroasa commune, on the valleys of Aleu 

and Crisul Pietros, where a group of 25 American investors have purchased 120 hectares of 

land and intend to set up a holiday village with boarding houses and rustic holiday homes, 

trout farm, swimming pools etc.: „…the tourism model that is to be practiced in this part of 

the Apuseni Mountains is based on that given by the hospitality industry of the American state 

North Carolina where the emphasis is on closeness to nature" (Radu łârle, President of the 

Bihor County Council, Nov. 2010). It is true that until now, this beautiful intention 

materialized only in purchasing the land and fencing, and rumours suggest that this much 

trumpeted intention is not going to be put into practice. In fact, two investors from Bihor risked 

and invested in rural tourism in 2005, in the same valley, by building two huts and a trout farm on 

the site of the former school camp, but dropped it in favour of the American investors. 

In the area of Gârda, since 2000 projects have been running on the subject of Arnica 

Montana (a herb related to camomile and sunflower) which lives in the park and is considered 

„queen of herbs” (www.jurnalul.ro/campaniile-jurnalul/jurnalul-national/necunoscuta-nouaapreciata-in-europa). 

Albert Rief, the coordinator of the first project related to arnica, after his peregrinations in 

the Apuseni Mountains, intended to set up a small ethnography museum in the hamlet of GheŃar, 

next to the cave entrance, which could function also as a tourist information centre but it proved to 

be very hard to find popular craftsmen to build savin covered houses because this traditional 

occupation has disappeared in the region of the motzi. Now he has another project which is to 

establish a traditional household where tourists could see how the people lived around here. 

Following another protection and conservation project in implementation until 2011 

initiated by the Centre for Environment Initiative from Cluj Napoca, 37 caves in the ANP are 

going to became tourist destinations. This project aims to improve the park management plan, 

the conservation of the 37 caves and their technical endowment needed for surveys and 

mapping for each of them as well as 15 projects to imitate the access in through gates. These 

are extremely valuable caves, in some of them access is only permitted for research. Some of 

the 37 caves that need a high degree of protection are Bears Cave, Fortress of Ponor, Piatra 

Altarului, Onceasa, Focul Viu Glacier, Humpleu Cave, Scărişoara Glacier etc 

(www.ziare.com/articole/ parcul+national+apuseni).


CONCLUSIONS 

Although it is a protected area which has a relatively good management plan, the area of the 

ANP confronts with serious problems related to mass tourism activities. The Bihor sector of the 

park gives the greatest problems and most difficult to manage because the greatest density of valuable 

natural tourist attractions is here, so that the fights for the possession of Padis area are fierce too. And 

the elected representatives of the rural communities are very much against the idea of integral protection 

which doesn`t seem to be in line with their development strategies. We also believe that as long as the 

ANP is under the „guardianship” of the National Forest Authority, many of the „historical state of 

facts” won`t be solved under the excuse of their great interest in the park forests and will leave the 

tourist activities and even their negative impact aside. 

In addition, the broadening and modernization of the access road from the commune of 

Pietroasa (Bihor) to Padiş (DJ 763 Sudrigiu-Pietroasa-Padiş Hut) (with European structural funds!) 

is not a good sign for the future of the park as a nature preservation area as it will facilitate the 

increased motorized access of crowds of tourists and cars and indirectly sooner or later, the 

appearance of a tourist resort. 

Finally, we wish to thank Mr. Nedelcu for his permanent courtesy of providing the mapping support. 

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*** 

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http:// www.ziare.com/articole/parcul+national+apuseni 


August 25, 2011 November 15, 2011 December 05, 2011



MEANS OF CABLE TRANSPORTATION. AN INFRASTRUCTURAL 

COMPONENT OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL LANDSCAPE OF ALBAC - 

ARIEŞENI TERRITORIAL SYSTEM 

Maria GOZNER ∗ 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail:mariagozner@yahoo.com 

Ştefan BAIAS 


1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: baias_stefan@yaho.com 

Abstract: A part of the touristic infrastructure is represented by cable or mechanic means 

of transportation, closely connected to the touristic development of mountain areas. Cable 

transport is a means of transportation sought exclusively during touristic activities. It is 

used as an access route for mountain areas equipped with ski slopes. Ski slopes and cable 

transport play a fundamental role in the development of the mountain tourism industry. 

They represent the essential foundation of winter offers and their execution must be 

accomplished prior to that of other types equipment (accommodation, leisure, dining). By 

increasing the number of functional ski slopes, the touristic development of the Arieşeni 

skiable area is meant to enhance the touristic potential of this village, especially during the 

winter season. Another element of this development is the extension of the touristic season 

during winter by using artificial snow machines which allow skiing during periods with 

insufficient snow fall. Increasing the number of slopes and extending of the tourist season 

should also accomplish the expansion of the targeted geographical area from which tourists 

originate. The total length of the routes in the Albac - Arieşeni territorial system which rely 

on cable transport is of 2750 m while the potential transport capacity is of 2400 persons per 

hour. The Albac - Arieşeni territorial system relies on three means of cable transport. 

Key words: ski slopes, means of transportation, cable transport. 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

The only means of transportation sought exclusively by the tourism industry is cable 

transport, used as a rapid access route to mountain areas and especially skiable areas equipped 

with ski slopes (Ciangă, 1997). 

The Albac - Arieşeni territorial system is included in the administrative division of Alba 

County, being located in its north-western extremity at the convergence of two mountain systems: 

Bătrâna Mountains in the north and Biharia Mountains in the south, connected by Vârtop Pass 

(1160 m). Bătrâna Mountains and Biharia Mountains (figure 1) represent the central sector of 



Means of Cable Transportation. An Infrastructural Component of the Geographical... 355 

Apuseni Mountains and are limited by the river Someşul Cald in the north as well as by the river 

Arieşul Mic in the south (Pop, 2000; Enciclopedia Geografică a României, 1982). 

Cable transport 

The execution of means of cable transport entails a series of constructions which modify 

the surrounding landscape. Ski tows and chairlifts require, prior to their emplacement, a 

deforestation of the area, deep and strong foundations for their support poles so that they sustain a 

heavy charge. The protection requirements are multiple: ending the advance of projects which 

affect the environment, carrying out impact studies, a clear delimitation drawn up for soil 

occupation plans, the delimitation of protected areas, of natural parks and of reservations 

(BăltăreŃu, 2010). More than any other industry, tourism is dependent on the environment, it 

actually represents the main resource and its quality can promote or hinder the development of 

tourist activities (Cândea et al., 2003). 

Figure 1. Geographical position of the Albac - Arieşeni territorial system 

as part of Apuseni Mountains and Bihorului Mountains

356 


In the case of travel system-Albac Arieşeni the main problem derives from the dualism of the area used 

for tourism / territory protected from human activities. The resulting state of conflict is due to the uniform 

strategy of intervention in the structure of the actors involved both in the public and private sectors, and 

especially of the goals declared / undeclared non synchronous confused and those who deal with planning and 

maintenance of the territory on the one hand and those who exploit economically the same geographic area. 

Component proreaction join them and is almost nonexistent, although the structure should be part of the strategy 

developed by the first category (Gozner and Avram, 2010). In order to construct the ski slopes as well as the 

means of cable transport that they rely upon, the slopes envisaged should be predominantly north-oriented and 

situated at altitudes of over 1000 - 2000 meters. The ski slopes and the corridors which accompany the means of 

cable transportation should be as wide as 20 to 30 meters (Ciangă and Axente, 1996). 

Figure 2. Slopes Vârtop I and II 

Figure 3. Vârtop I Slope Ski tow


The analyzed mountain area provides scarce examples of cable transport. Two functional ski 

slopes are found in Vârtop (Arieşeni commune, Bubeşti village). Vârtop I Slope (figure 2), also referred 

to as the Big Slope relies on a ski tow with a capacity of 680 persons per hour while Vârtop II Slope 

(figure 3), also called the Small Slope relies on a ski tow with a capacity of 320 persons per hour 

(General Urban Plan Arieşeni). The Big Slope is 720 m long, 90 m long, measures a 220 meters slope 

of the land and is rated as red (intermediate) in what concerns its difficulty. It is equipped with night 

lighting (orange lights) along its length as with ski-slope maintenance machinery. The Small Slope is 

430 m long, 50 m wide, measures a 101 meters slope of the land and is rated blue (easy trail) in what 

concerns its difficulty. It is also equipped with night lighting but its lights are white, similar to natural 

light, as well as with ski-slope maintenance machinery. 

Figure 4. Piatra Grăitoare Slope 

Piatra Grăitoare (Speaking Rock) Slope (figure 4) is situated near Vârtop I Slope, at the 

distance of a 5 minutes’ walk through the woods. It is oriented towards the west-northwest 

and is situated on the side of Vârtop Pass which is included in the administrative territory of 

Bihor county. The slope is 1600 meters long, and it offers three alternative trails, rated with 

different levels of difficulty (blue, red and black), relying on a modern four-seat chairlift. The 

execution of the three new different slopes at Arieşeni-Vârtop has been completed at the 

beginning of December 2010. They are equipped with night lighting and a chairlift (figure 5) 

with a capacity of 1400 persons per hour, measuring 1095 meters in length. 

Figure 5. Piatra Grăitoare Slope Termina

358 


The construction of the slopes is financed by Nucet’s local administration and by Bihor 

county’s Regional Council as part of the project „Skiing in Romania” which is subsidized by the 

Ministry of Regional Development and Tourism. 

A two-level parking (figure 6) has been constructed at the base of the Piatra Grăitoare 

Slope. Unfortunately, it does not fully resolve the need for parking space. 

Figure 6. Piatra Grăitoare Slope parking and chairlift 

The three slopes (figure 7) are situated at the convergence of Alba County and Bihor 

County’s borders. They are quite accessible due to National Road 75 which runs across their base, 

as they are the most renowned ski slopes of the Apuseni Mountains. 

Figure 7. Vârtop slopes (Arieşeni)


The regular skiing season starts in December and ends in March. At the beginning of 

each year The Snow Celebrations (Serbările Zăpezii) are organized. Near the two ski slopes, a 

sleigh slope is also constructed. Next to the Vârtop slopes, snowmobiling, sleighing and 

paragliding are practiced. 

The North Star (Steaua Nordului) Slope is situated in Albac and until 2009, this was a slope 

that some considered „European”. It passed through the households of residents living in the area, 

accompanied by its ski tow, night lighting and artificial snow machinery. The track was short, it 

had a southern orientation and a reduced level of difficulty. It was transformed into a learning 

slope until the investor realized that no one would use it and closed it in the end. The construction 

of ski slopes has started in Gârda de Sus commune. The gradient is favorable, the degree incline is 

constant and cable transportation will be ensured by a reused chairlift (figure 7). 

Figure 8. Reused chairlift in Gârda de Sus commune 

The project foresees three slopes: a 1100 m one, a second one measuring 1600 m and a 

third one, 2000 m long. The local administration has provided the land while the investor finances 

the project. A ski bus (figure 8) will ensure the transport of tourists across the impressive Arieş 

Valley, following the route Albac, Scărişoara, Gârda de Sus, Arieşeni-Vârtop. The eco bus has 

already been acquired and it awaits its future usage. 

Figure 9. The slope and ski bus of Gârda de Sus commune 

Besides the possibility of ruining the natural beauty of the region, this project is also 

disadvantaged by an altitude (735 m) which is somewhat unfavorable to snow durability. By 

comparison, the Arieşeni-Vârtop slopes reach as high as 1200 meters in altitude. 

The inauguration should have taken place in 2009 yet it was delayed, presumably due to the

360 


recession. The locals hoped that the new slopes would be put to use at the beginning of the 2010- 

2011 winter season. Unfortunately, another winter has passed and this project is still on hold. 

An similar investment is proposed in Bubeşti - Arieşeni. Five slopes will be constructed in 

the Vârtop-Gălăşoaia-Bubeşti area, equipped with two chairlifts and a ski tow. A parking lot will 

be situated at the base of each of the main slopes. 

A. 

B. 

Figure 10. Slope proposals for Bubeşti (Arieşeni) 

(Source: Google Earth render (A), Ortophotoplan 1:5000 adaptation (B) 

Bubeşti 1 slope will be around 2700 m long and will stretch between Vârful Cornul 

Berbecului Peak and Bubeşti-Arieşeni village. Bubeşti 2 slope will be approximately 2100 m long, 

stretching between Cornul Berbecului Peak and Bubeşti village, an alternative descent to the 

skiers climbing up to Cornul Berbecului Peak.


In order to reach the top of these slopes, tourists will climb from Vârtop by chairlift or they can 

choose to climb from Bubeşti. Bubeşti 1 and Bubeşti 2 slopes start at Cornul Berbecului Peak at an 

altitude of 1600 m, while the finish line is situated at 1080 m. The two slopes will rely on a modern, 

high-capacity chairlift. Gălăşoaia-Bubeşti Slope will connect Cornul Berbecului, Vârtop and Bubeşti 

slopes. It can also be used as an alternative descent, as its level of difficulty is lower. However, it does 

not directly rely upon a cable transport installation. Gălăşoaia-Bubeşti and Gălăşoia slopes will be rated 

as intermediate in what concerns their level of difficulty thus being preferred by most skiers. 

Figure 11. Slope proposals for Bubeşti (Arieşeni), topographic map 1:100,000 adaptation 

Gălăşoaia slope will be the shortest one and will rely upon a chairlift. In this case, 

Gălăşoaia-Bubeşti slope can be chosen by skiers as an alternative descent. Cornul Berbecului 

slope will be the longest, as its planned length is of 3000 meters. 

The upper half of this slope has a high degree of difficulty while its lower half is considered 

intermediate. It will rely on a chairlift which will have a terminal at the meeting point with 

Gălăşoaia slope and one at the highest point of the slope. 

Chairlifts will be installed for Bubeşti-Cornul Berbecului and Vârtop-Cornul Berbecului 

routes. In the latter case, an intermediate terminal will be located at the intersection of Cornul 

Berbecului and Gălăşoaia slopes. The cable transport installation is a four person fixed-grip 

chairlift which consists of numerous chairs attached to a constantly moving wire rope. The rope is 

stretched and flexed by the drive bullwheel which is located at the low end of the installation. The 

cable is supported well above the ground by towers equipped with pulley assemblies and access 

stairs for maintenance personnel. Four person chair carriers are connected to the cable at 37,4 m 

intervals. At a 14,40 second step, the installations moves at a 2,60 m/s speed, with a capacity of 

1000 persons per hour. The loading and disembarking of passengers is performed at an average 

rope-speed of 2,60 m/s (according to Bubesti - Vartop’s Zonal Spatial Plan- P.A.T.Z.) 

In order to increase the level of comfort provided to tourists as they embark at the bottom 

terminal, the loading area will be equipped with a moving platform and automatically opening 

doors. They are activated by sensors, opening and closing according to the proximity of carriers to 

the embarking area. Thus, as a chair approaches, the doors are opened, allowing the simultaneous 

entrance of four persons directly on the moving platform. This platform moves at a constant speed 

of 1.0 m/s so that passengers are seated at a relative speed of 2,6 - 1,0 = 1,6 m/s.

362 


Beside increasing the safety and comfort level of passengers as they embark, using a 

moving platform allows the chairlift to function at an increased speed (2,6 as opposed to 2,3 m/s), 

therefore reducing transportation duration as well as the total number of carriers simultaneously 

moving on the wire rope. 

In the case of the Cornul Berbecului ski tow, the drive terminal is located at the bottom 

of the installation while the return bullwheel is situated at the upper terminal. The bottom 

terminal which allows skiers to attach themselves to the rope is located at an altitude of 1270 m, 

while the end terminal is situated in the Gălăşoaia area, at an altitude of 1320 m, at the highest 

point of the slope. The route unites the two terminals in a straight line. The cable is supported by 

metal pillars equipped with rubber lined reels. Gălăşoaia slope will also be equipped with a ski 

tow (Bubeşti - Vârtop P.A.T.Z). 

CONCLUSION 

Each slope will measure an average width of 40-60 meters and will be equipped with 

artificial snow installations, snow leveling machines, ticket machines and parking lots. All slopes 

will use appropriate markings, conventional signs and protection nets, according to the 

specifications of the H.G. 263/2001, requirements which must be met in order to receive the 

approval of the national authority for tourism. 

However, compared to other such regions (such as Braşov and Prahova), the studied area is 

in shortage of cable transportation means. 

Due to the importance of tourism nowadays, it is necessary to find solutions for harnessing 

the natural and man-made resources of which can be achieved through a territorial tourism 

planning (Gozner, 2010). Tourism planning should be accomplished in relation to tourism 

development and even economic progress but must take into account the requirements of the 

natural and human environment. 

AKNOWLEGMENTS 

The research was carried out within the framework of Project CNCSIS IDEI: PN II 

667/2008, coordinator Associate Prof. Dorina Camelia Ilies. 

REFERENCES 

BăltăreŃu Andreea Mihaela (2010), Amenajarea turistică şi dezvoltarea urbană, Editura Universitară Bucureşti; 

Cândea Melinda, Erdeli G., Simon Tamara, Peptenatu D. (2003), PotenŃialul turistic al României şi amenajarea turistică a 

spaŃiului, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti; 

Ciangă N. (1997), Turismul în CarpaŃii Orientali. Studiu de geografie umană, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

Ciangă N., Maria Axente (1996), Mijloace de transport pe cablu – componentă infrastructurală a peisajului geografic şi 

turismului carpatic, Studia UBB, Seria Geographia, XLI, 1-2, Cluj-Napoca; 

Gozner Maria (2010), Turismul în sistemul teritorial Albac - Arieşeni şi impactul acestuia asupra mediului, în Analele UniversităŃii 

din Oradea, Fascicula ConstrucŃii şi InstalaŃii Hidroedilitare, vol. XIII- 2, Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea, Oradea; 

Gozner Maria, Avram Maria, (2010), SituaŃia rezervaŃiilor naturale din cadrul sistemului teritorial Albac – Arieşeni, 

Analele UniversităŃii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, Editura UniversităŃii din Oradea; 

Pop P. Gr. (2000), CarpaŃii şi SubcarpaŃii României, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

*** (1982), Enciclopedia Geografică a României, Ediura. ŞtiinŃifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti. 


July 26, 2011 November 17, 2011 December 05, 2011



USING GIS MODELING AND THE DAC STATISTIC TO ANALYZE THE 

SUSTAINABILITY OF DEVELOPMENT IN IALOMIłA 

HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN 

Ioan IANOŞ ∗ 


CICADIT, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: office@cicadit.ro 

Alexandru-IonuŃ PETRIŞOR 

„Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism and Scientific Director for Urbanism and Territorial Development, 

National Institute for Research and Development in Constructions, Urbanism and Sustainable Spatial Development 

URBAN-INCERC, e-mail: alexandru_petrisor@yahoo.com, a.i.petrisor@gmail.com 

Abstract: Sustainable development relies on three traditional pillars (economic, social, and 

environmental), to which a fourth cultural one was added, and has a territorial dimension, 

resulting into the creation of sustainable communities. Measuring the sustainability of a given 

area relies on indices covering all these chapters. In an attempt to identify the most relevant 

indices and pillars, this study uses similar analyses at the micro-scale level using 

administrative-territorial units covering the mountainous and sub-Carpathian space of an 

average sized hydrographic basin. The algorithm uses selected indicators reflecting the 

density of population, its dynamics and migratory increase, elder population, natality, 

unemployment, share of population working in agriculture, number of people who completed 

high school education, the number of physicians per 1000 people, and inhabited area per 

person. Data are analyzed using GIS modeling based on raw data and factor analysis, and the 

ordinary kriging interpolation of the values of the Drane - Aldrich - Creangă test. The results 

suggest that there are two „rich” zones, one in the mountain area and another close to the 

plain, while the poorer regions situate in between. This pattern is interrupted by the important 

communication routes, resulting into differentiated accessibility. 

Key words: factor analysis, kriging, GIS, index of development, modeling 

* * * * * * 

INTRODUCTION 

Synthesizing the researches attempting to identify solutions to the environmental issues a 

new concept emerged in 1987: sustainable development, defined as „development that meets the 

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own 

needs” (Brundtland, 1987). The concept relies on three traditional pillars (economic, social, and 

environmental), to which a fourth cultural one was added later, and has a spatial dimension 

(Centrul de Cercetare, Proiectare, Expertiză şi Consulting, 2006; Petrişor, 2008b; Petrişor et al., 

2010). Accounting in addition for the practical actions involved by its implementation, a more 



364 

Ioan IANOŞ, Alexandru-Ionuț PETRIŞOR 

comprehensive definition is „use of natural resources within the carrying capacity limits, conservation 

of diversity, ecological restoration of degraded environmental system and environmental protection 

measures embedded in sectoral development policies, aiming to assess the impact and internalize 

eventual environmental costs” (Petrişor, 2009; Petrişor and Sârbu, 2010). 

The key to understanding sustainable development is the interconnection of traditional 

pillars (Bugge and Watters, 2003; Ianoş et al., 2011; Ilieş et al., 2010). Therefore, environmental, 

social and cultural policies must be part of the general and sectoral development policies (Petrişor 

and Sârbu, 2010; United Nations, 1992). Spatially, sustainable development must ensure a 

territorial balance of the satisfaction of economic, social and environmental needs of present and 

future generations at the same rate (Petrişor, 2008a), and provide for the coherence of 

socioeconomic objectives reported to the territory and its environmental and cultural functions, 

aiming to improve the quality of present and future generations’ life by creating sustainable 

communities able to manage ant utilize resources efficiently, exploiting the innovative 

environmental and social potential of the economy while guaranteeing the prosperity, 

environmental protection and social cohesion (Colignon, 2009). Consequently, from a territorial 

perspective, sustainable development leads to the creation of sustainable communities, defined by 

the Bristol accord as „places where people want to live and work, now and in the future” (Office 

of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2006). 

Assessing the sustainability of development for a particular territorial unit or region 

involves data on indices reflecting the different pillars (Dobrin et al., 2010a, b; Ianoş et al., 2010). 

One of the most commonly used methodologies relies on the utilization of Geographical 

Information Systems (GIS), defined as „decision support system involving the integration of 

spatially referenced data in a problem solving environment” (Cowen, 1988). However, the use of 

GIS can be enforced when used in conjunction with statistical methods (Tache et al., 2010) based 

on economic, social, and environmental indicators. In addition to the simple indicators, aggregated 

indices are computed based on arithmetic operations performed using individual indices, according 

to the statistical principle of Paul Benzecri: giving up some information to gain relevance 

(Dragomirescu and Drane, 2009). 

This aim of this study was to create and use a methodology for micro-scale level analyses 

of administrative-territorial units, i.e. about 40 communes covering the mountainous and sub- 

Carpathian space of an average sized hydrographic basin, attempting to pinpoints the most relevant 

indicator(s) of development, even if artificially built, and map its spatial distribution. 

METHODS 

36 base administrative units (communes and cities) of DâmboviŃa County were selected 

based on the geographical location in the mountainous and sub-Carpathian area of IalomiŃa river 

basin. The corresponding database contained data on 15 indicators, presented in table 1. 

The first step consisted of using factor analysis based on principal components extraction in 

SPSS to identify the most important indicators: the number of high school graduates and the 

population employed in agriculture (Ianoş and Petrişor, 2010). 

Using these results, GIS modeling was used to build an average index of development for 

each administrative unit based on all the 15 indicators considered, and another one based only on the 

key indicators pinpointed by the factor analysis with weights ratioed to 100 % (82 %, respectively 18 

%). In the first case, the population employed in the agriculture had a weight equal to 8 %, the 

number of high school graduates had 14 %, and all other indicators 6 %. In the second case, the 

population employed in the agriculture had 18 % and the number of high school graduates 82 %. 

Two models, displayed in figure 1, were built using the indicators and weights mentioned before. 

Running the models resulted into maps displaying the level of development in each administrative 

unit, evaluated on a 1 to 5 scale, with 1 pointing the lowest level, and 5 the highest. 

In the next step, the Drane - Aldrich - Creangă (DAC) test was used for an almost mathematical 

and over-generalizing analysis of the data. The DAC statistic was introduced in the statistical literature

Using GIS Modeling and the DAC Statistic to Analyze the Sustainability of Development … 365 

through a study by Drane, Creangă, Aldrich, and Hudson (Drane et al., 1995) in order to provide an 

instrument to detect spatial clusters, or, more generally, areas with health problems. 

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the indicators used in the study, for the 15 base administrative units of 

DâmboviŃa County located in the mountainous and sub-Carpathian space of the IalomiŃa river basin. 

(Data source: Interdisciplinary Center of Advanced Research on Territorial Dynamics, University of Bucharest) 

Variable Minimum Maximum Average Std. deviation 

Total population 1747.00 15691.00 4927.91 2680.53 

Resident population 1748.00 15552.00 4935.31 2664.13 

Livable area per inhabitant 28888.00 228805.00 70834.06 38242.60 

Incoming migration 0.00 256.00 63.51 52.27 

Outgoing migration 2.00 187.00 60.94 42.06 

Number of people with a TV set 412.00 3812.00 1332.14 666.18 

Number of pharmacies 0.00 6.00 0.63 1.14 

Number of physicians 0.00 50.00 4.00 8.24 

Population employed in the industry 21.00 1339.00 253.09 274.77 

Total number of employed people 75.00 4312.00 681.69 785.74 

Total number of unemployed people 9.00 1305.00 180.31 258.28 

Population employed in the agriculture 29.00 1338.00 408.40 287.44 

Active population 136.00 5166.00 1198.60 944.06 

Population age 65 and over 413.00 1946.00 872.23 365.06 

Number of high school graduates 155.00 3557.00 860.89 689.71 

Figure 1. Displaying the GIS models used to map the level of development in the base administrative 

units (communes and cities) of DâmboviŃa County located in the mountainous and sub-Carpathian space 

of the IalomiŃa river basin. The 15-indicators based model is displayed above, and the 2-indicators 

based model below. 

(Source: GIS model produced by the author)

366 


The computation of the DAC statistic is based on the empirical cumulative distribution function: 

F n (x 1 , x 2 ) = m(x 1 , x 2 ) / n (1) 

where m(x 1 , x 2 ) is the number of points of the sample of size n such that x 1 i ≤ x 1 and x 2 j ≤ 

x 2 . As (x 1 , x 2 ) covers the entire sample from (0, 0) to (max x 1 , max x 2 ), m(x 1 , x 2 ) spans the interval 

[0, n]. Within the sample, cases are defined based on a threshold value (i.e., values lower or higher 

than a certain limit), and for each of them F m is defined by analogy to F n (Petrişor et al., 2006). 

The DAC statistic is, for all possible values of (x 1 , x 2 ), 

DAC(x 1 , x 2 ) = F m (x 1 , x 2 ) − F n (x 1 , x 2 ) (2) 

F m is the empirical cumulative distribution function of all cases, and F n is the empirical 

cumulative distribution function of the total population (Petrişor et al., 2006). 

To compute the DAC statistic, the actual coordinates of the centers of each 

administrative unit were obtained. A special Quick-Basic application (Petrişor et al., 2002) 

was used to compute the DAC statistic based on the threshold value of 911.5 of an aggregated 

index od development, built based on the results of factor analysis. The value was identified 

looking at the statistical distribution of the index using it histogram, built using an Excel 

plug-in called Histo (Dragomirescu et al., 2003). Ordinary kriging, a interpolation technique 

assuming that the spatial distribution of a certain variable depends only on the location of 

sampling stations (Johnston et al., 2001), was performed using the Geostatistical Analyst 

extension of ArcGIS to interpolate was used to interpolate the DAC values and derive a 

generalized distribution. 


The results of factor analysis indicate that two variables, the number of high school 

graduates and the population employed in agriculture, account for 84.6 % of the total 

variation. The first one explains 69.2 % of the variation, and the second, 15.4 % of it (Ianoş 

and Petrişor, 2010). 

Figure 2. Showing the spatial distribution of the 

general level of development derived based on GIS 

modeling using all 15 indicators for the base 

administrative units of DâmboviŃa County located in 

the mountainous and sub-Carpathian space of the 

IalomiŃa river basin. 

(Source: Authors’ original work) 


general level of development derived based on GIS 

modeling using 2 main indicators for the base 

administrative units of DâmboviŃa County located in 

the mountainous and sub-Carpathian space of the 

IalomiŃa river basin. 

(Source: Authors’ original work)


GIS modeling requires weights totaling 100 % instead of 84.6 %. Consequently, the 

new weights are 82 %, respectively 18 %. The results of using GIS-based modeling to 

compute the average level of development in the base administrative units of DâmboviŃa 

County located in the mountainous and sub-Carpathian space of the IalomiŃa river basin is 

displayed in figure 2 and figure 3. 

Figure 2 presents the spatial distribution of the index computed based on all 15 

indicators, with higher weights assigned to those corresponding to the principal components 

identified using factor analysis and figure 3 presents the spatial distribution of the index 

computed based on the two indicators corresponding to the principal components identified 

using factor analysis, preserving their weights. 

A potential aggregated index based on the results of factor analysis would be simply 

computed as 0.82 × the number of high school graduates + 0.18 × the population employed in 

agriculture. Its distribution is displayed in the histogram displayed in figure 4, drawn using Histo. 

The histogram indicates a bimodal distribution, requiring its separation into two unimodal 

distributions, one containing the lower values, and another the higher ones. Cutting the distribution 

pinpointed the threshold value used in the computation of the DAC static; the value was 

determined as the midpoint of the middle interval, i.e., 911.5. Based on the threshold, the DAC 

statistic was computed and its spatial distribution mapped in figure 5. Furthermore, ordinary 

kriging was used to provide a generalized spatial distribution of the values, based on the location 

of the center of each administrative unit and its corresponding DAC value, regardless of the actual 

administrative limits. The kriging map is displayed in figure 6. 

Regardless of the methodology utilized, all the maps displayed in figure 2, figure 3, 

figure 5, and figure 6 suggest the existence of two ‘rich’ zones, one situated in the mountainous 

region and another adjacent to the plain area, while the poorer ones are situated in between. 

Slight differences are due to the methodological approach concern the size and overall level of 

development of these areas. The spatial distribution is also changed by major communication 

routes and different accessibility. 

14 

12 

10 

Frequency 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

[159, 374) 

[374, 589) 

[589, 804) 

[804, 1019) 

[1019, 1234) 

[1234, 1449) 

[1449, 1664) 

Interval 

Figure 4. Displaying the histogram of the values of the general index of development derived using factor analysis. 


[1664, 1879) 

[1879, 2094) 

[2094, 2309) 

[2309, 2524) 

[2524, 2739) 

[2739, 2954)

368 



DAC values in the base administrative units of 

DâmboviŃa County located in the mountainous and 

sub-Carpathian space of the IalomiŃa river basin. 

Higher values, indicated by darker shades, identify 

poorly developed areas. 


Figure 6. Showing the ordinary kriging interpolation 

of the DAC values in the base administrative units of 

DâmboviŃa County located in the mountainous and 

sub-Carpathian space of the IalomiŃa river basin. 

Higher values, indicated by darker shades, identify 

poorly developed areas. 


CONCLUSIONS 

The results obtained by using GIS modeling and the DAC statistic to analyze the level of 

development in IalomiŃa river basin prove the advantages of correlative-integrative approaches. 

From the multitude of analyzed indicators, the population employed in agriculture and share of 

high school graduates stand out, explaining the large territorial variability of the index of 

development. The alternate distribution in territorial strips of the level of development in IalomiŃa 

river basin show the importance of available resources within the mountain areas, as well as within 

the contact areas (plain-hills), compared to those specific to the poorer plain regions. 

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June 15, 2011 August 23, 2011 September 03, 2011


ISSN 1454-2749, E-ISSN 2065-1619 Article no. 212923 

GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNALS 

PUBLISHED IN ROMANIA - 2011 

Dumitru RUS ∗ 

Pedagogical Highschool „Sabin Drăgoi”, no.2, G. BariŃiu Avenue, 

Deva, Romania, e-mail: dumitrurus@yahoo.com 

1. Magazines/Journals published in the academic/university environment 

Name of publication 

Alpii Transilvaniei 

Analele Ştiintifice ale UniversităŃii 

Al. I. Cuza Iaşi. Geografie 

Analele UniversităŃii de Vest din 

Timişoara. Seria Geografie 

Analele UniversităŃii din Craiova. 

Serie Nouă, Seria Geografie 

Analele UniversităŃii din Oradea. 

Seria Geografie 

Analele UniversităŃii Oradea, 

Fascicula ProtecŃia Mediului 

Analele UniversităŃii Spiru Haret. 

Seria Geografie 

Analele UniversităŃii Ştefan cel Mare 

din Suceava. Seria Geografie 

Analele Universitatii Valachia, 

Târgovişte. Seria Geografie 

Annuaire Roumain d'Anthropologie 

Carpathian Journal of Earth and 

Environmental 

Publishing institution 

Universitatea Creştină „Dimitrie 

Cantemir”, Sibiu, Facultatea de 

Geografia Turismului, revista 

studenŃilor. 

Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, 

Departamentul de Geografie 

Universitatea de Vest din Timisoara, 


Universitatea din Craiova, 


Universitatea din Oradea, 

Departamentul de Geografie, Turism 

şi Amenajarea Teritoriului 

Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea 

de ProtecŃia Mediului 

Universitatea „Spiru Haret”, Editura 

FundaŃiei România de Mâine. 

Universitatea „Ştefan Cel Mare” 

Suceava, Facultatea de Istorie şi 

Geografie, Departamentul de 

Geografie 

Universitatea „Valachia” 

Târgovişte, Departamentul de 

Geografie 

Academia Română. Institutul de 

Antropologie. Editura Academiei 

Universitatea de Nord Baia Mare 

CNCSIS 

classification 

(February 

2011) 

- 

C 

C 

D 

B+ 

B+ 

D 

B+ 

C 



Geographical Journals Published in Romania - 2011 371 

Comunicări de Geografie 

Environment & Progress 

Factori şi Procese Pedogenetice din 

Zona Temperată 

Forum Geografic 

Geo - Eco - Marina 

Geo Oltenia 

Geo-Carpathica 

Geographia Napocensis 

Geo Valachica. 

Comunicări şi Rapoarte 

Geographia Technica 

Geographica Timisiensis 

Geojournal of Tourism and Geosites 

Human Geographies 

Journal of Urban and Regional 

Analysis 

Lucrări şi Rapoarte de Cercetare 

Lucrările Seminarului Geografic 

Dimitrie Cantemir 

Present Environment and 

Sustainable Development 

Review of Historical Geography and 

Toponomastics 

Universitatea din Bucureşti, 

Facultatea de Geografie 

Facultatea de ŞtiinŃa şi Ingineria 

Mediului, Universitatea „Babeş- 

Bolyai” Cluj - Napoca 



Universitatea din Craiova, Editura 

Universitaria 

Institutul NaŃional de Cercetare 

pentru Geologie şi Geoecologie 

Marină 

Universitatea din Craiova, 

Departamentul de Geografie, revistă 

a studenŃilor 

Universitatea Creştină „Dimitrie 

Cantemir”, Facultatea de Geografia 

Turismului, Sibiu 

Academia Română – Filiala Cluj 

Universitatea „Valahia” din 

Târgovişte. Facultatea de ŞtiinŃe 

Umaniste. Centrul de Cercetare 

Geografia Habitatului Rural şi Urban 

în Contextul Dezvoltării Durabile 

Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj 

Napoca, Facultatea de Geografie. 

Editura Presa Universitară Clujană 

Universitatea de Vest Timişoara, 


Universitatea din Oradea, 

Departamentul Geografie, Turism şi 

Amanajarea Teritoriului 


Facultatea de Geografie, 

Departamentul de Geografie umană 

Universitatea din Bucureşti. Centrul 

Interdisciplinar de Cercetari 

Avansate asupra Dinamicii 

Teritoriale 

Universitatea Bucureşti. Centrul de 

cercetare pentru degradarea 

terenurilor şi dinamica 

geomorfologică 


Facultatea de Geografie - Geologie, 



Facultatea de Geografie - Geologie 

Universitatea de Vest Timişoara, 

Departamentul de Geografie. 

D 

C 

B+ 

C 

- 

D 

B+ 

D 

D 

B 

-

372 

Dumitru RUS 

Revista de Geomorfologie 

AsociaŃia Gomorfologilor din 

România. 

C 

Revista Geografică 

Academia Română, Institutul de 

Geografie 

D 

Revista Română de Geografie Universitatea din Oradea, 

Politică 

Departamentul Geografie, Turism şi B+ 

Amenajarea Teritoriului 

Societatea de hidrologie medicală şi 

Revista SocietăŃii de Hidrologie 

climatologie. Tipografia Cultura 

Medicală şi Climatologie 

Bucureşti 

Studia Universitatis Babeş - Bolyai. Universitatea „Babeş - Bolyai” Cluj 

Geographia 

Napoca, Facultatea de Geografie. 

B+ 

StiinŃa Solului 

Societatea NaŃională Romană pentru 

ŞtiinŃa Solului, Bucureşti 

Studii şi Cercetari de Geografie Academia Română D 

Universitatea „Babeş - Bolyai” Cluj 

TendinŃe Actuale în Predarea şi 

Napoca, Facultatea de Geografie, 

ÎnvăŃarea Geografiei 

Editura Clusium Cluj Napoca 

- 

The Danube River: Environment & 

Education 

Universitas Geographica. Revista 

Şcolii Doctorale Simion MehedinŃi 

Centrul Danubian de EducaŃie a 

Mediului, Universitatea Română de 

Ştiinte şi Arte Gheorghe Cristea 


Facultatea de Geografie 

D 

2. Magazines/Journals published by the Society of Geography of Romania and its 

subsidiaries 


Analele Simpozionului Euroregiunea Prutul 

de Sus 

Brătescu 

Buletinul SocietăŃii de Geografie din România 

- Prahova 

Coordonate 

GEIS - Referate şi Comunicări de Geografie 

Geographica 

Geosib 

Orizontul Băcăuan 

Orizonturi Geografice 

Orizonturi Geografice - Revista Profesorilor 

de Geografie din JudeŃul Vaslui 

Orizonturi Gorjene 


Societatea de Geografie - Filiala JudeŃului 

Botoşani 


Tulcea 


Prahova 


Dolj 


Hunedoara, Editura Casei Corpului Didactic 

Deva 


Bihor 


Sibiu 


Bacău, Editura Graffit Bacău 


Dolj, Editura Universitaria 


Vaslui 

Societatea de Geografie - Filiala JudeŃului

Geographical Journals Published in Romania - 2011 373 

Orizonturi Sucevene - Revista Profesorilor de 

Geografie 

Pangeea 

Repere Geografice 

Revista de Geografie 

Terra 

Gorj şi Inspectoratul Şcolar Gorj 


Suceava 


Alba şi Universitatea 1 Decembrie 1918 Alba 

Iulia 

Societatea de Geografie - Filiala JudeŃului Iaşi 

şi Inspectoratul Şcolar al JudeŃului Iaşi 


NeamŃ 

Societatea de Geografie din România, Editura 

CD Press Bucureşti 

3. Scientific information and mass-media magazines/journals. 


Analele AsociaŃiei Profesionale a 

Geografilor din România 

Geo 

Geograful 


AsociaŃia Profesională a 

Geografilor din România, 

Bucureşti 

Grupul editorial Motor Presse 

Romania 

AsociaŃia Profesională a 

Geografilor din România 

Geopolis Grupul Şcolar dr. M. Ciucă 

Săveni, judeŃul Botoşani 

Geopolitica - Revistă de Geografie 

Politică, Geopolitică şi 

Geostrategie 

Editura Top Form 

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classification 

(February 2011) 

InvitaŃie în CarpaŃi Alpinet.org - 

National Geographic România SC Sanoma Hearst Romania SRL - 

Nymphaea Folia Naturae Bihariae Muzeul łării Crişurilor, Oradea C 

Inspectoratul Şcolar al JudeŃului 

Orizonturi Didactice. SecŃiunea 

Călăraşi şi Casa Corpului Didactic 

Geografie. 

Călăraşi. Editura Agora, Calaraşi 

Revista Minelor Editura Infomin Deva B+ 

SargeŃia - Series Scientia Naturae 

Studii şi Cercetari (BistriŃa - 

Năsăud) Seria Geologie - 

Geografie 

Acta Musei Devensis. Muzeul 

CivilizaŃiei Dacice şi Romane, 

Deva 

Complexul Muzeal BistriŃa 

Năsăud, BistriŃa. 

Terra Magazin Editura CD Press Bucureşti - 

- 

- 

- 

C 

D


ISSN 1454-2749, E-ISSN 2065-1619 Article no. 212224 

„Geography and Tourism on the Iadului Valley, Dr. Aurelia Dumiter`s second book, 

written in 2010, is a monograph of a limited geographical area but with striking identity elements 

given by its placement in a contiguous mountain frame, with varied constitution and landscape: 

Pădurea Craiului Mountains and Bihor-Vlădeasa Mt. 

On the one hand, the omnipresent limestone in Padurea Craiului give this wild area a 

distinct and particular note by the numerous forms of endokarst (there stands the narrow gorge 

sector, but sinkholes and karst springs are not absent either - the Toplita Remeti karst spring is 

remarkable, but most of all by the deep karst: among which Pobraz pithole is 185 m deep), but 

most of all the nebulous underground hollows attract like magnets: „In the middle basin of Iadului 

Valley, between its junction with Lesului and Bisericii valleys, 101 underground hollows have 

been researched and mapped...” 

On the other hand, the majestic eruptive Vladeasa enters the scenery with the highest altitudes 

of the Iadului Basin and by its imposing abrupt with „enormous bottom debris trains, slope ruptures in 

the riverbed, which generates the waterfalls (Iadolina, Vălul Miresei, IeduŃului)”. 

The Iadului River Basin stands out with its mild winter climate and moderate, moist 

summers. „The main characteristics of the mountain climate with cool, moist summers and cold 

winters, with low mean annual temperatures, below 5 0 C, high nebulosity, rich precipitations and 

plenty of snow in winter determines a tonic stimulant bioclimate, characterized by low 

atmospheric pressure, clean air with no dust, rich in ultraviolet radiation and increased 

atmospheric ionization”. 

Another distinct note is given by the waters that cross the slopes of the surrounding 

mountains and most of all the presence of the Minunilor Spring at Stâna de Vale and Leşu lake and 

dam - first rank hotspots of the area and also of Bihor County. 

Of course, the pedogeographic and biogeographic elements complement the natural 

heritage by their unique features: Transylvanian bat (Syringa josikaea), aconite with blue hairy 

flowers (Aconitum callibotryon spp scarisorensis), carnation (Dianthus julii wolfi), red violet with 

white stripes (Viola jooi), brother-and-sister (Melamphyrum biharense). 

Such a geographical area is unavoidably characterized by the existence of the human 

element: „the natural conditions in the Iadului Valley area, less favourable, allowed the 

establishment and continuity of the human element, since the 15 th century”. The human 

settlements network in the Iadului Valley consists of three villages (Bulz, Munteni and RemeŃi), 

belonging to Bulz commune and Stâna de Vale resort. Before 1998 Remeti village (the main 

settlement) had a strong industrial function (given by the hydro sites and mining units) but in 

recent years, its economic profile has changed, „the inhabitants of the Iadului Valley sought and 

found alternative income sources, focusing on fisheries and tourism activities”. 

Unfortunately the natural environment isn`t supportive enough, and the population is 

declining numerically (especially after 1990). 

In the second part, the book presents one of the alternate economic activities with some 

chance of success, namely tourism, the rural adapted form, i.e. rural tourism. The Iadului Valley 

tourism potential doubtlessly exists, much discussion on this issue being no longer need and the 

valuable elements of the human tourism potential are added to it. 

Small villages or hamlets, scattered on valleys and slopes, also humanize the landscape 

and represent real aesthetical values and thus a real tourist value (P. Cocean, 1984). Even though 

the villages Bulz, Munteni, RemeŃi, scattered and dotted about, are not top tourist landmarks, they 

diversify the tourism offer and have thus a greater role by being situated in the close proximity of 

natural tourist features.

Geography and Tourism on the Iadului Valley 375 

„The occupations of the inhabitants can become an important tourism asset, especially 

by their products coming from wood processing, weaving or primary processing of traditional 

foods. Most of the products obtained in households are for own needs and turning them into 

tourism consumption products may have an indisputable attractive side. At the same time, those 

very habits and the simple, sometimes primitive but pure and natural way they are carried out can 

become tourist attractions for the urban or Western European dweller”. 

Bringing together the two components of the tourism potential, the forms and types of 

tourism that can be practiced in this area are presented (recreational tourism, sports tourism, 

religious tourism, curative tourism etc). 

But the appropriate tourism infrastructure is needed for the successful practice of these 

forms of tourism. In the communication system on Iadului Valley, the road network consists of 

county roads and a rich network of forest roads which facilitate the access to the most remote 

hamlets and also to some tourist attractions. However, we must make reference to the poor state of 

maintenance of these roads. 

The railway system has old traditions in Iadului Valley. Back in the late nineteenth 

century the valley was crossed by the „mocăniŃe” (called „pâca” by the locals), means of 

transportation specific to mountain regions, especially in the Apuseni Mountains. 

On the whole area of Iadului Valley, accommodation belongs to primary and secondary 

accommodation bases. Iadolina hotel and the chalets Cerbul (the Stag) and Gaudeamus from Stâna 

de Vale and the Leşu Dam motel belong to the first category. 

The secondary accommodation bases are private guesthouses and accommodation, quite 

poorly represented compared to the tourism potential and camping areas (at Valea Lupului, Coada 

lacului, Dealul Mare). A new, effective and necessary accommodation base was built in 1995, by 

upgrading a students` camp in RemeŃi, with a steady running. 

The advantages and disadvantages of tourism development in Iadului Valley are 

presented instead of conclusions, and a brief bibliographical list concludes this both geographical 

and touristic incursion. 

„Geography and Tourism on Iadului Valley”… a pleasant reading, alert, scientific, 

argumentative, which invites for a trip on this beautiful parts of Bihor. 

Ribana LINC, Associate Professor, Ph.D.

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂłII DIN ORADEA, SERIA GEOGRAFIE 

ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA, GEOGRAPHY SERIE 

University of Oradea 

Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning 

1 Universitătii Street, 410087 Oradea, Romania, Phone/Fax: 0040 259 408 475, 

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VOICULESCU, Florentina POPESCU, Alexandru ONACA, Marcel TÖRÖK-OANCE 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 159 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO INVENTORY AND ASSESSEMENT OF THE GEOMORPHOSITES IN CĂLIMANI NATIONAL 

PARK. CASE STUDY: 12 APOSTLES GEOLOGIC RESERVE, Ioan BÂCA 

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 172 

PERSPECTIVES IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE TERRACES OF THE DANUBE WITHIN THE OLTENIA PLAIN 

(ROMANIA), Sandu BOENGIU, Sorin AVRAM, Alina VLĂDUł 

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 181 

THE FOEHN WINDS IN NORTHERN OLTENIA. 18.08.2008 CASE STUDY, Anişoara IRIMESCU 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 192 

ASPECTS REGARDING THE RIME PHENOMEN IN DEVA AREA, Cristina Diana BRĂDĂU 

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 203 

COMMUNITY’S ADAPTIVE CAPACITY DUE TO COASTAL FLOODING IN SEMARANG COASTAL CITY, 

INDONESIA, Muh Aris MARFAI, Dyah R. HIZBARON 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 209 

DOWNSTREAM VARIATION IN PARTICLE SIZE: A CASE STUDY OF THE TROTUŞ RIVER, EASTERN 

CARPATHIANS (ROMANIA), Dan DUMITRIU, Daniel CONDORACHI, Mihai NICULIłĂ 

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 222 

SEASONAL STUDY WITH INTERPRETATION OF THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER POND IN 

REFERENCE TO QUALITY ASSESSMENT: A CASE STUDY, Hemant PATHAK, Deepak PATHAK, Sudhir Nagesh LIMAYE 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 233 

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION TERRITORIAL DISPARITIES IN THE TIMIŞ PLAIN, Bianca 

MITRICĂ, Irena MOCANU 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 239 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE ASSOCIATION OF FESTUCO DRYMEJAE-FAGETUM FROM 

LĂZĂRENI HILLS (NORTH-WESTERN ROMANIA), Laura Mariana LACATOŞ (HERMAN), Grigore Vasile HERMAN 

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 248 

GENESIS AND DYNAMICS OF A GEO-DEMOGRAPHIC SINGULARITY. A CASE STUDY - THE GIPSY 

COMMUNITY OF TOFLEA (BRĂHĂŞEŞTI COMMUNE, GALAłI COUNTY), Ionel MUNTELE, Raluca HOREA-ŞERBAN 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 256 

THE VILLAGES FROM SALAJ IN THE EASTERN PART OF JIBOU LOCALITY – DEMOGRAPHIC POTENTIAL, 


.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 267 

COMMUNITIES BETWEEN PRESERVATION AND DISAPPEARANCE: THE DEMOGRAPHIC HAZARD IN BEIUS 

LAND, Claudiu FILIMON, LuminiŃa FILIMON 

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 276 

DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC VULNERABILITIES WITHIN THE SUBURBAN AREA OF TÂRGU JIU, Daniela 

ZAMFIR, Cristian BRAGHINĂ, Cristian TĂLÂNGĂ 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 286 

THE EFFECTS OF POPULATION AGING ON RURAL AREAS. CASE STUDY: THE SARATEL HYDROGRAPHIC 

BASIN (BUZAU SUBCARPATHIANS), Ilinca-Valentina STOICA 

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 294 

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEMOGRAPHICAL DYNAMICS IN AREAS OF URBAN INFLUENCE. CASE STUDY: 

INFLUENCE AREA OF RÂMNICU VÂLCEA CITY, Constantin Cristian DRĂGHICI, Daniel PEPTENATU, Daniel Radu PINTILII, 

Cristina MERCIU, Loreta Andreea CERCLEUX 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 303 

WAYS OF MANAGING THE URBAN - RURAL INTERFACE. CASE STUDY: BUCHAREST, Ilinca-Valentina STOICA, Cristian 

TĂLÂNGĂ, Cristian BRAGHINĂ, Daniela ZAMFIR 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 313 

SPORTS AND LEISURE TIME TOURISM – A WAY OF REVITALISING EMERGENT SPACES FROM THE 

METROPOLITAN AREA OF BUCHAREST, Radu - Daniel PINTILII, Florentina - Cristina MERCIU, Daniel PEPTENATU, Andreea - Loreta 

CERCLEUX, Cristian Constantin DRĂGHICI 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 323 

INTERNAL TOURISM MOVEMENT AND THE MAIN ROMANIAN TOURIST DESTINATIONS (THE PERIOD 1990 - 

2008), Alexandru ILIEŞ, Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ, Cezar MORAR, Ioana JOSAN 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 333 

ASPECTS REGARDING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN THE APUSENI NATURAL 

PARK (ROMANIA), Ribana LINC, Stelian NISTOR, David TURNOCK 

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 340 

MEANS OF CABLE TRANSPORTATION. AN INFRASTRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL 

LANDSCAPE OF ALBAC - ARIEŞENI TERRITORIAL SYSTEM, Maria GOZNER, Ştefan BAIAS 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 354 

USING GIS MODELING AND THE DAC STATISTIC TO ANALYZE THE SUSTAINABILITY OF DEVELOPMENT IN 

IALOMIłA HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN, Ioan IANOŞ, Alexandru-IonuŃ PETRIŞOR 

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 363 

GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNALS PUBLISHED IN ROMANIA - 2011, Dumitru RUS 

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 370 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOURISM ON THE IADULUI VALLEY, Ribana LINC 

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 374 

ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409

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