Patterns: technicians' manual 4 - National STEM Centre

Patterns 

Technicians' manual 4 

Illili~[IIlllrll~lll[~~1 

N22736

Schools Council Integrated Science Project 

The Schools Council Integrated Science Project was set up at 

Chelsea College, London, from 1969 to 1975. The project team 

have developed their materials in association with many teachers, 

and have tested them in a wide range of schools. 

Organisers 

W.C. Hall 

B.S. Mowl 

Team members 

J.1. Bausor 

Mrs. M.P. Jarman 

RC. Landbeck 

Miss B.A. Lawes 

M.R. Nice 

D. Wimpenny 

Northern Ireland coordinator 

S.J. McGuffin

Patterns 

Technicians' 

manual 4 

Author 

Mike Nice 

Contributors 

David Crowhurst 

Malcolm Fraser 

William Lloyd 

Valerie Sheppard 

Published for 

the Schools Council 

by Longman

Longman Group Limited, London 

for the Schools Council 

© Schools Council Publications 1975 

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, 

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form 

or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying 

recording or otherwise - without the prior permission of the 

publisher. 

First published 1975 

ISBN 0 582 34008 X 

Typeset in Great Britain 

in 10/12 Press Roman IBM Composition 

By Reproduction Drawings limited. 

Printed in Great Britain by 

Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd, Aylesbury, Bucks 

. ;

Acknowledgements 

The authors and publishers are grateful to the following for permission 

to reproduce photographs: Dr C. Curds, pages 260 below 

and 261; Dr S. A. Henderson, page 260 above and Dr M. E. Wallace, 

page 264.

Preface 

The Technicians' manuals are primarily designed to enable school 

laboratory technicians to prepare the materials required for work 

described in the Patterns sample scheme. The four manuals are 

complementary to the Teachers' guides and Pupils' manuals; all of 

these publications are required to follow the sample scheme. 

Patterns demands a considerable degree of preparation of 

materials, and by its very nature includes materials drawn from the 

various branches of science. Apart from apparatus required for class 

practical sessions and demonstration lessons the scheme also uses a 

variety of teaching aids. The Technicians' manuals are designed to 

answer three important questions: 

What equipment is needed for the sample scheme? 

Where is the equipment used in the scheme? 

How is the equipment used? 

The first of these questions is answered in the classified list of 

equipment; the second and third are answered by the preparation 

guide. Both of these parts of the manual are in tabulated form, and 

are supplemented by appendixes which give further information 

about individual investigations and separate items of equipment. 

Each of the manuals is self contained so that all the essential information 

needed by technicians concerning the work in each section 

of the sample scheme will be found in the relevant volume.

Contents 

Preface 

Classified list of equipment 

Introduction 

list of suppliers 

Apparatus 

Biological materials 

Chemicals 

Geological specimens 

Teaching aids 

Books for pupils and teachers 

Preparation guide 

Introduction 

Calendar 

Section 1 

6Section 2 

Section 3 

Section 4 

Section 5 

Section 6 

Section 7 

Section 8 

Section 9 

Section 10 

Section 11 

Section 12 

Section 13 

Appendix 1 

Appendix 2 

Appendix 3 

Appendix 4 

Appendix 5 

Appendix 6 

Recognising change 

Changes in behaviour 

Changes in acidity 

Changes in motion 1 

Changes in the Earth 

Changes in organisms 

Changes in motion 2 

Changes in atoms 

Changes in molecules 

Changes in populations and communities 

Stability 

Changes in the environment 

Changes in society 

Notes on apparatus 

Notes on biological materials 

Chemical preparations 

Hazards and precautions 

Accommodation for Integrated Science 

A guide to the information given in the four 

Technicians=manuals 

vi 

1 

3 

9 

31 

35 

52 

54 

57 

60 

61 

68 

70 

76 

86 

96 

102 

114 

142 

164 

178 

182 

194 

196 

200 

245 

274 

291 

304 

317

Classified list of equipment 

Introduction 

This is a complete list of equipment required for the sample scheme 

in Patterns 4, Interactions and change. 

The list is divided into seven sections. The items which are 

arranged alphabetically within each list are classified as follows: 

No stars Essential items 

One star *Essential for optional/alternative work 

Two stars **Non-essential (or alternative) items 

Quantities in each case are prefixed by the letters P or T. 

P denotes that the quantity specified is for ten pupils; and T 

that the quantity is independent of pupil numbers (i.e. demonstration 

items). 

The aim of the list is to ensure that schools have as little difficulty 

as possible in obtaining items. The suppliers quoted are not exclusive, 

and their occurrence in the lists in no way implies that they are to be 

preferred to other sources. Suppliers are generally coded with obvious 

codes of two or more letters. The addresses of suppliers are to be 

found in the list of suppliers at the beginning of the list of equipment. 

Where no supplier is specified in the appropriate column of the lists, 

the items are generally available from scientific equipment supply 

companies. 

The code LS means local source. This term is used to show that 

items can be obtained in local shops, or from the environment, or are 

usually available within schools. 

Integrated Science does not use a system of item numbers. Where 

appropriate, Nuffield numbers are included to aid identification of 

particular items. 

It is not intended that schools should feel obliged to purchase all 

the items in the lists (not even the 'essential' ones). Most schools 

will already contain apparatus which, if not exactly that specified in 

these lists, will suffice. Several items have been difficult to specify 

exactly, in particular low tension electrical supplies. While it may

2 

be desirable for each working group to have its own supply unit, 

this system may be too expensive to buy or some other system may 

already be in use. Providing the experiments can be accomplished it 

matters not whether the supply is in the form of individual packs, 

accumulators, or even a common Lt. a.c./d.c. system. 

The technician is assumed to have appropriate tools of the trade 

and these are not included in the apparatus list unless they are 

specifically required for a particular piece of work, e.g. a pair of 

pliers for crushing bromine capsules in the bromine diffusion 

experiments.

list of suppliers 

The list is divided into two sections. In the first part are the suppliers 

of apparatus, chemicals, biological and geological materials. In the 

second part are the suppliers of teaching aids and associated materials. 

The suppliers are listed alphabetically, with codes taking precedence 

over names. In general the addresses of publishing houses are not 

included in the list. 

The following codes have been used in the Manual, bu t the 

addresses are not included in the list of suppliers: 

ABB - The Associated Examining Board 

IS - Schools Council Integrated Science, Longman/Penguin 

LPT - Longman Physics Topic, Longman 

LS - Local source 

NAC - Nuffield Advanced Science Chemistry, Penguin Education 

NB - Nuffield a-level Biology, Longman 

NC - Nuffield a-level Chemistry, Longman 

NP - Nuffield a-level Physics, Longman 

NSS - Nuffield Secondary Science, Longman 

SCPT - Schools Council Project Technology, Heinemann 

Part 1 

Code Supplier 

Products supplied 

BDH The British Drug Houses Ltd, Chemicals, first aid 

BDH Laboratory Chemicals Division, chart 

Poole, Dorset 

BF 

BOC 

CEP 

Belgrave (Mercury) Ltd, 

5 Belgrave Gardens, St John's Wood, 

London NW8 

British Steel Federation 

Training Dept, 

Steel House, Tothill Street, 

London SWI 

The British Oxygen Co. Ltd, 

(Head Office), Hammersmith House, 

London W6 

C.E. Payne Ltd, 

6 Ively Road, Clapham, 

London SW4 DHS 

Mercury cleaning, 

mercury supply 

Tillich blocks (wood 

cubes 10 mm X 10 mm 

X 10 mm) 

Gas cylinders and 

booklet 

Disposable Petri dishes 

and other apparatus 

3

4 

Code Supplier Products supplied 

EA E.J. Arnold & Son Ltd, Tillich blocks (wood 

Butterley Street, cubes 10 mm X 10 mm 

Leeds 10 X 10 mm) 

Ealing Scien tific Ltd, Air table, other 

Greycaine Road, apparatus and film 

Watford, WD2 4PW loops 

ED E. Dixon & Sons Ltd, Mouse diet FM 

Agricultural Merchants, Ware, 

Hertf ordshire 

Fisons Scientific Apparatus, Mercury cleaning and 

Bishop Meadow Road, Loughborough, other apparatus 

Leicestershire, LEI 1 ORG 

GG Griffin & George Ltd, General scientific 

Ealing Road, Alperton, Wernbley, equipment, PEEL 

Middlesex models and film strips 

GG Griffin & George Ltd, Biological materials 

(formerly P.K. Dutt & Co. Ltd), 

Lavender Hill, Tonbridge, Kent 

GH Gerrard & Haig Ltd, Biological materials 

Gerrard House, Worthing Road, 

East Preston, Sussex 

HW Hopkin & Williams Ltd, Chemicals 

Freshwater Road, Chadwell Heath, 

Essex, P.O. Box 1, Romford 

Essex RM I 1HA 

JL Jencons Ltd, Glassware and other 

Mark Road, Hemel Hempstead, apparatus, Anchor 

Hertf ordshire 5-in-1 rubber bungs 

Leybold Heraeus Ltd, Fine beam tube and 

Blackwall Lane, stand 

London SEI0 

MB May & Baker Ltd, Chemicals 

Dagenham, Essex RM 10 7XS 

MLI Morris Laboratory Instruments Ltd, Air table and other 

96-98 High Street, Putney, physical science 

London SW15 1RD equipment


Oxoid Ltd, Microbio logical 

Southwark Bridge Road, supplies and Mouse 

London SEI diet 41 B 

Panax Equipment Ltd, Scaler, Wilson cloud 

Nucleonic Instrument Engineers, chamber 

Holmethorpe Industrial Estate, 

Redhill, Surrey 

PH Philip Harris Ltd, General scientific 

Ludgate Hill, Birmingham 3 equipment 

PH Philip Harris Ltd, Biological materials 

Harris Biological Supplies Ltd, 

Weston-Super-Mare, Somerset 

RP R.F.D. Parkinson & Co. Ltd, IS kits of rocks, 

Doulting, Shepton Mallet, geological specimens 

Somerset 

RS R.S. Components Ltd, Electrical components 

(Radiospares) P.O. Box 427, 

13-17 Epworth Street, 

London EC2 

SB S.A. Baldwin Ltd, Fossil casts 

Educational Palaeontological 

Reproductions, 32 Highfield Road, 

Purley, Surrey CR2 2JG 

SC The Ship Carbon Co. of Great Graphite electrodes 

Britain, Chadwell Works, 

Grove Road, 

Chadwell Heath, Essex 

SF Scientific Furnishings, Dry ice attachment 

Poynton, Cheshire 

ST Service Trading Ltd, Xenon flasher 

Department EES7, Bridgman Road, 

London W4 SBB 

Steralin Ltd, Disposable Petri 

12-14 Hill Rise, Richmond, Surrey dishes 

TL Teltron Ltd, Hot filament diode 

32-36 Telford Way, London W3 tube etc 

5

6 


TQ Telequipment Ltd, Oscilloscopes 

313 Chase Road, Southgate, 

London N14 

UL UNILAB, Science Teaching Oscilloscopes, meters, 

Equipment, electrical apparatus 

Clarendon Road, Blackburn BBI 9T A 

Weir The Weir Electrical Instrument Electric meters 

Co. Ltd, Bradford on Avon, 

Wiltshire 

White White Electrical Instrument Co. Ltd, Electric meters 

Spring Lane North, Malvern Link, 

Worcestershire

Part 2 


Banta Banta, Photographic trans- 

58 Hopton Road, parencies 

London S.W.I6 

BBC BBC Publications, Film loops 

35 Marylebone High Street, 

London WIM 4AA 

BFI British Film Institute, Film 

42 Lower Marsh, London SEl 

BMG British Museum Geology, Photographic trans- 

Exhibition Road, South Kensington, parencies of rocks 

London SW7 

BMNH British Museum Natural History, Photograph of 

Cromwell Road, London SW7 Archaeopteryx 

BP British Petroleum Co. Ltd, Film 

BP, Educational Services, 

Britannic House, Moor Lane, 

London EC2 

CC Cambrian Chemicals Ltd, Chart, Drugs of 

Beddington Farm Road, abuse 

Croydon, CRO-4XB 

EB Encyclopaedia Britannica Ltd, Film strip 

Dorland House, Instructional 

Material Division, 

18-20 Regent Street, 

London WI 

Esso Travelling Films Ltd, Films for teachers 

Stewart House, 23 Francis Road, 

Windsor, Berkshire 

Gateway Educational Films Ltd, Film loops 

470-72 Green Lanes, Palmers Green, 

London N13 

HMSO Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Books 

P.O. Box 569, London SEl (Mail 

order) 

7

8 

Code Supplier 

Products supplied 

IFB International Film Bureau, 

Distributed by Boulton/Hawker 

Films Ltd, Hadleigh, 

Ipswich, Suffolk 

Macmillan, 

Brunel Road, Basingstoke, 

Hampshire 

Film 

Film loops 

Mullard Educational Service, Film and film loops 

Torrington Place, London WC1E 7HD 

OECD Organisation for Economic Films 

Cooperation and Development, 

(see HMSO above) 

OS The Ordnance Survey, Maps 

Romsey Road, Maybush, 

Southampton Hampshire S09 4DH 

PFB Petroleum Film Bureau, Films 

4 Brook Street, London WI 

PSSC D.C. Heath & Co, Film 

Raytheon Education Co, Bexington, 

Massachusetts, U.S.A. 

SEA 

Rank Film Library, 

Rank Audio Visual Ltd, 

P.O. Box 70, Great West Road, 

Brentford, Middlesex TW8 9HR 

Scientific Ed ucational Aids, 

lO4 Hercies Road, Hillingdon, 

Uxbridge, Middlesex. 

Shell International Petroleum Co.Ltd, Films 

Shell Centre, London SE 1 

Shelter 

86 Strand, London WC2 OEQ 

UKAEA United Kingdom Atomic Energy 

Authority, 

11 Charles II Street, 

London SWI 

VP 

Visual Publications, 

197 Kensington High Street, 

London W8 

Films 

Film strip and notes, 

PEEL models 

Films and photographs, 

simulation game 

Films 

Film strip

Apparatus 

Item Specification Quantity Notes Source 

Air-gun Mounted on board T 1 For A4.5. See also GG LS 

(NP item 159) Appendix 1 'Speed PH 

of an air gun pellet'. 

Pellets also required 

Alpha analogue P5 ForA8.l1 GG 

model 

Aluminium foil Cooking foil P 1 roll For 11.11 LS 

Ammeter **Pupil meters, P 5 For 3.3, alternative GGPH 

a.c. range 5 A to lamp UL Weir 

White 

Anvil and See Demonstration T 1 LS 

beam following A7.15 

Aquarium Plastic, 300 mm P 1-2 For AlL 10 and 12.1 

X 200 mm X Alternative: glass 

200mm aquaria 

Autoclave Must be able to T 1 For 11.11 and culture 

withstand pressure media. Alternative: 

of lOs N m-2 domestic pressure 

(15 Ib in- 2 ), cooker 

portable 

Awl Small bradawl P5 For preparing LS 

molecular models. 

Alternative: pair of 

compasses or similar 

pointed instrument 

Balance Chemical, e.g. T 1 Alternatives: any 

top pan, 3-4 place balances will suffice 

but more will be 

required if not 

quick weighing 

Domestic or lever T 1 For Discussion 

balance, range following A7.15 

5 kg 

Ball bearing 12.5 mm diameter T 1 For 4.1 GGPH 

*25 mm diameter T 1 ForA7.116b GG 

9


Balloon 'Sausage' type T 2-4 For"'4.7 LS 

Bead E.g. poppet type, For "'6.11 and GHPH 

12 mm diameter "'6.20. Marbles of 

red P 200 two distinct colours 

yellow P 200 but same size could 

also be used 

Beaker Glass, squat Soda glass beakers 

form, 100 cm ' P 15 will suffice but 

250 crrr' P 25 hard glass (e.g. 

400 crn' P5 Pyrex, graduated) 

** 600 cm 3 T 1 gives better service 

1 000 cm 3 T 1 

** 1 000 cm ' P 5-10 

Bernouilli tube *NP item 143 T 1 For l'.A7.6b( vi) GGPH 

Blower *As used with T 1 For l'.A7.6 

linear air track 

Boiling beads Anti-bumping, T 50 g For "'9.3. Alterna- BDHGG 

glass tive: porous pot 

Bosshead P5 For use with retort 

stands and clamps 

Bottle **Orange juice T 10 For Drosophila LS 

(milk) bottles, 

1 1 . t 

3"-'2pm 

culture 

Polythene bottle, T 1 For Discussion 

500 em", with 

wide neck 

following 611.4 

*Polythene, 30 em" T 1 For l'.A8.10 

Bourdon gauge **NP item 67 T 1 For"'7.17b GGPH 

Boyle's Law Fitted with T 1 For"'7.17a GGPH 

apparatus Bourdon gauge, 

e.g. NP item 109 

Bromine NP item 8 T 1 For Discussion GG 

diffusion kit following A 7.15 PH 

and for'" 7.16. 

See Appendix 1 

10


Brush *Soft hair: P2 For 6..6.6.13and 10.3 

diameter of mount 

approxima tely 

3mm 

Bucket Metal,S 000 cm3 Tl For Discussion 

(waste bin) following 6.11.4 

Plastic, 10 000 T 1 For Discussion followem 

3, approximately 

ing ••.. 7 .15 and for .•..7 .16 

Bung Cork, I hole, to P5 For 5.3a,6.b 

fit 16 mm tubes 

Rubber, 1 hole, P5 For ••..9.3 GGGH 

to fit 16 mm tubes JLPH 

**Rubber,1 hole, P2 For ••..9.3a 

to fit 25 mm tubes 

Rubber, 1 hole, P5 For ••..9.3b(i) 

to fit 100 cm 3 

conical flask 

**Rubber, 1 hole, T 1 For ••..7.17b 


round bottomed 

flask 

Rubber, 1 hole, T 1 For "'9.3 b(ii) 


round bottomed 

flask 

**Rubber,2 holes, P2 For "'9.3a(ii) 


Buchner flask 

**Rubber,2 holes, P2 For ••..9.3 a(ii) 


distillation flask 

Bunsen burner Macro P5 

Burette 50 crrr' P5 For "'3.9, "'3.1 a 

and 12.1 

T 1 For ••..3.7 

Buzzer *6-12 V a.c. or T 1 For 2.2 and A2.4. 

d.c. Alternative is taperecorder 

and prerecorded 

tape 

11


Cage **Cambridge style T 6-12 For mice, see 

Appendix 2 'Mice' 

Camera Preferably single T 1 For multiflash LS 

lens reflex camera. photography in 

e.g. Type EXA 1A 4.2,"'4.12,64.13, 

top view, cassette and "'7.14d 

type 

Cardboard *Sides 20 mm, P 120 For"'2.8 LS 

equila teral blue, green, red of each 

triangles and yellow 

Cellulose **E.g. Cellophane P 1 packet For 10.3. LS 

film jam jar covers Visking tubing may 

be used 

Centrifuge * P 1 For.6A 1l.8 

Centrifuge tubes *To fit centrifuge P 1 set For.6A 1l.8 

Circuit board **Worcester type, P 2-5 For'" 8.2 

NP item 52, or 

equivalent 

Circuit breakers ** T2 For"'4.5 - see 

Appendix 1 'Speed 

of an air-gun pellet' 

Circular motion NP item 172 T 1 For"'7.19d(i) GGPH 

kit 

Clamp P5 For use with retort. 

stands and bossheads 

Clip **Bulldog P 8-12 For 10.3 GG LS 

**Screw type, e.g. P 1-2 For .•.9.3 a(ii) 

Hoffman 

Ooth Woollen (flannel) T I For"'8.56d, GGPH 

150 mm X 150 mm 61;.8.7 and 8.9 

approximately 

Cloud cham ber **Continuous (Taylorj P 2-5 For"'8.5a and GGPH 

61;. 8.7 MLI 

Expansion (Wilson) T 1 For"'8.5a and Panax 

61;. 8.7 

12


Coins *E.g. two-pence P 20 For·7.146g LS 

piece or 25 mm 

washers T I For·7.19b LS 

Condenser Liebig, 250 mm T 1-2 For·9.3 

effective length 

Connecting leads Stranded PVC P 15 Made from wire 

insulated copper bought as a reel, 

wire to take 2-5 A, e.g. RS extra 

0.3-0.5 m long flexible wire 

As above but 1 m T 10 

long 

Constructional E.g. balsa wood, P Supply For·l1.3 LS 

materials drinking straws, 

wire etc. 

Cork mats ** Pl-2 For Drosophila 


'Drosophila' 

Cotton wool Absorbent T 1 pack For ~6.l3, .9.2 

and .9.3 

Non-absorbent T 1 pack For 11.11 

Coverglass 16 mm diameter P 1 pack For use with 

( 100) microslides 

Crocodile clip To fit 4 mm plugs P 10 Mainly used with 

and circuit board connecting leads 

terminals 

Crystallising *70 mm diameter P 10 For 2.1 

dish X 50 mm depth 

Curtain wire 'Expanding'type PI m For.9.7. See LS 

taut, plastic Appendix 1 

coated or bare 'Molecular' models 

Deflection T 1 For.8.3b(i): stand TL 

tube also required. 

Alternative is fine 

beam tube 

Delivery tube Bent at 90° to P5 Home made from 

form length 5-6 mm soda glass 

175 mmX 50mm tubing 

13


Delivery tube Bent at 90° to P2 

(continued) form length 

75 mm X 50 mm 

**Straight 100mm T I For.6.7.17b 

long 

Diode EA 50 and holder P 2-5 For.6.S.2 GG 

(or BR 92) 

Dowel 1 mX 6-S mm T 1 For.6.S.11 LS 

Drawing board P5 For 6.&.7.9and GG LS 

.6.11.2a,b 

Dropper bottle Glass, 100-250 P 50 For dispensing 

crrr' fitted with reagents, indicators, 

dropper pipettes etc 

Dropper (teat) Glass with rubber P 10 Can be home made 

pipette or plastic teat from S mm overall 

diameter soda glass 

tubing 

Dry cell **1.5 V (U2 type) P 10-30 For .6.S.2 

Dry ice **To fit siphon type T 1 For use with two PH SF 

attachment of carbon dioxide dimensional motion 

cylinder apparatus and Taylor 

cloud chambers. See 

Appendix 4 'Gas 

cylinders' 

Dynamics trolley NP item 106/1 P 5-20 See Appendix 1 

E.h.t. supply To give variable T I +** 1 For.6.S.3,.6.S.5, GGPH 

d.c. supply up to 

5 kV. NP item 14 

!::A.S.7and S.9 

Electrode Graphite, 200 mm T I pack For 3.3, 43.7 and GG SC 

X 5 mm of 50 63.12 

Electrophorus *150 mm diameter T2 For.6.S.56d and GGPH 

disc metal disc on bAS.7 

insulating handle 

NP item 65 

Electroscope *Gold leaf T 2-4 For4S.56d and GGPH 

electroscope 

bA8.7 

14


Etheriser **With side arm PI-2 For Drosophila GHPH 

work in 6 ••.6.13. 

Alternative: made 

with specimen tube 

and filter funnel. 


'Drosophila' 

Fine beam tube ** TI For.& 8.3 b(ii). Stand Leybold 

also required. 

Alternative to 

deflection tube 

Flask **Buchner, 500 cm' PI-2 For .&9.3a(ii) 

Conical, 100 em 3 P5 For .&3.10, .&9.3 

and 12.1 

Conical, 250 em 3 P5 For.&3.9 and 5.3 

Conical, 500 cm' P2 For 11.11 

wide necked 

(Erlenmeyer) 

**Distillation, Pl-2 For .&9.3a(ii) 

500 cm 3 

Round bottom, T 1 For.&7.17b and 

250 cm 3 .&9.3b(ii) 

**Volumetric, P5 For titrations in 

100 cm 3 .&3.9and .&3.10 

Flat truck O-gauge T 1 For use with air-gun 

in .&4.5. See also 

Appendix 1 'Speed 

of an air-gun pellet' 

Flow gradient *NP item 143 T 1 For6A7.6b(v) GGPH 

tube 

Forcerneter 0-10 N P 15 For6A7.9, GG 

.&7. 19d(ii) and 

Al1.2b. Also 

called dynamometer 

or spring balance 

Forceps Fine points, P5 For 6.14 

straight 

Fractional NP item 150 T 1 For.& 7.19d(ii). GGPH 

horsepower Gear box also 

motor required 

15


Fractionating T I For .9.3 b(ii) 

column 

Fume cupboard T 1 For Discussion following.7.15 

and for 

·7.16 

Funnel **Glass, dropping T 3-4 For 6A8.10 

50-100 crrr' 

Glass, filter, P 5 

75 mm diameter 

Glass, filter, P 5 For. 11.10. Buy 

I 00 mm diameter long stem funnel 

with short stem and cut to size 

if necessary 

**Plastic, filter, P 10 For. 10.6 


**Polypropylene, P 1-2 For etheriser 

filter, 75 mm construction. See 

diameter Appendix 2 

'Drosophila' 

Galvanometer 3.5-0-3.5 

IOn 

mA, P 5 For·8.2b(i) 

2.5-0-2.5 rnA, T I For.8.2b(ii), 

demonstration 

model 

6.bfiii) 

Gas jar 250 mm tall, P 5 For·9.3a(iii) 

with cover 

Gauze Iron, with P 5 Used with tripods 

asbestos centre, 

100-150 mm 

square 

G-c1amp P 5 + *5 

Glass tube **Thick walled P 5 For·7.17c. 

capillary, 180 mm Requires mercury 

long X 1 mm bore index 

GM tube *Thin window) T 1 For 6A8.6, ~ 8.7 GG 

MX 168/01 

and 6A 8.10. Holder 

also required 

16


Gramophone T 1 Suggested for LS 

turntable 

·7.19b 

Guinea and NP item 110 T 1 For 7.7b. Used GG PH 

feather tube with vacuum 

pump 

Hammer * T 1 For opening LS 

carbon dioxide 

capsules in .It.4.7 

Hand lens X 8 or x: 0, P 5 For.lt. 5.1 

folding 

Hardboard disc 0.5 m diameter P 5 For. lI.2c. Wire LS 

clips also required 

Hot filament T 1 For • 8.2a(ii),b(ii). TL 

diode tube Stand also required 

Hot filament * T 1 For. 8.26 b(iii). TL 

triode tube Stand also required 

Housebrick *! - brick P 2-5 For 6.lt.4.4 LS 

2 

H.L supply Variable d.c. T 1 For A 8.2 and GG PH 

supply to give A8.3 

at least 300 V 

at 60 rnA, e.g. 

NP item 15 

Hypodermic **Glass or plastic, P 5 Alternative to 

syringe 1 em", with fine 1 crrr' pipette for 

needle 

A3.8 

Incubator *Oven type with T 1 For 6.lt.6.13 

fine thermostatic 

control 

Inertia *NP item 146 P 5 For 6 Discussion LS 

balance kit following 6.lt.4.4 

See Appendix 1 for 

construction details 

Ink T 1 For·7.19 LS 

bottle 

Inoculating *N ichrome wire, P 10 For 66.19. See GG 

loop 24 s.W.g. in holder Appendix 1 

17


Jar *Kilner type, T 10-20 For use as killing 

500 g capacity jars and for culture 

of Tribolium. See 

Appendix 2 

Jet Glass fine P5 For"'9.3 GGPH 

*Glass straight T 1 For 6A7.6b(iv). 

These jets may be 

made from glass 

tubing 

f-tube Capillary U-tube P 10 For "'11.10. See 

with unequal limbs, Appendix 1 

fitted with metal 'Composition of 

collar and screw air apparatus' 

Lamp MES bulb and T2 For'" 7.2 and LS 

holder, 2.5 V, "'7. 14b,c. Used 

prefocussed with photocells 

and scaler 

MES bulb and P5 For 3.3 and A3.7 LS 

holder, 12 V 

Lamp with holder T I LS 

and shade, 240 V, 

60W 

Lath *Wooden, 0.5 m long P 5 ForA7.146g LS 

with hole at one 

end for pivot 

Lead block E.g. from NP item 1 T 2-4 For 6A8.6 and GG LS 

Materials kit M8.7 PH 

Linear air **Gliders and blower T 1 For 4.2,64.13 and GGMLI 

track also required "'7.14d. The blower 

is also required for 

!:i.. 7.6 

Load 1 kg masses for P 2-3 of For"'4.3 

dynamics trolleys each 

e.g. aluminium, 

iron, sand and 

water 

18


L.t. supply Variable supply, P5 NP item 59 is 

0-12 Va.c./d.c. recommended but 

a built in Lt. supply 

or tapped accumulators 

may be used 

Lubricant Silicone grease T 1 tube For lubricating the GGPH 

screw on f-tubes 

Macro-Millikan NP item 142 T 1 For 8.9. See GGPH 

apparatus Appendix 1 

Magnet Bar, ticona1, T3 For "8.11 - e.g. GGPH 

NP item 92A from electrostatics 

kit 

Cylindrical, P 4-10 For"7.15 and"8.1lGGPH 

alnico, NP item 

50/1 

Demonstration, Tl For 4.1, 6A8.6 and 

e.g, Eclipse 6A8.7 

major 

**Magnadur, NP item T2 For" 8.3 b(fi) GGPH 

92B 

Maltese Cross T1 For" 8.3a. Stand TL 

tube also required 

Manometer **Mercury, 150 mm Pl-2 For "9.3a(ii), made LS 

from 'standard' 

glass tubing 

Marbles Approximately T 200+ For Discussion 

16 mm diameter following" 7.1 5 and 

for "8.11 

*Approximately T 1 For"7.116b 


Mass Slotted masses on P 15 sets For"7.7 and 

hangers, 100 g X "11.2a 

10 g 

0.5 kg, e.g. P 2-5 For 7.7a,b 

wooden block 

1 kg, metal block T 1 For opening carbon 

dioxide capsule in 

"4.7 

19


Mat A pproxima tely P 5 Used as bench LS 

0.3-0.5 m X protector 

0.3-0.5 m, 

hardboard 

E.g. doormat P 2-5 For 7.7a,b LS 

Materials Approximately P Selection For"'8.5c and 

150 mm square, 

lV!.. 8.7 

aluminium and 

other metal foils, 

glass, plastic, tinned 

plate, wood, etc 

McCartney *75mmX25mm P 10 For l':A6.9 CEPGG 

bottle GHPH 

Measuring Glass, 25 crrr' T I For"'3.7 

cylinder Glass, 100 cm " P 10 For"'3.5,"'3.6, 

"'3.7, "'3.8 and 

"'3.9 

Mechanics frame Frame made from P5 For"'11.2b, home LS 

25 mm square made 

batten with holes 

to take 6 mm 

dowel pegs at 

frequent intervals. 

Approximately 

0.5 m X 0.75 m 

Metal ring Eig. curtain or P 5 For6A.7.9 and LS 

key ring, 25 mm "'11.2c 

diameter 

Metre rule P 5 

Microscope * *Binocular (stereo) P 2-3 For sexing 

to magnify to X40 Tribolium or 

Drosophila 

Monocular, with P 5 For6.14,10.3 

low and high and 12.1 

power objectives 

Microscope lamp P5 For2.1,6.14, 

10.3 and 12.1 

20


Microslide P 30+ Minimum number 

given, buy by the! 

gross pack 

Mortar and *100 mm external P5 For .6&6.9 

pestle diameter 

Moun ted needle P5 For 6.14 

Muslin *Butter muslin or TIm For making plugs LS 

stockinette etc. for Drosophila 

culture bottles, 

and covers for 

Tribo lium culture 

bottles 

Nail Steel, 50 mm long T I For opening carbon LS 

dioxide capsules in 

A4.7 

Nuts on string T I set ForA7.11a LS 

Optics pin P 20+ For use mainly GGPH 

with dynamics 

trolleys 

Oscilloscope Demonstration, T 1 For A8.2a(ii) GGPH 

e.g. Telequipment TQ 

S 51 E 

Pupil model, P 2-5 ForA8.2a(i) GGPH 

e.g. Telequipment TQ 

Serviscope Minor 

Oven Thermosta tic ally T 1 For A9.3 atiii), 

controlled, incubator type 

range 0-360°C + 

Paper *B1ack, 100 mm P 5 sheets For 2.1 LS 

X 100 mm 

*Co1oured, 10 mm P 15 of For .6&3.13 LS 

diameter discs of each 

three different 

colours 

Filter, grade 1 P 2 packs For 2.1, A9.3b(ii) 

disc, 110 mm andA9.7 

Filter, grade 1 P 10 For A9.3a(iii) 

250 mm square 

21


Paper **Filter, grade 3 T 1 pack See Appendix 2 

(continued) disc, 125 mm 'Drosoph ila' 

Graph T 1 ream LS 

Towel or tissues T 1 roll For 6.14 LS 

*"White, 100 mm P 5 Alternative to LS 

square white tile for A3.9 

*White, 300 mm P 20+ For6.A7.6b(ii) and LS 

X 200 mm sheets !:-A 7.9 

White, 400 mm P 30+ For AIL 2a,b,c LS 

X 200 mm sheets 

Paper clip P 1 box For A9.3 a(iii) LS 

PEEL model kit GG No. S33- TI-2 For Section 9 GGSEA 

450/015 

Pendulum bob 12.5 mm, NP item T 1 ForA4.11 GGPH 

131D 

25mm P 2-5 ForA7.14b,c GGPH 

50 mm, NP item T 1 ForA4.11 GGPH 

131B 

*Bobs of different P 10-15 For 7.76d GGPH 

masses 

Petri dish Plastic disposable P 20+ For6.A3.13, CEPGG 

90 mm diameter 66.19,11.6 and PH 

12.1. 

Steralin require a Steralin 

minimum order 

of 500 

Photocell Photodiode or T2 For A7.14b,c GGPH 

phototransistor 

(OCP 71) 

Photographic Tri-X or Plus-X T 2+ For multiflash LS 

film 20 exposure photography 

cassette, Kodak 

Photographic E.g., Mono bath, T 150 crrr' See Appendix 1 LS 

processing Kodak 'Multiflash' 

equipment photography 

Pipe cleaner ** P 1 roll Alternative to GGLS 

toothpicks for 

model making. 

Packets may be 

purchased locally 

22


Pipette Glass, 1 cm' P5 For.&.3.8 

Glass, 25 ern" P 5 For.&.3.9 and&3.10 

Pipette filler P 5 For use with GG 

pipettes at all 

times 

Plant pot *100 mm diameter, P 20-30 For.&.6.76c LS 

clay 

**180 mm diameter, P 10-30 For 6.6.6.9 and LS 

clay 10.3 

Plastic bag *Polythene, to P 30-60 For 6.6.6.9 and LS 

contain plants in 10.3 

pots 

Plastic foam ** Supply See Appendix 2 

stoppers 'Drosophila' 

Plasticine P 1 kg 

Pliers T I pair For crushing bromine 

capsules in Discussion 

following eLl S and 

for.&.7.l6 LS 

Polystyrene **Approximately P5 For.&.3.5 and LS 

beaker or cup 250 cm 3 .&.3.6.From local 

wholesaler and 

other shops 

Polystyrene 12.5 mm, made up T8 For models used in GGPH 

sphere **12.5 mm, made up T 100 Section 9 GGPH 

**38 mm, loose P 5 Alternative to table GGPH 

tennis ball 

38 mm, made up T8 For models used in GGPH 

**38 mm, made up T 24 Section 9 GGPH 

45 mm, made up T8 25 mm spheres are GGPH 

alternative to 

**45 mm, made up T 44 45 mm spheres GGPH 

Polythene strip * T I For electrostatics GGPH 

in .&.8.56d and 

~8.7 

Polythene tile Approxima tely T 1 For 8.9. Alternative LS 

0.5 m square is polystyrene ceiling 

tile 

23


Pooter * P5 See Appendix 2 

'Tribolium' 

Proof plane T 1 For 8.9 GGPH 

Protractor P 5-10 

Pulley Single sheave, P 10 ForAI1.2a GGPH 

mounted on clamp 

NP item 40 

Pump **Filter type, water PI-2 ForA9.3a(ii) 

operated 

Foot pump and T I ForA4.7 and 

adaptor A7.17a 

Vacuum/ T I For 7.7b and 

compression A7.16 

Puzzle *Metallink type P5 For 2.5. Almost LS 

any simple puzzle 

will suffice 

Railway track O-gauge T5 ForA4.5. Used LS 

lengths with flat truck in 

speed of air-gun 

pellet experiment 

Resistor 1.5 kn, 0.5 W P 2-5 ForA8.2a RS 

Retort stand P5 

Rheostat 10-15 n P 5 For A8.2b(i) and 

A8.3b(ii) 

Rose **Water sprinkler P 10 ForA10.6 LS 

Rubber ball E.g. tennis ball P5 ForA7.19a LS 

Rubber band 6-12 mm wide and Supply For~7.9, A7.17c, LS 

assorted sizes 10.3, AI1.2c and 

11.11 

Rubber foam Foam blocks Supply For A7.15, used LS 

with dynamics 

trolleys 

Rubber glove Household or T 1-2 For Discussion GG LS 

surgical pairs afterA7.15 and 

forA7.16 

24


Rubber tubing 'Standard' 6 mm T 15-20 m 

internal diameter 

Thick walled T 0.5 m ForA7.16 and 

pressure tubing A7.17b 

Rule **300 mm (1 ft) P5 ForA7.17c LS 

Runway *2.5 m long, T 1 ForA7.116b LS 

grooved along one 

edge, fitted with 

clips and gates 

for 25 mm sphere 

Safety goggles T 1 pair ForA4.7 GGPH 

Safety screen Perspex or safety T 1-2 For Discussion after GG PH 

glass, 750 mm X A7. 15, and A7. 16 

600 mm, 

approxima te1y 

Scaler Should include two T 1 GGPH 

Dekatron tubes and Panax 

mechanical register, 

with built in 1 000 Hz 

oscillator, and 

voltage supply for 

GM tube. NP item 

130/1 

Scalpel * P5 For 6.A6.9 

Scissors Dissection, fine, P 5 pairs For 6.14 

straight 

*Laboratory P 5 pairs For 2.1 GGPH 

sissors, 180 mm 

Section lifter * P5 For 6.A6.13. GGGH 

Alternative, PH 

spatula 

Seed label * P 30+ For A6. 7~c and LS 

~6.9 

Seed tray Plastic or wood, P 2-5 For 6.10 and 

360 mm X 220 mm AI0.6 

X 50 mm, 

approximately 

25


Self-adhesive Transparent, P 2 rolls LS 

tape plastic, e.g. 

Sellotape 

Sieve *I mm aperture P 2-3 For sieving LS 

(mesh, BS 16) Tribolium cultures 

e.g. wire mesh in646.13 

tea strainers 

Slotted base NP item 30 P 10 ForA 11.2a GGPH 

Solid state **NP item 130/4 T 1 For 648.6 and GGPH 

detector and b.lt..8.7 

preamplifier 

Spark counter T 1 ForA8.5c and GGPH 

b.lt..8.7 

Spatula Nickel or P5 

stainless steel 

Specimen tube *75 mm X 25 mm P 60 For 646.9 and 

646.13 

* 150 mm X 25 mm P 60 For 646.13 and for 

etheriser construction 

Specimen tube *E.g. test tube P5 For6A6.13 

rack rack 

Sphere Table tennis ball T 1 For 8.11. 

with conducting Alternative 

surface on nylon metallised 

suspension polystyrene sphere. 

Use Aquadag not 

aluminium paint, 

if home made 

*Table tennis ball P5 For 647.6 

or polystyrene 

sphere 

*Wooden sphere, PlO For6A7.6b(i) GG 


Spring Compression, P 1 For use with GGPH 

e.g. NP item 88 dynamics trolleys 

cut to 25 mm 

lengths 

26


Stirring rod Glass P5 Home made from 

glass rod 

Stopclock Mechanical timer P5 Alternatives: stop 

watches, wrist watches 

with large seconds 

hand, or 1 large 

timer (e.g. sports 

training clock) 

String Fine (not P 1 ball For A7.19a and LS 

mechanics cord) A11.2a,b 

Stroboscope Motorised disc T 1 Used in multiflash GGPH 

or xenon flasher photography for ST 

4.2,A4.12, ,0.4.13, 

andA7.14d 

Test tube 100 mm X 16 mm P 30 It is suggested that 

all tubes should be 

hard glass (e.g. 

Pyrex) as they give 

better service than 

soda glass 

125 mm X 16 mm P 40 

125 mm X 16 mm P5 For A9.3 

with side arm 

150mmX16mm P 10 ForA9.7 GG 

graduated, 20 cm' 

X 0.1 crrr' 

150 mm X 25 mm P 20 For A9.3 a(i) and 

A11.7 

**150 mm X 25 mm P2 For A9.3a(ii) 

with side arm 

Test tube P5 For A3.2, 3.4 

holder and A9.2 

Test tube P5 

rack 

Thermometer 0-50°C P5 For A3.5 and A3.6 

-10to+110oC P5 

300 mm long 

27


Thread Cotton P 1-2 LS 

reels 

Three dimensional NP item 11 T 1 For Discussion 

kinetic model kit following A7.15. A 

motor and cam are 

required if the model 

has not one built in 

Ticker tape Gummed Pl-2 For use in Sections 

reels 4 and 7. Buy the 

tape from the same 

supplier as the 

ticker timers 

Ticker timer 12 V, a.c. or d.c. P 2-5 For Sections 4 GGPH 

and 7. Low tension 

supply also required 

Tile Plain white P5 ForA3.9, A3.1 0 

and 11.6 

*White spotting P5 For 6.A11.8 

plastic or ceramic 

Tongs Crucible, T I pair For Discussion 

200 mm long part b following 

~11.4 

Toothpicks Wooden (cocktail T 1-2 For model making LS 

sticks) packs 

Translucent 1 m X 0.7 m T 1 For Discussion after 

screen approximately. A7.15, forA7.16, 

NP item 46/1 

A8.S~d and 6A.8.7 

Tray Approximately T I For second 

0.5 m square Discussion following 

with 50 mm deep A7.15. Make from 

sides wood battens with 

hardboard or plywood 

base 

Tripod P5 

Trolley For carbon T 1 ForA4.7 GGPH 

dioxide capsules 

28


Trolley cord Used with dynamics P 30+ PH 

trolleys 

Trolley runway NP item 107 P 2-5 

Trough Plastic (lunch P 2-3 ForA4.3 LS 

box) 200 mm X 

100 mm X 75 mm 


Truck attachment NP item 154/2 Tl For use with turn- GGPH 

table in A7.19d(ii) 

Turntable NP item 154/1 T 1 For A7.l9d(ii) GGPH 

Two dimensional Air table, blower T 1 For A4.12 and Ealing 

motion apparatus and pucks AS.11. Some form MLI 

of this eq uipment 

is required. 

Air pucks and T 1 set See Appendix 1 MLI 

glass plate 'Two dimensional 

motion apparatus' 

Self propelling T 1 set GG 

pucks and glass 

plate 

Solid C02 pucks T 1 set GGPH 

and glass plate 

U-tube *Approximately P 10 For 63.12 

10 crrr' 

Van de Graff NP item 60/1 T 1 ForA8.11 

generator 

Voltameter Gas voltameter T 1 For Discussion GGPH 

(Hoffmann) part c after 611.4 

Wash bottle Soft plastic P5 For 2.3, A2.4, A3.9, 

with plastic A3.10 and 10.3 

nozzle 

Watch glass 50 mm diameter P5 ForA9.2 and A9.7 

Water bath **1 000 crrr' Pl-2 For A9.3a(ii) 


Water rocket Toy rocket or T 1 ForA4.7 LS 

plastic bottle 

fitted with 

bicycle inner 

tube valve 

29


Wax pencil "'e.g. Chinagraph P5 For66.19 

Wedge Wooden P 4-10 Used with trolley LS 

runways 

Weighing bottle ** E.g. 40 mm X P5 For titrations and 

20 mm diameter preparing standard 

solutions 

Winchester 2500 crrr' P 1 For A9.2 GGPH 

bottle **2 500 crrr' P 10 ForA 10.6 GGPH 

Wire Bare copper, TI-2 For 6Discussion 

24-26 s.W.g. reels after 6A4.4 and 

forAS.II 

Wooden block P Supply Used with trolley LS 

boards as trolley 

stops 

Wooden cube 10 mm X 10 mm P 200- For6AS.1O BF EA 

X 10 mm e.g. 1 000 

Tillich blocks 

30

Biological materials 

This list contains the biological materials which are suggested in 

the sample scheme. They are by no means exclusive and many 

alternatives exist which would be equally suitable for the work 

suggested. To this extent, then, all the materials in the list could 

be regarded as optional. 

Specimens are classified according to common names, but 

latinised names are also given. Where no common name exists only 

the latinised version is used. 

Item Quantity Notes Source 

Agar T 100-200 g *Powder for making culture media. 

Milk agar for 6A3.l3, Minimal 

medium for 66.19 and for 

Drosophila culture medium for 

6A6.13. Buy ready made tablets 

or powder for McConkey agar 

for 12.1. See Appendix 2 'Agar' 

Animals and plants Selection Living or preserved specimens 

or pictures of animals and 

plants for 6.6a, e.g, bird, 

preferably alive, such as a 

budgerigar or zebra finch; 

caterpillars, alive or colour 

photographs; fishes, alive, 

such as angel fishes, guppies, 

zebra fishes; frog or toad; 

Lithops, stone cactus, alive; 

mole, preserved or photograph; 

Sedum acre, wall 

pepper, preferably alive; 

stick insects, alive 

Blow-fly maggots P60 *For 2.1. Can be obtained GGGH 

(Calliphora sp.) from environment. See LS 

Appendix 2 'Calliphora' 

Bluebell bulb P Several **For 6.14, alternative to LS 

Locust for meiosis. Wild 

bluebells must be collected 

in February or March 

Bottle garden P Supply *Materials for making a bottle 

garden in 6A..II.12. For example, 

31


Bottle garden large sweet jar; unsterilised 

(continued) compost and soil; various plants; 

and animals such as, snails, 

earthworms, beetles, woodlice 

Canadian pond weed 

(Elodea canadiensis) 

Supply For A 11.10. The gas produced 

by the plant is collected and 

analysed 

GH LS 

Gover, acyanogenic and P 5 of each *For .6&6.9, see Appendix 2 GG LS 

cyanogenic plants 'Clover' 

Compost, potting T 25 kg *For .6&6.9, e.g. John Innes no. 1 LS 

Compost, seed T 25 kg For 6.10, e.g. John Innes LS 

no 2. Also alternative to 

soil in A.6.7D.c 

Flour beetle, wild type T 1 culture *For .6&6.13. Alternatives are GGGH 

ebony variety (Tribolium of each Drosophila and mice. See PH 

castaneum) and red/brown variety Appendix 2 for culture details 

variety (T. castaneum) 

Fruit fly, long winged T 1 culture **For .6&6.13. Alternative to GGGH 

(++) and vestigial of each Tribolium. See Appendix 2 PH 

winged (vg vg) varieties variety for culture details 

(Drosophila melanogaster) 

Grass seed T 500 g **Used to grow patches of turf LS 

in seed boxes for 10.6 

Goundsel, rayed 1-2 *ForA6.7D.c PH 

(cultivated) and unrayed packets 

(wild) varieties of each 

(Senecio vulgaris) variety 

Hay Supply **For mouse culture in .6&6. 13 LS 

Herring roe, hard P 1-2 ForA6.4 LS 

Horse dung P 50g For 11.1 1 LS 

Locust,X instar, P5 For 6.14 GGGH 

male 

PH 

Milk powder, non fat T 1 tin *For .6&3.13. e.g. Cadbury's LS 

Marvel for making milk agar 

Mini-pond communities From Patterns 1, 3.4. For 12.1 

32


Mouse T 2 pairs **For ~6.13. Breeding pairs GGGH 

with pure bred distinctive PH 

coat colours are required 

Mouse food Supply **Rat cake pellets from pet EDGG 

shops, or mouse diet FM GH LS 

from E. Dixon, or Oxoid 

41 B diet. Buy in bulk. E. 

Dixon supplies in 25 kg (~ cwt) 

sacks. 

Mud Supply **Mud or leaf mould from a LS 

stagnant pond for 12.1 

Oatmeal (breakfast oats) T 1 packet **For Drosophila culture medium LS 

Peat Supply **For mouse culture, buy in LS 

bulk 

Sawdust Supply *For 2.1 and alternative to LS 

peat for mouse culture 

Snail, common garden P 30 For~6.9 LS 

(Helix sp.) 

Snail shells P Supply For 6.6b. Colour photographs of LS 

(Cepea sp.) habitats in which individual shells 

were found are optional 

requirements. These photographs 

should be carefully matched 

with the appropriate shells. 

Snapdragon seeds P 5 fruits For &6.4 LS 

(Antirrhinum sp.) 

Soil Supply For&6.7.6.c and for'" 10.6 LS 

Sugar, soft brown T 50-100 g **For Drosophila culture medium LS 

Tomato seeds T 1 set For 6.10. This is PGL 2 GH 

stem colour 

Tradescantia sp. P 1-2 **For 6.14. Alternative to PH 

plants locust. T. paludosa is best 

Turf P Supply **ForAIO.6. Best to grow seed LS 

in trays 

Water louse tAseilus sp.} P Supply For 12.1 LS 

33


Wholemeal flour T 500 g *For Tribolium culture medium LS 

Wood shavings Supply **Alternative to hay for mouse LS 

culture. Must not have been 

contaminated by wild mice. 

Yeast, dried TIX125g For "'9.3 b(i) and culture LS 

(4 oz) tin requirem ents 

Yeast, haploid (ad) strain T 1-2 *For 66.19 PH 

(Saccharomyces cultures 

cerevisiae) 

34

Chemicals 

The chemicals are listed according to their systematic names. 

However, since systematic nomenclature is not yet fully used, some 

items have been categorised according to semi-systematic or even 

common names. In all cases where other commonly used names 

exist, these are included in the 'other names' column of the table. 

Where italics occur in this column, they are systematic names. 

To help in ordering chemicals, the source refers to the minimum 

quantities supplied. Most chemicals are available from all suppliers. 

When chemicals are generally supplied in the minimum quantity stated, 

no supplier codes are included in the 'source' column. Should only a 

small quantity of a particular substance be required it may prove 

cheaper and more convenient to purchase analytical quality rather 

than general purpose reagents. 

Hazards are coded in the 'hazard' column. Where the code letter 

is in upper case (capital), a reference will be found in Appendix 4. 

The codes used are: 

aor A 

c orC 

for F 

gorG 

oorO 

p orP 

rorR 

allergy hazard/ carcin ogenic 

corrosive 

fire risk 

gas cylinder 

oxidising/reducing agent 

poison 

radioactive 

The absence of a code for any particular substance does not imply 

that there is no hazard associated with it, but that if handled properly 

any hazard is minimal. 

35

36 

Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity 

required 

Acetic acid CH3COOH Ethanoic acid C P 150 cm' 

Aceto-carmine P 50 cm' 

Aceto-orcein P 50 crrr' 

Americium 241Am R T I 

Ammonium NH40H Ammonia 0.880 CP T 700 crrr' 

hydroxide s.g. 

Ammonium iron (NH4hS04' Iron alum, P40g 

(III) sulphate Fe2(S04 h. ferric alum 

(VI) 24H2O 

Amyl acetate CH 3 COO. Pentyi ethanoate T 20 cm' 

CSHll 

Aniline C6HSNH2 Phenylamine P T I crrr' 

Azolitmin TIg 

Barium Ba(OHh·8H2O P T 3S g 

hydroxide 

Benedict's solution P 500 cm' 

Benzoic acid C6HS COOH P 50 g 

Bismuth (III) BiCI3 Bismuth c P5g 

chloride trichloride 

Bromine Br CF T 2 capsules 

P 1-2 

capsules 

4-Bromophenol Br.C6H4.OH P 50 g

Notes Minimum Source 

quantity 

supplied 

Used as 1 M solution in &3.6 and 500 cm 3 MB 

for making acetic alcohol and 

aceto-carmine stain 

Stain in small dropper bottle for 25 ern" GH 

6.14. Buy ready made or make from 

ingredients. See Appendix 3 

**Alternative to aceto-carmine for 25 cm' GH 

6.14 - buy ready made or make from 

ingredients - see Appendix 3 

**Sealed a source forA8.5, 6A8.6 and GGPH 

6A8.7. Alternative to 239pU 

Used as {-- strength and 2 M 2250 cm' MB 

solution in Discussion after A7.15 

and in A7.16 

In small dropper bottle for 6.14 250 g. GHHW 

0.8 M. See Appendix 3 

**For 6A8.1 0 and for sticking 500 cm 3 

polystyrene spheres 

Used in locating agent for A9.3a(iii) 250 cm 3 

For making litmus indicator. See 1 g 

Appendix 3 

ForA3.7 100 g GH 

In dropper bottle for A9.3 a. Buy ready 500 ern" 

made or make from ingredients. 


For 3.4 250 g BDH GG HW 

ForA 11.7 25 g HW 

For bromine diffusion experiments 12 X 1 ern" HW PH 

For making bromine water 

*For 5.36.b 25 g 

PH 

37

38 

Name Formulae Other names Hazard Quantity 

required 

Bromothymol T 250 mg 

blue 

Butan-l-ol CH3(CH2h. n-butyl alcohol f PlOD cm' 

OH 

Butoxybutane [CH3(CH2hh. Di-n-butyl ether f P 50 crrr' 

0 

Calcium CaC03 PIOg 

carbonate 

Calcium eaCh .6H2O Tig 

chloride 

Calcium Ca(OHh Slaked lime T 100 g 

hydroxide 

Carbon CO2 G T 1-4 

dioxide 

T I cylinder 

Carmine Tlg 

Charcoal C Carbon T2g 

Cobalt 6OCo R T 1 

Congo red 

T 0.1 g 

Copper (II) CuC03 Cupric carbonate PIOg 

carbonate 

Copper (II) 

oxide CuO Cupric oxide; black PIOg 

copper oxide 

Copper (II) CUS04. Cupric sulphate T40g 

sulphate (VI) 5HzO 

Diethyl ether (CH3CH2)20 Ethoxyethane; ether F P 175 cm' 

T 100 cm 3 

Di-iso-propyl [(CH 3 )2 CH] 2 .1-methylethoxy-1- f P 50 crrr' 

ether 0 methylethane 

1, 3- C6H4· m-dinitro benzene P 25-50 g 

Dinitrophenol (N02 )2


quantity 

supplied 

**For making Yamada's indicator 1 g GHHW 

For 5.3 and for locating agent in 500 cm 3 

••..9.3 

For ••..9.2 500 cm' BDHHW 

For "'3.2 500 g GH 

**For producing Ringer's solution. 500 g BDHGG 

See Appendix 3 HW 

For lime water production 500 g GH 

Capsules for "'4.7 LS 

**Siphon cylinder to produce dry ice 1 cylinder BDH BOC 

**For preparing aceto-carmine stain. 5g BDHGG 

See Appendix 3 HW 

**Decolourising charcoal for 500 g 

preparation of Feulgen's stain 

*Sealed'Y source for 6A.8.6 and 6A.8.7 GGPH 

*For"'2.7 5g MBPH 

For"'3.2 

100 g 

For"'3.2 25 g BDH 

**For making Benedict's solution 250 g 

For 3.4 and "'9.2 500 cm' HW 

For locating agent and etherisers 

For "'9.2 1 000 crrr' BDHHW 

*For 5.36.b 50 g PH 

39

40 


required 

Eluent P 25-50 cm 3 

Ethanol CH3CH2OH Ethyl alcohol; f P 175 cm 3 

meths; methylated T 150 crn ' 

spirit, IMS 

T 10 cm 3 

Ethyl CH 3 COO. Ethyl ethanoate T 80 crrr' 

acetate C2 HS T 10 cm 3 

Fehling B P 50 cm 3 

solution 

Feulgen's stain Schiff's reagent T 100 crn ' 

Fly spray p T 1 spray 

Fuchsin Fuchsine T 0.5 g 

Gelatine P40g 

Glucose C6H1206 Dextrose; P 50 g 

p-glucose 

Hydrochloric HCI Spirits of salts C P 400 cm ' 

acid T 50 cm ' 

Iodine CP P5g 

Iron Fe PI0g 

Iron (II) FeS04. Ferrous sulphate P2g 

sulphate (VI) 7H2O Pig 

Iron (III) Fe2(S04 h Ferric sulphate P2g 

SUlphate (VI) 

Lead Pb T 1 kg 

Litmus P 1 bottle 

indicator 

Litmus P 1 book 

indicator paper of each 

type


quantity 

supplied 

For 69.3 at iii). See Appendix 3 

For 3.4 and 69.2 

For 70% alcohol and acetic alcohol. 


**For68.5 

For eluent in 69.3a(iii). See Appendix 3 

**For 668.10, alternative to amyl acetate 

For 12.1. See Appendix 3 

For 6.14, alternative to acetocarmine. 


**Used for dealing with escaped Drosophila 

**Basic fuchsin stain for making Feulgen's 

stain. See Appendix 3 

*For 63.12 

For69.3 

Various uses 

**For 668.10 and for Feulgeri's stain 

For 11.5 

Fine powder for 63.2 

0.0089 M solution for 12.1 

*Used as 0.1 M solution in 66 11.8 

*Used as 0.1 M solution in 66 11.8 

Lead shot for Discussion following 

67.15 

In dropper bottle for 63.10 and 11.6. 

Make from azolitmin or buy ready made 

For 11.11 

2 250 crrr' BDH GG 

500 cm 3 GG HWPH 

500 crrr' GG HWPH 

100 cm' GGGHHW 

1 can LS 

5g PH 

250 g GH 

500 g 

2500 crrr' 

25 g GH 

250 g HW MB PH 

500 g GG GH MB 

250 g HWPH 

500 g 

100 cm 3 

12 books 

41

42 


required 

Locating agent f P supply 

Magnesium Mg f PIOg 

Magnesium MgC03 + PIOg 

carbonate H2O 

Magnesium MgO Magnesia PIOg 

oxide 

Maleic acid CH(COOH): cis-bu ten edioic P 50-75 g 

CH2COOH acid 

Maltose Cn H22 011• PIg 

H2O 

Mercury Hg Quicksilver P T 100 g 

Methanol CH30H Methyl alcohol f P 175 cm 3 

Methyl orange Tlg 

Methyl red T 62.5 rng 

Naphthalene CIOHS f P 25-50 g 

Nickel NiC03 PIOg 

carbonate 

Nipagin C6 H4 (OH). Methyl p-hydroxy p T 5 g 

COO.CH3 benzoate 

Nitric acid HN03 Nitric (V) acid CO P 50 crrr' 

4-nitrotoluene CH3.C6H4· Methyl-4- P P 25-50 g 

N02 

nitrobenzene; 

p-nitrotoluene 

Orcein T2g 

Paraffin Liquid paraffin T 50 crrr' 

Phenolphthalein P 500 mg 

Phenosafranine PIg 

T 500 mg


quantity 

supplied 

For A9.3a(iii). See Appendix 3 

Ribbon form 25 g 

ForA3.2 500 g 

ForA3.2 500 g 

ForA9.7 100 g MB 

Used as 1% solution in A9.3a(iii) 25 g HWMB PH 

**Used as index in capillary tubes in 100 g BDHGHHW 

A7.17c 

For 3.4 and A9.2 500 cm' 

For colouring sulphuric acid in 5g GH 

A11.10 

**For making Yamada's indicator 5g 

For 5.3a 250 g GG 

ForA3.2 100 g GHHWPH 

** For Drosophila culture medium, used 100 g BDH 

as fungicide 

For 1 M solution in A3.5 and 6A3.11 . 500 cm 3 BDHHW 

*For 5.36b 250 g GG 

**For making aceto-orcein 1 g HW 

For A 11.10. Approximately 0.88 s.g. 2 500 crrr' 

ForA2.7 andA3.7. Used as 0.05% 25 g BDH GG GH 

solution 

**For making Yamada's indicator 

Stain in dropper bottle, used as 5g BDH 

1% solution in 12.1 

43

44 


required 

Phenyl C6H4(OH). Salol P 25-50 g 

salicylate COO.C6HS 

Phthalic acid C6H4• Benzene-I ,2-dicar- T 1.6 g 

(COOH)2 boxylic acid 

Platinum Pt T 100 mm 

Plutonium 239pu R T 1 

Potassium K2C03 P 30 g 

carbonate 

Potassium KCI Tig 

chloride 

Potassium K2Cr04 P2g 

chromate 

Potassium K2 Cr207 Potassium P5g 

dichromate bichromate 

Potassium K2S2o, Potassium T 1.5 g 

disulphate (VI) metabisulphite 

Potassium K3Fe(CN)6 Potassium T 35 g 

hexacyanof erra te ferricyanide 

(III) 

Potassium KHC03 Potassium bicarbonate; P 50g 

hydrogen potassium acid 

carbonate carbonate 

Potassium COOH.CHOH. T 175 g 

hydrogen CHOH.COOK 

tartrate 

Potassium KOH Caustic potash C P 150 g 

hydroxide 

Potassium KI P 20g 

iodide 

Potassium KN03 Saltpetre; nitre 0 Pig 

nitrate


quantity 

supplied 

*For 5.36b 100 g HW 

For locating agent 250 g BDH GGHW 

Wire for electrodes in electrolysis 25 mm HWPH 

of dilute sulphuric acid in 

Discussion part a following 611.4 

Sealed o-source for .&.8.5c,6d, GGPH 

6.&.8.6and 6.&.8.7.Alternative is 

241 Am 

Used as 1 M solution in 3.3 500 g BDHGGHW 

**For making Ringer's solution 250 g HW 

analytical quality 

Used as 0.1 M solution in 6.&.3.11and 11.6 100 g GH 

*Used as 0.1 M solution for 6.&.3.11 100 g GH 

**For making Feulgen's stain 500 g 

*Used as 0.1 M solution for 6.&.11.8 100 g 

For'&'11.10 500 g 

**For making Fehling B solution 250 g GG 

Mainly used as I M solution 500 g 

Used as 1 M solution in 11.5 100 g 

*Used with gelatine in 63.12 500 g 

45

46 


required 

Potassium KSCN Potassium P 50 g 

thiocyanate sulphocyanide 

Propan-l-ol CH3(CH2h. n-propyl alcohol f P 50 cm 3 

OH 

Propan-2-o1 (CH3 h CHOH iso-propyl alcohol f T 60 cm 3 

Propanone (CH3hCO Acetone; dimethyl f T 10 cm 3 

ketone. DMK 

Pyridine CsHsN FP T 20 crrr' 

Pyrogallol C6H3(OHh Pyrogallic acid T 10-30 g 

Radium 226Ra R T I 

Ringer's solution T 1 tablet 

Silver nitrate AgN03 cp PIg 

Sodium Na F PSg 

Sodium Na2C03. Washing soda P 20 g 

carbonate 10H2O 

Sodium NaCI Common salt T40g 

chloride 

Sodium NaHC03 Sodium Tig 

hydrogen bicarbonate: 

carbonate bicarbonate of 

soda; acid sodium 

carbonate 

Sodium NaOH Caustic soda CP P 150 g 

hydroxide 

T 50-121 g 

Sodium picrate p P Supply 

paper 

Stains 

Supply


quantity 

supplied 

*Used as 0.5 M solution for f::;It.ll.8 100 g 

For "'9.2 

500 crrr' 

**Used as alternative eluent for ..•.9.3. 500 cm' GG 


**Used as solvent for polystyrene spheres. 500 cm' GG MB PH 

See Appendix 1 'Molecular'models 

For eluent in ..•.9.3a(iii). See 100 cm' GGHW 

Appendix 3 

• 

For making potassium pyrogallate 25 g HW 

for "'11.10, resublimed 

*5 Me sealed source for ..•.8 .5c6d and GGPH 

f::;It.8.7 

For 6.14, make from ingredients. See 100 BDH GG PH 

Appendix 3 or buy tablets 

*Used as 0.1 Min 6A.I1.8 25 g 

For ..•.9.2 100 g GH 

For "'3.2 and ..•.9.7 1 kg 

Mainly used as saturated solution in ..•.11.10 I kg 

*For preparing Ringer's solution and 1 kg 

sodium picrate papers. See Appendix 3 

Several uses; buy technical grade 

pellets 

**For making Fehling B solution 

*For 6£6.9. See Appendix 3 for 

preparation. 

**Stains may be used for identifying mice. 

See Appendix 2 'Mice' 

500 g 

47

48 


required 

Starch P2g 

Strontium 90Sr R T I 

Sugar Cl2 H22011 Cane sugar; T Supply 

sucrose 

Sulphuric H2SO4 Sulphuric (VI) COP P 120 cm' 

acid acid T 35 cnr' 

Tartaric acid (CHOH. 2, B-dihydro xy- T 95 g 

COOHh butanedioic acid 

Tetrachloro- CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride P P 125 em:' 

methane 

Thorium Th 4 + R Supply 

salts 

Thymol blue T25 mg 

Toluene C6HSCH3 Methylbenzene f P 10 cm 3 

p-toluidine CH3.C6H4• -t-methyl- P P 50 g 

NH2 phenylamine 

Toluidine blue-O Toluidine blue TIg 

Trichloro- CHCl3 Chloroform P P 50 crn, 

methane 

T 50 crrr' 

2, 4, 6-trinitro- (N0 2 )3· Picric acid PFA TIOg 

phenol C 6 H 2 OH 

Trisodium citrate N~3C6Hs07. T200 g 

2H 2O 

Trypsin Tig 

Universal P 100 cm ' 

indicator 

Universal P 1 book 

indicator paper


quantity 

supplied 

Analytical grade, water soluble for A9.3 250 g BDHGHHW 

*Sealed source for L':lA8.6and ~8.7 1 GGPH 

For 12.1, household, could be brown LS 

sugar 

Several uses, mainly as 1 M solution 1 000 cm' 

Mainly as 0.3 M solution in A 11.10 

**Alternative to potassium hydrogen 250 g HW 

tartrate for Fehling B solution 

For 3.4 500 cm' GG HWPH 

*As available for 8.5L':.dand L':lA8.7 25 g BDHGGHW 

**For making Yamada's indicator 1 g HWMB 

*For~6.9 500 cm' GGPH 

*For 5.3L':.b 100 g BDH GG HW 

**Stain alternative to aceto-carmine 10 g BDHGGHW 

for 6.14 

For 11.5 250 cm 3 GH 

**For gluing polystyrene spheres and 

killing organisms 

*For making sodium picrate papers 100 g BDH GG HW 

for L':lA6.9.Do not allow to dry out 

as an explosion may occur 

**For making Benedict's solution 500 g BDH GGHW 

*Used as 4% solution in ~3.13 25 g 

Alternative is Yamada's indicator 25 crrr' BDH 

pH range 1-14 12 books BDH 

49

50 


required 

Uranium salts R Supply 

Uranyl nitrate U02(N03h. Uranyl (VI) R T I g 

6H2O nitrate (V) 

Wood splints P I pack 

Zinc Zn PIOg 

Zinc ZnC03 PIOg 

carbonate 

Zinc oxide ZnO PIOg


quantity 

supplied 

*As available for 4.8.5 6d and 64.8.7 

**For 6&8.1 0 25 g PH 

GG 

Granulated, technical grade for4.3.2 250 g GH 

For 4.3.2 100 g GH 

For 4.3.2 500 g 

51

Geological specimens 


Basalt P2 For S.2 and S.3c. From Rock GGPH 

set 1, Patterns 1 RP SB 

Fossils T 1 ** Archaeopteryx cast for A6.2 SB 

T 1-2 **Gryphaea, set of 4 casts showing SB 

sets evolution for A6.1 alternative to 

Micraster 

T 1 set Limbs of fossil horses, Nuffield SB 

part of set of 14 casts showing 

evolution of feet, for A6.1 

P 2 sets Micraster casts, set of 6 from one SB 

population of same species 

showing growth forA6.2 

P 2 sets Micraster casts, set of 6 SB 

showing evolution for A6.1 

Granite P2 For 5.3c. From Rock set 1 GGPH 

Patterns 1 RP SB 

Limestone, P2 ForA5.1. From Rock set 3 GGPH 

fossiliferous RP SB 

Marble P2 For A5.1. From Rock set 1, GGPH 


Rock set 3 P 2 sets ForA5.6 GGPH 

Contents of set: RP SB 

Part a, from Man O'War Bay, 

labelled A, C, D, F 

A limestone containing marine 

fossils, Portland stone 

C coarse sand containing lignite, 

Wealden 

D dark grey, silty mud containing 

marine fossels, Gault clay 

F chalk 

52 

Part b , from Upper Swaledale, of 

carboniferous era, labelled X, Y, Z 

X light grey limestone containing 

marine fossils 

Y shale containing marine fossils 

Z coarse sandstone 

GG supply all three rock sets in 

one package


Sandstone, P2 For"'S.1, e.g. fragments as in GGPH 

cemented (compacted) Patterns 2 RP SB 

Sandstone, porous P2 For "'5.1, e.g. fragments as in GGPH 

(loose) Patterns 2 RP SB 

Shale P2 For"'S.l. From Rock set 2, GGPH 


Tuff P2 For 5.2 GGPH 

RP SB 

53

Teaching aids 

Item Description Source 

Advertisement *A selection of advertisements is required for 2.12. 

Pupils are asked to collect their own examples 

Chart *Drugs of abuse for 2.13 

600 million years of Earth history for Section 5 

Duplication 

Film 

54 

*Instruction sheets for A2.7 

**An approach to kinetic theory, for teachers for 

Discussion following A7.15 

**An approach to the electron, for teachers 

for A8.2 

Are there electrons, for 8.9 

**A roof over your heads; part 1, the tenants, 

for 13.1 

**A roof over your heads; part 2, the landlords, 

for 13.1 

**A roof over your heads; part 3, the law, 

forAl3.2 

**A roof over your heads; part 4, try buying it, 

for A13.2 

**Cathy come home, for 13.1 

**Conquest of the atom, for A8.11 

**Conservation and the balance of nature, 

for Discussion following 11.11 

**Drive again tomorrow, for 6A.7.21 

Experiments in force and motion, for teachers 

for Section 7 

**Fuel for the future, for 8.15 

**Further experiments in radioactivity, for teachers 

for use before AS.5 

**Introduction to radioactivity, for teachers for use 

before A8.5 

**Iso topes, forAS.12 

Momentum and collision processes, for teachers 

for Section 4 

**Mo toring practice, for6A7.21 

Rocks which originate underground, for 5.3d 

**Rutherford atom, for A8.11 

**Shelter youth education programme, for 13.1 

**Slum housing, for 13.1 

**Succession from sand-dune to forest, for 10.3 

LS 

CC 

Esso 

LS 

Esso 

Esso 

Rank 

Shelter 

Shelter 

Shelter 

Shelter 

Shelter 

Mullard 

IFB 

Shell & BP 

Esso 

Mullard 

Esso 

Esso 

UKAEA 

Esso 

Shell & BP 

Rank 

PSSC 

Shelter 

Shelter 

Rank


Film **The discovery of radioactivity, for 6.6.8.8 OECD 

(continued) ** The electron's tale, for A8.11 Mullard 

**The Forth Road Bridge, for Al1.3 Shell 

**The plow that broke the plain, for AI0.6 BFI 

The river must live, for 12.1 Shell/PFB 

**The Shelter story, for 13.1 Shelter 

** Winter driving, for 6.6.7.21 Shell & BP 

Film loop **Alpha particles, for 6.6.8.8 Macmillan 

8-mm cassette Are there electrons?, for 8.9 Rank 

type Aston's mass spectrograph, for A8.12 Mullard 

**Collision between golf club and ball, for A4.8 BBC 

**Collisions in a straight line, for Section 4 BBC 

**Falling bodies, for 6A.7.6 BBC/Gateway 

**Liquid/vapour equilibrium, NC 2-5, for 11.5 NC 

Meiosis, NBP-50, for 6.14 NB 

**Movement of the Earth's crust, for 6.6.5.7 NSS 

**Problems in the use of detergents, for A9.4 NAC 

Selection by predation, NBP-54, for A6. 7 NB 

**Solid/liquid equilibrium, NC 2-6, for 11.5 NC 

**Switching off gravity, for 6A.7.6 BBC 

**The breeding of roses, for 6.5 NSS 

The conservation of topsoil, for Al 0.6 NB 

**Trajectories and Newton's thought experiment, BBC 

for 6A.7.6 

**Transfer of momentum in collision with ground, BBC 

for 6A.4.1° 

** Volcanoes, for 5.2 NSS 

Film loop This is an 8-mm cassette film loop projector. LS 

projector Care must be taken that Super-8 loops are 

not shown on a Standard-8 projector, and 

vice versa 

Film projector A 16-mm projector is required LS 

Film strip **Background environments, for Section 13 VP 

**Garden environments, for Section 13 VP 

Inheritance and selection, for A6. 7b and NSS 

6A.6.16 

The architecture and properties of matter, SEA 

parts 1 & 2, for introductory discussions 

in Section 9 (also from GG under the title 

Fundamental chemistry) 

** Volcanic rocks, for 5.2 EB 

55


Film strip 

projector 

Photograph **Archaeopteryx for .6.2, T 1-2 BMNH 

For 6.14. Photographs showing meiotic NB 

stages, P 2- 5 sets 

Photographic **Before you get the bird get the cage, Shelter 

transparencies for "'13.2 

For 6.14. Photographic transparencies showing GGGH 

meiotic stages. A film strip is available from GG PH 

Thin sections of rocks: BMG 

For 5.1; desert sandstone, slide CT 91; 

foraminiferal limestone, slide CT 96; 

For S.3c; muscovite-biotite-granite, slide 

CT 102; olivine-basalt, slide CT 114 

Thin sections of rocks: Banta 

For 5.1; calcite mudstone, slide 39 CN; 

compacted and silicified sandstone, slide 36 CN; 

spotted slate with biotite, sericite, andalusite and 

quartz, slide 21 PPL; 

**For S.3c; olivine-basalt, slide 15 PPL, alternative to BMG 

specimen 

Volcanic activity for 5.2, sets T 90 and 90/A/l BMG 

Project brief Water rockets, for "'4.7 SCPT 

Record Dust bowl ballads, Woody Guthrie, LS 

Transatlantic 2011, for"'l 0.6 

**The bricklayer, Gerard Hoffnung, EP PFE 682 LS 

for Discussion following 7.7 

Record For Discussion following 7.7 and "'10.6 LS 

player 

Simulation **Tenement for 13.1 Shelter 

Game 

Slide For "'5.1,5.2, S.3c, 6.14 etc. LS 

projector 

Tape *Tape also required for 2.2 and as alternative LS 

recorder to buzzer for'" 2.4 

56

Books for pupils and teachers 

Background books for pupils, class sets required 

**Catalysis, NC, 1966 for .6.9.4 

Darwin and evolution, IS, for .6.6.7, 6.6.6.9 and .6.6.20 

**Earth patterns, IS, for 6A.5.7 

Fertilisers and farm chemicals, NC, 1966 for Discussion after 11.11 

*Human behaviour, IS for 2.1 

Human groups, IS, for .6.13.6 

Inside the atom, NC, 1966 for .6.8.11 and 8.15 

Man and the urban environment, IS, for 612.3 and 13.1 

**Patterns of reproduction, development and growth, IS, for .6.6.11 

Population patterns, IS, for.6.10.1 and 13.1 

Radioactive chemicals, NC, 1966 for .6.8.5, .6.8.11 and .6.8.14 

Radioactivity, LPT, 1971 for .6.8.5, .6.8.11 and 8.15 

Rocks and minerals, IS, for 5.3c 

Science and decision making, IS, for Sections 1, 9, 12 and 13 

**Sulphuric acid, NC, 1966 for 63.14 

The diversity of life, IS, for .6.6.1 

The nitrogen problem, NC, 1966 for Discussion after 11.11 

*What is an acid?, NC, 1966 for 63.14 

Reference books suggested for class library. Several of each are 

required 

0**Arvill, R. Man and environment, Penguin, 1967, for 612.3 

**Holliman, J. Consumers guide to the protection of the 

environment, Pan/Ballantine, 1971 , for .6.11.13 and 612.3 

**lange, D. and Taylor, P. An American Exodus: a record of human 

erosion, New York 1939, New Haven and London 1969, for .6.10.6 

_ Man and towns, Cape Jackdaw, for 6.6.13.5 

**National Council on Alcoholism, selection of booklets for 9.6 

Periodicals, books, etc. containing information concerning 

radioactivity for 8.16 

Programmed texts, a selection is required for .6.2.8 

**Society in Britain, series of books by Methuen, 1974, for .6.13.6 

**Steinbeck, J. The grapes of wrath, Heinemann, for .6.10.6 

Volcanoes, Cape Jackdaw, for 5.3d 

**Ward, B. and Dubos, R Only one Earth, Penguin, 1972, for .6.11.13 

57

58 

Books of data 

* Atlas, or maps showing North Yorkshire coast (e.g. OS 86 and 93) 

for 6&6.3 

Books for teachers 

*AEB Examination information 

**Agricultural statistics, HMSO 

**A health service for Milton Keynes, Milton Keynes Medical Planning 

Group, December 1968 

**Arvill, IV Man and environment, Penguin, 1967 

**Ausubef,~.P. and Robinson, E.G. School learning, Holt, Rinehart 

and Winston, 1969 

Bradshaw,M.J.A new geology, EUP, 1973 

Brady, C. 'Cowpats as an ecological habitat', School Science Review, 

June 1965 

**British road statistics, British Road Federation 

**Bruner, J.S. The process of education, Vintage books, 1960 

**Cattell, R.B. The scientific analysis ofpersonality, Penguin 1965 

Chemistry in Britain, vol. 6, no. 5 

Chern Study, Laboratory manual 

**Collinge , E.R. 'River pollution', School Science Review, 

December 1972 

**Dower,_M. The fourth wave, for the Civic Trust 

**Handbook of statistics, HMSO 

**Holliman, J. Consumers guide to the protection of the environment, 

Pan/Ballantyne, 1971 

**Howard, E. Garden cities of tomorrow, Faber paperback 

**Huxley, A. Brave new world 

**Jardine, J. Nat Phil 5, Heinemann, 1973 

Jardine, J. Physics is fun, Book 2, Heinemann, 1966 

Jardine, J. Physics is fun, Book 3, Heinemann, 1966 

**Kerkut, G.A. The implications of evolution, Pergamon, 1960 

**Meriin, P.New towns, Methuen 

NAC Students' book 1 and Teachers' guide 1 

*NAC Students' book 2 

**National Council on Alcoholism, selection of booklets 

**Needs of new communities, HMSO 

NB Text and Teachers' Guide III 

NB Text and Teachers' Guide IV 

NB Text and Teachers' Guide V 

**Nicholson, J.H. New communities in Britain, National Council of

Social Service 

NC Collected Experiments 

NC Sample scheme stage II 

NP Guide to experiments and Teachers' guide III· 

NP Guide to experiments and Teachers' guide IV 

NP Guide to experiments and Teachers'guide V 

NSS Theme 2 Continuity of life 

NSS Theme 6 Movement 

NSS Theme 8 The Earth and its place in the Universe 

Ogborn, J. 'Momentum first: an alternative approach to Newtonian 

Dynamics', School Science Review, November 1965 

**Ormerod, M.B. The architecture and properties of matter, Arnold 

**Orwell, G. Animal farm, Penguin 

**Orwell, G.1984, Penguin, 1972 

**Osborn & Whittick, The new towns - answer to Megalopolis, 

Leonard Hill, 1969 

**Packard, V. The hidden persuaders, Penguin, 1960 

**Palaeontology and geological time, Open University, 2nd level 

course unit, 1971 

**Pearsall, W.H. Mountains and moorlands, Collins 

Road research, Road Research Laboratory, HMSO 

**Romer, A. Man and the vertebrates, Penguin 

Royal commission on environmental pollution, first report, 

HMSO, 1971 

Ryder, J. and Silver, H. Modern English society, Methuen, 1970 

*School Science Review, June 1972 

**Selltiz, C. et al. Research methods in social relations, Methuen, 1966 

**Shaffer, F. The new town story, Macgibbon and Kee, 1970 

**Standard industrial classifications, HMSO 

The use of ionising radiations in schools etc., DES Administrative 

memorandum 1/65 

**Thomas, R. Aycliff to Cumbernauld, PEP 

**Thomas, R. London's new towns, PEP 

**Town and country planning, January 1972 

**Town and country planning, Special issue, New towns come of age, 

January 1968 

Tricker, R.A.R. and Tricker, B.J.K. The science of movement, 

Mills and Boon 

**Tucker, H. Understanding the mass media; a practical approach for 

teaching, CUP, 1966 

**Ward, B. and Dubos, R. Only one Earth, Penguin, 1972 

**Young, J.Z. The life of vertebrates, OUP 

59

60 

Preparation guide 

Introduction 

The guide presents in tabulated form the requirements for the work 

of Sections 1-13 of part 3 of the sample scheme. Short notes are 

included where there seems a need and longer or more general points 

are explained in the appendixes. 

If information is given in the appendixes concerning individual 

pieces of equipment listed in the column headed 'Item', then a 

figure code is placed directly opposite the items, in the column 

headed 'App. ref.' (appendix reference). The figures used relate 

directly to the four appendixes. 

Appendix 1 

Appendix 2 

Appendix 3 

Appendix 4 

'Notes on apparatus', 

'Notes on biological materials', 

'Chemical preparations', 

'Hazards and precautions'. 

The 'Reference' column lists all the pieces of work in the order in 

which they appear in the Teachers' guide and Pupils' manual, 

although, in many cases there is no equipment required. 

The column marked 'Group', describes the nature of the working 

group using a particular item of equipment. 'T' represents teacher 

(i.e. demonstration) requirements. 'P' represents pupil requirements. 

This letter is usually followed by figures showing the number of 

pupils expected to be in a single work group. The letter 'A' indicates 

that access is required by teacher or pupil to a limited number of 

items shared between all the groups working. 

Asterisks occur in the 'Item' column to show optional pieces of 

equipment. 

Advance preparations are noted in the guide at appropriate time 

intervals before the investigations to which they refer. The time has 

been estimated at seven periods (one fifth of the school week) per 

week. The warnings will be incorrectly placed if more or less time is 

given to the course, or if a modified scheme is followed. 

These advance warnings are printed in half-tone strips across the 

columns of the table.

calendar 

This calendar is designed to aid technicians to prepare work for 

which materials are required in advance. Generally such materials 

are biological. 

It is assumed that the time allowance for the course is one fifth 

of the timetable (seven or eight periods) and that a term consists 

of ten full weeks. 

Asterisks indicate optional organisms. 

Week Summer term 

9 Section 1 'Recognising change' (~ week) 

9} 6Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (l} weeks) 

Required specimens: *Calliphora or other fly maggots for 2.1 

Autumn term 

o 6Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (1 remaining week) 

Section 3 'Changes in acidity' (2~ weeks) 

3~ Section 4 'Changes in motion l' (2 weeks) 

S~ Section 5 'Changes in the Earth' (2 weeks) 

Required specimens: Selection of rocks for.S.l, 5.2,5.3 

~ Required specimens: Rock set 3 for .5.6 

7} Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (4~ weeks) 

Required specimens: Micraster fossils (evolutionary series), 

limbs of fossil horses, **Gryphea fossils 

(evolutionary series) for .6.1 

Micraster fossils (development series), 

**Archaeopteryx cast for .6.2 

8 Required specimens: fish roe or alternative for .6.4 

specimens of animals and plants, shells 

of Cepea for 6.6 

seeds of rayed and unrayed groundsel for 

·6.7 

9 Required specimens: *Clover plants and Helix for ~6.9 

Tomato seeds or seedlings for 6.10 

61

62 

Spring term 

o Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (2 remaining weeks) 

Required specimens: "Tribolium castaneum or **Drosophila or 

**mice for 6A.6.13 

Locust testes or alternatives for 6.14 

1 Required specimens: *Haploid (ad) strain yeast for 6.19 

2 Section 7 'Changes in motion 2' (3 weeks) 

5 Section 8 'Changes in atoms' (3 weeks) 

8 Section 9 'Changes in molecules' (2 weeks + ~ 1 week) 

Summer term 

o Section 10 'Changes in populations and communities' ( 1 week) 

Required specimens: **Turf for "'10.6 

Section 11 'Stability' (3 weeks) 

3 Required specimens: horse dung for 11.11 

4 Section 12 'Changes in the environmen t' (2} weeks) 

Required specimens: Asellus or alternative for 12.1 and 

miniponds from Patterns 1, Section 3 

~ Section 13 'Changes in society' (~ week)

Composite calendar for the whole of the sample scheme 

This calendar summarises the contents of the individual calendars 

found in all four Technicians' manuals 1-4. It should be of particular 

use in schools where three year-groups of pupils are following the 

scheme. 

Full details of advance preparations and required specimens are 

to be found in the Technicians'manual whose number is given against 

each entry in the calendar. 

Week Manual 

o 1 

I! 2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

4 

2 2 

3 1 

1 

3l 4 

2 

4 1 

1 

5 1 

1 

1 

2 

Summer term 

Autumn term 

Section 1 'Patterns and problems' (l} weeks) 

Section 13 'Motion' (1 remaining week) 

6 Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (1 remaining week) 

Section 14 'Classifying building blocks' (4 weeks) 

Required specimens: invertebrates for .14.1 

plants for .14.3 

Section 3 'Changes in acidity' (2}weeks) 

Section 2 'Galaxies, planets, and the Earth' (1} weeks) 

Required specimens: miniponds for .14.5 

Section 3 'Communities and populations' (2 weeks) 

Required specimens: set up miniponds in 3.4 

Section 4 'Changes in motion l' (2 weeks) 

Required specimens: Drosophila for .3.7b 

Tribolium for 3.8 

Section 4 'Looking at organisms' (2} weeks) 

Required specimens: Paramecium for 4.1 

*small animals for l2.A.4.5 

Section 15 'Distribution of building blocks' (1 week) 

63

64 

5l 4 Section 5 'Changes in the Earth' (2 weeks) 

2 

6 Required specimens: Drosophila and Coleus etc. for 4.9 

*Serratia marc escens for 1'A.l 0 

3 Section 1 'Transferring energy' (5~ weeks) 

7 Required specimens: barley or tomato seedlings for 

~4.11 

*mice for64.13 

7l Section 5 'Cells and more cells' (1 week) 

2 

Required specimens: Elodea for 5.1 

Amoeba for .5.2 

4 Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (4~ weeks) 

8 4 Required specimens: fish roe for .6.4 

4 animals and plants; Cepea for 6.6 

4 groundsel seeds for. 6.7 

& 1 Section 6 'Molecules' (34 weeks) 

2 

9 4 Required specimens: *clover and Helix for L'lA.6.9 

4 tomato seeds for 6.10 

10 1 Required specimens: rhubarb or onion for L'lA.6.12 

Spring term 

0 1 Section 6 'Molecules' (1 remaining week) 

3 Section 1 'Transferring energy' (1~ remaining weeks) 

3 Required specimens: *eyes for L'lA.1.24and L'lA.1.25 

4 Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (2 remaining weeks) 

4 Required specimens: *Tribolium or Drosophila or 

mice for L'lA.6.13 

4 locust testes for 6.14 

4 Required specimens: *Haploid (ad) yeast for 66.19 

Il 3 Section 2 'Energy and particle interactions' (64 weeks) 

2 

2 1 Section 7 'Atoms and giant structures' (3~ weeks) 

4 Section 7 'Changes in motion 2' (3 weeks) 

4 3 Required specimens: *chicken leg for 62.7 

3 

hearts for .2.8

5:!. 

2 

4 Section 8 'Changes in atoms' (3 weeks) 

1 Section 8 'The electron, ions and giant structures' 

(3 weeks) 

6 3 Required specimens: small organisms for A2.22 

7 3 Required specimens: lungs for A2.25 

8 1 Required specimens: Lemna for 8.19 

1 turf for L:,A8.20 

3 Section 3 'Energy and electricity' (4 weeks) 

4 Section 9 'Changes in molecules' (2 weeks + 6.1 week) 

~ 2 Section 9 'Competition and predation' (Ii weeks) 

2 

2 Required specimens: barley for 9.1 

2 *Drosophila, or alternatives 

for A9.26.b 

9 2 Required specimens: barley for A9.4 

2 Daphnia and Hydra for 9.7 

2 *parasites and **dogfish for 6.9.8 

2 *parasitised caterpillars for A9.1 0 

Summer term 

0 2 Section 10 'Particle interactions' (4 weeks) 

3 Section 3 'Energy and electricity' (2 remaining weeks) 

4 Section 10 'Changes in populations and communities' 

(1 week) 

4 Required specimens: **turf for A 10.6 

1 4 Section 11 'Stability' (3 weeks) 

3 3 

4 

4 

2 

Required specimens: miniponds for 4.8 

Required specimens: horse dung for 11.11 

Section 11 'Electrical interactions' (2i weeks) 

65

66 

3 Required specimens: plants for 4.12 to ~4.17 

3 coal residues for "'4.18 

4 Section 12 'Changes in the environment' (2~ weeks) 

4 Required specimens: Asellus and Miniponds for 12.1 

S 3 Section S 'Using energy efficiently' (4~ weeks) 

6!- 2 Section 12 'Earth, water and organism interactions' 

2 

(3 weeks) 

4 Section 13 'Changes in society' (~week) 

7 3 Required specimens: model food chain for "'S.12 

8 3 Required specimens: fly maggots for "'S.16e 

3 *kidneys for b,AS.20 

9 4 Section 1 'Recognising change' (~week) 

9! 2 Section 13 'Motion' (It weeks + 61} weeks) 

2 

4 6Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (I~ weeks) 

4 Required specimens: *fly maggots for 2.1

68 

Section 1 Recognising change 

Time required iweek 

Reference Group Reqd Item App. 

no./q. ref. 

1.1 

Looking for change 

Discussion 

Defining 'change' 

1.2 

Car travel 

1.3 

Sickness 

1.4 PI Patterns topic book, 

Planning for change Science and decision 

making

Notes 

No apparatus is required. 


No apparatus is required for 1.2 or 1.3. 

Either 1.2 or 1.3 will be carried out. 

69

70 

6Section 2 Changes in behaviour 

Time required l~ weeks 

Required organisms: 

For Investigation 2.1, Calliphora (blow-fly) or other fly maggots. 


no./q. ref. 

2.1 P2 12 Calliphora (blow-fly) or 2 

Burrowing behaviour other fly maggots 

of Calliphora P2 2 Crystallising dishes 

maggots P2 2-3 Filter paper, 110 mm discs 

sheets 

P2 I Microscope lamp 

P2 1 sheet Paper, 100 mm X 100 mm, 

black. 

P2A Sawdust, wet and dry 

P2 I pair Scissors 

2.2 T Electric buzzer or tape 

Simple learned recording and tape 

behaviour recorder 

2.3 T Empty, dry, plastic wash 

A further bottle fitted with plastic 

experiment nozzle 

"'2.4 TA Apparatus as in 2.2 

Trying to forget and 2.3 

2.5 P2 Puzzle 

Trial and error P2 Stopwatch or stopc1ock 

or watch with seconds 

hand 

2.6 

Habits

Notes 

Other fly maggots are alternatives to Calliphora. 

100 crrr' squat form beakers are alternative to 

crystallising dishes. 

Blotting paper may be used instead of filter paper. 

The sawdust should be damp rather than with free 

water in it. It can be prepared suitably by wrapping 

in a cloth which is then immersed in water and then 

wrung out until 'dry'. 

A short sharp buzz is required. The experiment is probably 

best carried out by recording the passage given in the 

Teachers' guide on one track of a four track recorder and 

dubbing the buzzes onto the second track. These buzzes 

are inserted with the recorder set at slow speed so that when 

played at normal speed they are sharp and accurately placed. 

The passage can then be played to the class without buzzes 

(using one track) or with buzzes (using both tracks 

simultaneously). 

The wash bottle is used to blow puffs of air into a pupil's 

eye. This experiment must be carried out by the teacher. 

Any suitable puzzle may be employed including 'metal 

link' puzzles. 


71

72 


no./q. 

ref. 

Discussion 

Good and bad habits 

£.2.7 PI Dropper (teat) pipette 

Learning by PIA 5 Duplicated instruction sheets 

discovery and PI Stopwatch or stopc1ock or 

reception learning watch with seconds hand 

PI 5 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm 

PI 1 Test tube rack 

PI Indicator in dropper bottle 

bottle 

PIA 5 Solutions of known pH in 

beakers labelled A, B, C, D, E 

PIA Solution X of unknown pH

Notes 


Spotting tiles may be used instead of test tubes. 

The indicatoris prepared by mixing equal volumes of 0.1 % 

congo red (aqueous) and 0.05% phenolphthalein. See 

Appendix 3 for the preparation of the separate indicators. 

The solutions of known pH are hydrochloric acid 0.1 M 

(pH 1), hydrochloric acid 0.001 M (pH 3), sodium hydroxide 

0.001 M (pH 11) and sodium hydroxide 0.0001 M (pH '9'). 

For the preparation of these solutions see Appendix 3. 

Distilled water gives pH 7, if fresh. 

These solutions give only approximate values of the pH. It 

is wise to test against the indicator before giving them for 

class use in order to ensure the 'correct' colour being 

produced for each solution. 

One half of the class has to derive the pattern of 'colour 

changes and use the pattern to find the pH of solution X 

(distilled water). The other half is given the pattern on a 

duplicated instruction sheet as illustrated below. 

The pattern is: 

colour blue orange magenta 

pH 

(acid number) 

7 11 

The pH values of the solutions are: 

Solution ABC D E 

pH 3 7 9 11 

Use the solu tions A to E to verify the pattern then find 

the pH of solution X. 

73

74 


no./q. 

ref. 

Discussion 

The pros and cons 

of the two methods 

Discussion 

Different methods 

used by scientists 

Discussion 

Learning in Patterns 

"'2.8 PI 12 of Cardboard equilateral 

A look at each triangles blue, green, red, 

programmed learning colour yellow, with sides 

approximately 20 mm 

PA Selection of programmed 

texts 

Discussion 

Motivation 

"'2.9 

Measuring learning 

2.10 

Attitudes 

62.11 

Personality 

2.12 PA Selection of advertisements 

Advertising and its 

influence 

2.13 T Chart, Drugs of abuse CC 

Drugs and their 

effects

Notes 








The pupils collect their own advertisements. 

75

76 

Section 3 Changes in acidity 

Time required 2} weeks 


no./q. 

ref. 

3.1 T Magazine, Chemistry in 

Acid in the Britain vol. 6, no. 5 

atmosphere 

A3.2 P2 Bunsen burner, mat 

Some reactions of P2 Spatula 

acids: changes in P2 1 Stirring rod 

acidity P2 8 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm 

P2 Test tube holder 

P2 1 Test tube rack 

P2 20 crrr' Calcium hydroxide, saturated, 3 

(lime water) 

P2 200 crrr' Hydrochloric acid, 1 M 3 

P2 10 cm ' Potassium hydroxide, 1 M 3 

P2 10 cm 3 Sodium hydroxide, 1 M 3 

P2 200 ern" Sulphuric acid, 1 M 3 

P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in dropper 3 

bottle 

P2 0.5-2 g Selection of metals, metal 

of each carbonates and metal oxides 

P2 1 book Universal indicator paper 

Discussion 

Ionic solutions: 

the part played 

by water 

3.3 

Are acids and 

alkalis ionic? 

P2A 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

25 cm 3 

25 cm 3 

L.t. supply, 12 Va.c. 

Beaker, 100 em 3 

Connecting leads, 0.5 m 

Crocodile clips 

Electrodes, graphite 

MES bulb, 12 V, and holder 

Hydrochloric acid, 1 M 3 

Potassium carbonate, 1 M 3

Notes 

Suggested metals are: iron powder, magnesium ribbon, 

granulated, technical zinc. 

If iron powder is used there is less chance of the production 

of hydrogen sulphide from sulphide residues in the metal. 

Calcium may also be used but should be demonstrated. 

Suggested metal carbonates are: calcium carbonate, copper(II) 

carbonate, magnesium carbonate, nickel(II) carbonate, sodium 

carbonate, zinc carbonate. 

Suggested metal oxides are, copper(II) oxide, magnesium 

oxide, zinc oxide. Oxides of calcium, potassium and sodium 

should be avoided as they react vigorously with water and 

may react dangerously with acids. 

The Universal indicator paper is used where coloured salts 

are produced. 

Acid splashes should be neutralised with a strong solution 

of sodium hydrogen carbonate and then mopped up with a 

wet swab (duster). 


A d.c. supply may be used in this experiment providing the continued 

77

78 


no./q. 

ref. 

3.3 continued P2 25 cm' Sodium hydroxide, 1 M 3 

P2 25.cm 3 Sulphuric acid, I M 3 

3.4 P2 Beaker, 400 cm' 

The case of P2 Bunsen burner, mat 

benzoic acid P2 Spatula 

P2 6 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm 

P2 Test tube holder 

P2 Test tube rack 

P2 1 Tripod, gauze 

P2 25 cm' Ethanol (IMS), ethoxyethane 

of each (diethylether), methanol, 

tetrachloromethane, water 

P2 109 Benzoic acid 

P2 1 book Universal indicator paper 

"'3.5 P2 Beaker, 250 cm' , or expanded 

Energy transfer in polystyrene cup 

some acid-alkali P2 2 Measuring cylinders, 100 ern" 

reactions P2 1 Thermometer, 0-50 °c 

P2 200 ern" Hydrochloric acid, 1.0 M 3 

P2 200 crrr' Nitric acid, 1.0 M 3 

P2 300 crrr' Potassium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3 

P2 300 cm 3 Sodium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3 

P2 200 crrr' Sulphuric acid, 0.50 M 3 

"'3.6 P2 Beaker, 250 ern", or expanded 

Is the pattern true polystyrene cup 

for all acids and P2 2 Measuring cylinders, 100 crrr' 

alkalis? P2 1 Thermometer, 0-50 °c 

P2 200 cm' Acetic acid, 1.0 M 3 

P2 100 crrr' Potassium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3 

P2 100 crrr' Sodium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3 

Discussion 

Ionic equations

Notes 

current is only switched on briefly, otherwise electrolysis 

will occur. Some pupils may wish to use an ammeter rather 

than a lamp. 

If it is required to warm the solvents in order to dissolve the 

benzoic acid the beaker should be used as a water bath and 

the test tube containing the solvent should be placed in it. 

Heat the water bath to boiling and turn out the Bunsen 

flame particularly before using ethoxyethane. 

See Appendix 4 'Chemical hazards' for hazard notes 

concerning ethoxyethane and tetrachloromethane. 

Polystyrene cups are to be preferred for this experiment. 

The solutions of acids and alkalis used in this work should be 

prepared accurately and allowed to stand for some hours so 

that they are all at room temperature. 

Polystyrene cups are to be preferred for this experiment. 

The solutions of acids and alkalis used in this work should be 

accurately prepared and allowed to stand for some hours so 

that they are all at room temperature. 


79

80 


no./q. 

ref. 

A3.7 T L.t. supply, 12 Va.c. 

A close look at an T 3 Connecting leads, 0.5 m 

acid/hydroxide T 2 Crocodile clips 

interaction T 2 Electrodes, graphite 

T 1 MES bulb, 12 V, and holder 

T 1 Beaker, 100 cm' 

T Burette, SO em", and stand 

T Filter funnel 

T Measuring cylinder, 25 cm ' 

T Stirring rod 

T 1 Test tube, 100 mm X 16 mm 

T SO ern" Barium hydroxide, 0.1 M 34 

T 1 bottle Phenolphthalein indicator in 3 

dropper bottle 

T SO cm 3 Sulphuric acid, 1 M 3 

A3.8 P2 Measuring cylinder, 100 em 3 

Diluting an acid P2 Pipette, 1 ern", or hypodermic 

solution syringe, 1 crrr' 

P2 3-6 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm 


P2 SO cm 3 Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M 3 

P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in 3 

dropper bottle or universal 

indicator paper 

P2A Water, distilled 3 

P2 0.5 g Magnesium rib bon 

A3.9 P2 3 Beakers, 100 ern" 

Concentrations and P2 Burette, SO em", and stand 

volumes P2 Filter funnel 

P2 Flask, 250 crrr' , conical 

P2 Measuring cylinder, 100 crrr' 

P2 Pipette, 25 ern", and filler 

P2 Wash bottle 

P2 White tile, or sheet of white 

paper 

P2 SOern:' Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M 3 

P2 SOem" Sodium hydroxide, 0.1 M 3

Notes 

A d.c. supply may be used providing that the current is 

only switched on briefly after each addition from the 

burette. 

The pupils are asked to find the pH (degree of acidity) of 

0.1 M hydrochloric acid. They then dilute some of the acid 

to 0.001 M and test that, then they dilute the second 

solution to 0.0000 1 M. These dilutions require 0.5 cm' of 

the stronger solution to be diluted to 50 ern". It is essential 

that distilled water is used for the dilutions because salts 

dissolved in tap water, especially in hard water areas, will 

interfere by neutralising the acid. For the same reason it is 

best to use universal indicator paper rather than the solution. 

The excess 0.1 M hydrochloric acid can be used for 

Investigation e 3.9. 

The pupils are asked to predict and then test the prediction 

of the quantity of sodium hydroxide solution neutralised by 

three solutions of acid; 0.1 M, 0.01 M and 0.005 M. The 

0.1 M solution is supplied to the pupils who make up from 

it the other solutions by dilution. 

For the 0.0 1 M solution dilute 10 crrr' of 0.1 M acid to 

100 ern" with distilled water. 

For the 0.005 Msolution dilute 5 crrr' of 0.1 M acid to 

100 cm 3 with distilled water. 

continued 

81

82 


no./q. 

ref. 

A3.9 continued P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in 3 


P2A Water, distilled or de-ionised 3 

A3.1O P2 1 Burette, 50 ern 3 , and stand 

An acid-alkali P2 1 Filter funnel 

titration P2 1 Flask, 100 crrr' , conical 

P2 1 Pipette, 25 em", and filler 

P2 1 Wash bottle 

P2 1 White tile 

P2 120 crrr' Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M 3 

P2 1 bottle Litmus indicator in dropper 3 

bottle 

P2 120 crrr' Sodium hydroxide, approx- 3 

imately 0.1 M 

AProblem 

Simple volumetric 

analysis questions 

l':A3.11 P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes 

The effect of P2 4 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm 

changing acidity on P2 1 Test tube rack 

the chromate ion - P2 10 cm' Hydrochloric acid, 1 M 3 

dichromate ion P2 10 cm' Nitric acid, 1 M 3 

equilibrium P2 5 crrr' Potassium chromate, 0.1 M 3 

P2 5 crrr' Potassium dichromate, 0.1 M 3 

P2 10 crn' Potassium hydroxide, 1 M 3 

P2 10 cm' Sodium hydroxide, 1 M 3 

P2 10 cm' Sulphuric acid, 1 M 3

Notes 

Notes on the care and use of burettes are given in 

Appendix 1 'Titration'. 

The concentration of hydrochloric acid needs to be known 

accurately in this experiment. Notes on the determination 

of the molarity of the acid and on the care and use of 

burettes are given in Appendix 1 'Titration'. 

If pipette fillers are available they should be used with 

the pipettes. 


83

84 


no./q. 

ref. 

~3.12 P2A L.t. supply, 4-6 V d.c. 

The mobility of H+ P2 2 Connecting leads, 0.5 m, fitted 

(aq) and OH- (aq) with crocodile clips 

ions in an electric P2 2 Electrodes, graphite 

field P2 2 U-tubes, 10 cm ' 

P2 20 crn ' Gelatine containing potassium 3 

nitrate, 30% 

P2 10 cm ' Hydrochloric acid, I M 3 

P2 10 cm ' Sodium hydroxide, I M 3 

P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in dropper 3 

bottle 

~3.I3 

Enzymes and 

changes in 

acidity 

~3.I4 

pH and blood 

P2 

P2 

PI 

PI 

I 

3 

Milk agar plate in Petri dish 

Paper discs 

**Topic book, Sulphuric acid, NC 

Topic book, What is an acid?, NC

Notes 

HCI ~;i .••••••••••••••••• 

NaOH HCI 

.•• ". .""" ge".tine. containing 

KN03 and universal 

indicator 

4-6.V 

Gelatine takes some time to set so the tubes should be 

prepared a day in advance. If left for more than a few days 

the gelatine will become denatured by bacterial action. 

The pupils place three paper discs on the specially prepared 

agar plate. One disc is soaked in trypsin solution, one disc 

in trypsin plus acid, and the third in distilled water. It is 

helpful for the discs to be of different colours. 

For information concerning the preparation of the agar 

plates and trypsin solution see Appendix 3 'Trypsin', and 

Appendix 2 'Agar'. 

85

86 

Section 4 Changes in motion 1 

Time required 2 weeks 


no./q. 

ref. 

T Film, Momentum and 

collision processes, Esso 

film for teachers 

T **Film loop, Collisions in a 

straight line, BBC 

T **Film loop projector 

T Film projector 

4.1 T Magnet, e.g. Eclipse major 

What causes motion T Steel bearing 

to change? 

Discussion 

What do we mean by 

a cause? 

4.2 P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 Va.c. 

What pattern is or d.c. 

there in changes P2-4 2 Connecting leads, 1 m long 

of motion? P2-4 3-4 Dynamics trolleys 

P2-4 1 Optics pin and Plasticine or 

a cork 

P2-4 Plough plate and trolley cord 

P2-4 1 roll Ticker tape, gummed 

P2-4 1 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c. 

P2-4 1-2 Trolley runways 

P2-4 2 Wooden blocks to raise end 

of runway 

T **Camera, cassette type 

T **Lighting system suitable to 

photographic technique used 

T 1 **Linear air track and blower 

T 1-2 **Photographic films 

T **Photographic processing 

equipment suitable for 

technique used, e.g. Moriobath 

T **Strobe, motorised disc or 4 

xenon flasher

Notes 

The magnet is placed under a bench so that it is out of 

sight and the bearing is rolled across it so that its motion 

is changed or the direction of motion is changed. 


A series of experiments concerned with change in 

momentum on collision is carried out in this investigation. 

Elastic collisions are produced by using the plough plate 

mounted on one trolley so that it collides with a trolley 

cord mounted on another, or the built-in buffer rods can be 

used. Inelastic collisions are achieved by mounting the optics 

pin on one trolley so that it collides with a lump of Plasticine 

or a cork on the other trolley. 

It is possible to obtain good results using ticker timers and 

trolleys when both vehicles are in motion before the 

collision, providing care is taken with the techniques 

involved. The alternative demonstration using a linear air 

track and multiflash photography is recommended for this 

purpose. 

Notes on multiflash photography are given in Appendix 1. 

87

88 


no./q. 

ref. 

·4.3 P2-4A Apparatus as in 4.2 

Interactions P2-4A Several Loads of different substances 

between objects 

which are 

different 

Discussion 

Inertia and mass 

Discussion 

Momentum and 

its conservation 

6&4.4 P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 Va.c. 

Finding the mass or d.c. 

of a brick using P2-4 2-4 Connecting leads, I m long 

dynamics P2-4 2 Dynamics trolleys 

P2-4 1 Half house brick 


P2-4 1-2 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c. 

P2-4 1-2 Trolley runways 

P2-4 2 Wooden blocks to act as 

trolley stops 

b.Discussion P2A 1 reel Copper wire, 24-26 s.w.g., bare 

Inertia measurement P2 2 G-clamps 

P2 Inertia balance kit

Notes 

Loads suggested are 1 kg masses of aluminium, iron, sand 

and water. the sand and water masses can easily be arranged 

by filling a suitable covered container (e.g. a plastic lunch 

box) with them. 



The copper wire is allowed to tap against a finger while the 

apparatus is vibrating thus assisting in counting oscillations. 

An alternative assembly using a dynamics trolley is also 

described in Appendix 1 'Inertia balance kit'. 

89

90 


no./q. 

ref. 

"'4.5 T Air-rifle or air-pistol mounted 

The speed of an on board 

air-gun pellet T 2 **Circuit breakers 

T 4 **Connecting leads, 1.0 m long 

T I Flat truck 

T Metre rule 

T 1 packet Pellets to fit air-gun 

T 300 g Plasticine 

T 5 lengths Railway track, a-gauge 

T **Scaler 

T Stopwatch 

"'4.6 

Car collisions 

"'4.7 T 2-4 Balloons, 'sausage' type 

How does a rocket T 2 Glass tubes, 50 mm long 

work? T 2 Retort stands, bossheads 

T 1 reel Self adhesive tape 

T I reel Thread 

T 

T 

T 

T 

1-4 

I 

I pair 

I 

Carbon dioxide capsules 4 

Hammer, wire nail, I kg mass 

Safety goggles 

Trolley to carry capsule

Notes 

;~Pla";dne _ 

_~endstop.lS). 

_ ~"'--"~~~_T~~~~ 

~ rule 

r£-- 

I 

The scaler and circuit breakers provide an alternative method 

of carrying out the experiment. Full details concerning the 

experiment are given in Appendix 1 'Speed of an air-gun pellet'. 


balloon 

button thread 

It is important that the thread should be as taut as possible, 

otherwise the leading edges of the glass tubes tend to snag. 

For full details of the apparatus used in this investigation 

see Appendix 1 'Rockets'. 

The hammer and nail are used for opening the carbon 

dioxide capsules. 

The operator should wear goggles. Full details are given 

in Appendix 1 'Rockets'. 

stringor wire 

smallscreweyes 

wingnuts 

1.kg 

mass 

continued 

91

92 


no./q. 

ref. 

£4.7 continued 

T Foot pump and adaptor 

T Water rocket 

T **Project brief, Water rockets 

£4.8 T **Film loop, Collision between 

Jet aircraft golf club and ball, BBC 


£4.9 

The golfer 

.664.10 T **Film loop, Transfer of 

Miscellaneous momentum in collision with 

problems involving ground, BBC 

momentum T **Film loop projector 

£4.11 T Pendulum bob, 12.5 mm dia, 

Interactions between steel (NP item l31D) 

objects of large T Pendulum bob, 50 mm dia, 

and small inertia steel (NP item l31B) 

T 1 reel Thread 

Discussion 

Two dimensional 

motion 

£4.12 T Camera, cassette type 

Changes of motion T Lighting system suitable for 

in two dimensions photographic technique used 

T 1-2 Photographic films 

T Photographic processing 

equipment suitable for 

technique used, e.g, Monobath 

T Stobe, motorised disc or 

xenon flasher 4 

TA Two-dimensional motion 

apparatus

Notes 

Details concerning water rockets are given in Appendix 1 

'Rockets'. 


The bobs are hung on as long a thread as possible, e.g. 

from the ceiling, so that they just touch at their equators. 



If dry ice is required it may be produced from carbon dioxide 

cylinders, see Appendix 4 'Gas cylinders'. 

93

94 

Reference Group Reqd 

no./q. 

b.4.13 P2-4 

More than two 

objects P2-4 4-6 

P2-4 3 

P2-4 1 

4.14 

Certainty in 

science 

Discussion 

Models in science 

.&4.15 

Pro blem finding 

P2-4 

P2-4 1 roll 

P2-4 2-3 

P2-4 1 

P2-4A Several 

T 

T 

T 1 

T 1-2 

T 

T 

Item App. 

ref. 

L.t. supply, 12 V a.c. 

or d.c. 

Connecting leads, 1 m long 

Dynamics trolleys 

Optics pin and Plasticine or a 

cork 

Plough plate and trolley cord 

Ticker tape, gummed 

Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c. 

Trolley runway 

Wooden blocks for weighting 

trolleys 

**Camera, cassette type 

**Lighting system suitable to 

photographic technique used 

**Linear air track and blower 

**Photographic films 

**Photographic processing equipment 

suitable for technique 

used. e.g. Monobath 

**Strobe, motorised disc or 4 

xenon flasher

Notes 

The linear air track may be used as alternative to trolleys 

for this work. Three or four gliders will be required. Notes 

on multiflash photography are given in Appendix 1. 




95

96 

Section S Changes in the Earth 



no./q. 

ref. 

T **Book A new geology . 

Bradshaw, M.J. 

T Chart, 600 million years 

of Earth history, Esso 

AS.l PA Supply Rock specimens 

Changes in TPA 1 of Photo micro transparencies 

sedimentary each of thin sections of the 

rocks rocks, see Guide to equipment 

'Teaching aids' 

TPA Slide projector 

PI Hand lens, X8 or XI 0, 

folding 

PA 2-3 **Microscope, binocular 

(stereo) alternative to 

hand lens 

5.2 PA Supply Rock specimens 

Volcanic activity T 1 **Film loop, Volcanoes, NSS 

**Film loop projector 

T **Film strip, Volcanic rocks, EB 

T **Film strip projector 

T Several **Photographic transparencies, 

Volcanic activity 

T **Slide Projector 

5.3 aP2 1 Beaker, 250 cm' 

Crystallisation P2 1 Bunsen burner, mat 

from molten P2 1 Flask, 250 cm 3 , conical 

material P2 1 Stopclock 

P2 6 Test tubes, 100mm X 16mm 

P2 Thermometer, -10 to +110 °C, 

with single holed cork to fit 

test tube 

P2 Tripod and gauze 

P2 5-10 g Naphthalene

Notes 

These aids will be found useful throughout this section. 

Specimens suggested for this investigation are: fossiliferous, 

limestone, from Rock set 3; marble, from Rock set 1; 

cemented (compacted): sandstone, from fragments 

collection; porous (loose), sandstone from fragments 

collection; shale, from Rock set 2; slate, from Rock set 1. 

Specimens suggested are: basalt, from Rock set 1; tuff. 

A suggested demonstration is to shake a bottle of mineral 

water and to release the bung suddenly. 

Suggested transparencies are available from the Geology 

Museum. Sets T 90 and 90/A/I will be adequate for this 

work. 

The naphthalene is melted by heating in water bath 

(the beaker) and is cooled by standing in the conical 

flask. Different rates of cooling may be achieved by filling 

the flask with water at varying temperatures. 

continued 

97

98 


no./q. 

ref. 

5.3 continued t:.b P2A Apparatus as in part a 

b.&5.4 

Searching for 

metals and their 

ores 

P2 5-10 g 4-Bromophenol 

of each Butan-l-ol 

1,3-Dinitrobenzene 

4-Nitrotoluene 

Phenyl salicylate 

p-Toluidine 

cPA Supply Rock specimens 

T lof Photo micro transparencies of 

each thin sections of basalt and 

granite 

T Slide projector 

Pl Patterns topic book, Rocks 

and minerals 

d 

PA 2-3 Jackdaw, Volcanoes 

T 1 Film, Rocks which originate 

underground, Rank 

b.&5.5 PI 1 sheet Graph paper 

Changes in Scotland: 

dating Earth activity

Notes 

This is an optional repeat of part a but using different 

chemicals. 

Suggested specimens are basalt and granite from Rock set 1. 

No apparatus is required for part d. 


99

100 


no./q . ref. 

.65.6 aPA 4 Rock specimens labelled 

Changes in the Earth- A, C, D and F 

detailed case studies PA 1 bottle Hydrochloric acid, 2 M, in 3 


t:::Ji.5.7 

Earth patterns 

5.8 

Earth history and 

the economy of 

people 

bPA 3 

PA 1 bottle 

Rock specimens labelled X, 

Yand Z 

Hydrochloric acid, 2 M, in 3 


PI **Patterns topic book, 

Earth patterns

Notes 

a. The group of rock specimens is from Man O'War 

Bay, Dorset. 

Rock A is Portland stone, marine limestone containing 

fossils. 

Rock C is a coarse sand containing lignite. 

Rock D is Gault clay, a dark grey silty mud containing 

marine fossils. 

Rock F is chalk. 

b. This group of three rock specimens of carboniferous 

age is from Upper Swaledale (Yordale series). 

Rock X is a light grey limestone containing marine fossils. 

Rock Y is shale containing marine fossils. 

Rock Z is coarse sandstone. 

These two groups of rocks form Rock set 3. 


101

102 

Section 6 Changes in organisms 

Time required 4} weeks 


For Investigation "6.4, fish roe such as a hard herring roe or seeds in 

fruits, such as Antirrhinum. 

For Investigation 6.6a, a selection of living or preserved specimens or 

pictures of animals and plants. 

For Investigation 6.6b, a collection of shells of the snail Cepea. 

For Investigation "6.7 6.c, *Seeds of rayed and umayed groundsel 

(Senecio vulgaris). 

For Investigation b.&6.9, *Acyanogenic and cyanogenic clover plants 

and land snails (Helix sp.) See also Appendix 2 'Clover'. 

For Investigation 6.10, tomato seeds or seedlings with the genetic 

characteristic for purple stem colour. 

For Investigation b.&6.13, *cultures of Tribolium castaneum, ebony 

and red/brown varieties. Alternative organisms are Drosophila or mice. 

For Investigation "6.20, **the cultures of Tribolium from 

Investigation b.&6.13 may be required. 


no./q. ref. 

"6.1 P2A 1-2 sets Casts of Micraster fossils, 

Patterns- of life evolutionary series of 6 

in the past specimens 

P2A 1-2 sets Casts of limbs of fossil 

horses· 

P2A 1-2 sets **Casts of Gryphaea fossils, 

evolutionary series of 4 

specimens 

PI Patterns topic book, The 

diversity of life

Notes 

Take care to keep the set of Micraster casts separate from 

the development series, used in Investigation &6.2 as the 

differences between the specimens are not immediately 

obvious and both sets contain specimens of differing sizes. 

The identification of the specimens depends upon a number 

of measurable criteria, see Teachers' Guide 4, and it may be 

worth making this identification as soon as the sets are taken 

into stock as a precaution against later confusion of the 

specimens. The casts may be clear varnished to aid their 

longevity. 

103

104 


no./q. 

ref. 

·6.2 P2A 1-2 sets Casts of Micraster fossils, 

Patterns of change development series of 6 

in organisms: a specimens 

critical assess- P2A **Cast of Archaeopteryx 

ment of available P2A Several **Photographs of Archaeopteryx 

evidence specimens 

~6.3 P2 Atlas or map showing North 

Fossils and patterns Yorkshire coast (Staithes and 

in the Earth's crust Hawsker) 

·6.4 P2A Fish roe e.g, hard herring roe 

Population growth P2A Seeds collected from one plant 

patterns 

6.5 

Inherited variation 

and breeding 

6.6 

Organisms and 

their environment 

P2A 

T 

T 

Results of Investigation 64.13 

Patterns 1 

**Film loop, The breeding of 

roses, NSS 


aPA Selection Living or preserved specimens 

or pictures of animals and 

plants 

b PA Collection of shells of 

Cepea nemoralis 

PA Selection **Colour photographs showing 

habitats in which Cepea is 

found

Notes 

See notes to Investigation £6.1 concerning the Micraster 

casts. 

Ordnance survey maps 86 and 93 (seventh series) will be 

satisfactory. 

This is a revision exercise designed to take only a short 

time. Pupils estimate the number of eggs produced by a 

fish and the number of seeds produced by a plant, and 

assuming 100% survival then estimate the growth of the 

population of the type of fish or plant. 

a The specimens are selected to show adaption, e.g, 

camouflage, to their environment. Suggested specimens 

are: bird, preferably live, e.g. a cage bird (budgerigar or 

zebra finch); caterpillars, live or colour photographs; 

fishes, live, e.g. angel fishes, guppies, zebra fishes; frog; 

Lithops (stone cactus), live; mole, preserved or photograph: 

Sedum acre (wall pepper), preferably live; stick insects, 

live. 

b The collection of snail shells should show variation in 

base colour and number of bands. The variations are related 

to the habitat as shown by the colour photographs, which 

need to be carefully matched with the specimens. 

105

106 


no./q. ref. 

1..6.7 a 

What is the 

significance 

of inherited 

variation? 

bT 

T 

T 

Film loop, Selection by 

predation, NB-54 

Film loop projector 

Film strip, Inheritance and 

selection, NSS 

T Film strip projector 

~~8 

Explaining 

evolutionary 

changes within a 

population of 

organisms 

b. c P2A Supply Seeds of unrayed (wild) groundsel 

P2A Supply Seeds of rayed (cultivated) 

groundsel 

P2 4-6 Plant pots, 100 mm diameter, clay 

P2 4-6 Seed labels 

P2A Supply Soil or John Innes no. 2 compost 

PI Patterns topic book, Darwin 

and evolution 

~6.9 P2 2 Clover plants in pots 2 

Snails and P2 6 Land snails, Helix sp. 

clover P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes 

P2 2 McCartney bottles or specimen 

tubes, 75mm X 25mm 

P2 1 Mortar and pestle 

P2 2 Plastic bags to enclose pots 

and plants 

P2 I Scalpel 

P2 2 Seed labels 

P2A I reel Self-adhesive tape 

P2 2cm 3 Toluene 

P2A Supply Sodium picrate papers 3 

PI I Patterns topic book, Darwin 

and evolution

Notes 

a No apparatus is required. 

b The section of the film strip dealing with Biston 

betularia (the peppered moth) is required for this 

investiga tion. 

c The plant pots are sown with equal quantities of seeds 

and the seeds are then germinated under different conditions 

of soil dampness. The unrayed, normal form, will be found 

to survive better in conditions of over watering or drought 

than the mutant rayed form. Seeds of wild groundsel can 

be collected in the summer and autumn for the following 

year. 

It is suggested that only one or two working groups will 

actually conduct the experiment. 


One pot should contain cyanogenic plants and the other pot 

acyanogenic plants. The mortar and pestle are used for 

crushing leaves in order to test for the type of plant, see 

Appendix 2 'clover'. 

107

108 


no./q. ref. 

6.10 P2A Tomato seeds or seedlings 

Looking for patterns planted 3-4 weeks previously 

in the inheritance P2A Supply Compost, e.g, John Innes no. 2 

of variation P2A 1 Seed tray 

·6.11 P2 12 Red beads 

Explaining the P2 12 Yellow beads 

pattern in the PI 1 **Patterns topic book, Patterns 

inheritance of of reproduction, development 

variation and growth 

·6.12 

Explaining 

family trees 

6A6.13 PA Stock culture of Trib olium 2 

Predicting the castaneum, ebony variety 

variations of PA Stock culture of T. castaneum 2 

future red/brown variety (wild type) 

generations P2A 1 pack Cotton wool, absorbent 

P2A 1 Incubator set at 30°C 

P2A 2-4 Killing jars 

P2 1-2 Pooters 

P2 1 Section lifter or spatula 

P2 2 Sieves with 1 mm holes 

P2 1 Soft hair brush 

P2 12 Specimen tubes, 75 mm X 

25 mm filled to 50 mm with 

food medium 

P2 12 Specimen tubes, 150 mm X 

25 mm filled to 50 mm with 

food medium 

P2 Specimen tube rack

Notes 

These are special seeds carrying a gene for purple stem 

colour which is dominant over the normal green stem. 

Poppet beads are useful here but other beads, marbles or 

counters of different colour but of the same size will suffice. 


The small specimen tubes are required on setting up the 

experiment. The large tubes will be required several weeks 

later. Full details concerning the method of culture and of 

this experiment are given in Appendix 2 'Trib olium '. 

Alternative organisms for this experiment are Drosophila or 

mice. If Drosophila is used a convenient characteristic to 

study is long wing (+) as opposed to vestigial wing (vg). 

Reciprocal starting crosses in separate culture bottles 

should be set up to avoid confusion with sex linked inheritance. 

Start cultures with ten virgin females and ten males and 

remove and mount adults as in the case of Tribolium. The 

first cultures should be vgvg females X ++ males in one jar 

and vgvg males X ++ females in the other jar. 

Coat colour is a convenient characteristic in mice but care 

must be exercised in the choice of starting colours as the 

inheritance patterns are somewhat complicated. Reciprocal 

crosses should be set up. 

Details of the culture of these organisms are given in 

Appendix 2. 

109

110 


no./q. ref. 

6.14 P2 Male locust or prepared 

The material of locust testis 

inheritance P2 Bunsen burner, mat 

P2 I pair Forceps 

P2 I Microscope and lamp 

P2 2-4 Microslides and coverglasses 

P2 I Mounted needle 

P2A I roll Paper towel 

P2 I pair Scissors 

P2 1 bottle Acetocarmine stain in 3 


P2 I bottle Ammonium iron(III) 3 

sulphate in dropper bottle 

T Film loop, Meiosis, NB-50 

T Film loop projector 

T I set Photographs of meiotic stages, 

NB 

T Photographic transparencies 

of meiotic stages 

T Slide Projector 

£6.15 

Chromosomes, genes 

and inheritance 

.66.6.16 T Film strip, Inheritance and 

The inheritance selection, NSS 

of sex T Film strip projector 

.66.6.17 

Crime and 

heredity 

.66.6.18 

Sex-linked 

inheritance

Notes 

For notes on the preparation and staining of locust testes 

see Appendix 2 'Locust'. Fifth instar or young adults are 

required. 

Alternatives to locust testes are anthers taken from the 

immature buds of flowers such as Tradescantia, or bulbs such 

as wild bluebell, which must be obtained in February or 

March. Details of the treatment of such plant material are 

given in Appendix 2 'Tradescantia'. 


The film strip may be cut up and individual frames mounted 

as transparencies. The section of the strip showing human 

chromosomes is required for this investigation. 



111

112 


no./q. ref. 

66.19 P2A 1-2 Cultures of haploid (ad) 

How do new yeast strain 

variations P2 Bunsen burner, mat 

arise? P2 2 Inoculating loops 

P2 3 Petri dishes containing 

minimal medium 

P2A 1 reel Self adhesive tape 

P2 1 Wax pencil 

"'6.20 PA 200 Beads of one colour 

Predicting the PA 200 Beads of second colour 

characteristics PA 2 Beakers, 1 000 ern", to 

of a future contain beads 

generation PI Patterns topic book, Darwin 

and evolution 

"'6.21 

Blood cells and 

malaria 

66.22 

Is man 

evolving now?

Notes 

The red (ad) yeast strain readily mutates to a white strain. 

The minimal medium is described in Appendix 2 'Agar'. 

Tribolium cultures set up in .6.6.6.13 may be required in 

this investigation. 



113

114 

Section 7 Changes in motion 2 



no./q. 

ref. 

67.1 

Measuring changes 

of motion 

Discussion 

Force and motion 

A7.2 

Forces and 

changes of motion 

6.7.3 

Units of force 

6Discussion 

Aircraft 

f).6. 7.4 

Improving the 

range and take-off 

T 

T 

T 

PA 

PI 1 sheet 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

2 

2-3 

I roll 

1 

3 

1 

2 

**Book, Nat Phil 5. Jardine, J. 

**Film, Experiments in force and 

motion, Esso film for teachers 

**Film projector 

Apparatus suitable for 

measuring variation in speed 

of an object; e.g. timing 

devices and measuring 

instruments 

Graph paper 


or d.c. 





Trolley cords 


Wedges to raise end of runway

Notes 

The pupils are asked to devise their own experiments in 

order to find out how the speed of an object varies. 

Objects suggested for investigation are, a car, a bicycle, 

a laboratory animal, or the pupil himself. The range of 

equipment can be quite extensive, from stopc1ocks to 

scalers, to stroboscopic photography; and from metre 

rules to measuring tapes, to car speedometers. 


The apparatus suggested here should be sufficient to 

accomplish the work described in this investigation. 

The trolley cords will be found useful as 'identical' rubber 

bands for later parts of the investigation. 




115

116 


no./q. 

ref. 

7.5 

Comparing the 

performance of cars 

6.Discussion 

Cars 

~7.6 

Forces in fluids 

b(i) P2 

P2 

b(ii) P2 

bfiii) P2 

P2 

b(iv) T 

PI I sheet Graph paper 

T 

bey) T 

b(vi) T 

T 

T 

T 

I 

2 

2 sheets 

Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

Wooden spheres suspended on 

thread 

Paper, e.g. A4 size 

Filter funnel, 75 mm dia 

Table tennis ball or polystyrene 

sphere, 37.5 mm dia 

Jet, fitted with rubber tubing 

to compressed air supply, 

e.g. air blower as used with 

linear air track 

Table tennis ball or polystyrene 

sphere, 37.5 mm dia 

Flow gradient tube, NP 

item 143 

Bemouilli tube, NP item 143 

**Film loop, Falling bodies, 

BBC/Gateway 

**Film loop, Switching off 

gravity, BBC 

**Film loop, Trajectories and 

Newton's thought experiment 

BBC

Notes 


thread 

111 The funnel should be placed 

on a flat surface. 

table-tennis 

ball 

blOWhe,eD 

ii 

sheets of 

paper 

iv 

blow here 

Otable tennis bail0 

or expanded 

potvstvrene 

sphere 

jet (supplied with air from 

blower 

continued 

117

118 


no./q. 

b.A.7.6 continued 

Item App. 

ref. 

7.7 a P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 V a.c. 

Gravity or d.c. 

P2-4 2 Connecting leads, 1 m long 

P2-4 1 G-clamp 

P2-4 1 Mass, 0.5 kg, e.g, wooden block 

P2-4 1 Mat for mass to fall on 

P2-4 1 roll Self-adhesive tape 



b P2-4A Apparatus as in part a 

P2-4A Objects of different materials 

and masses 

T Guinea and feather tube 

T Vacuum pump 

c 

b.d P2 1 Metre rule 

P2 2-3 Pendulum bobs of different masses 

P2 1 Protractor 

P2 1 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

P2 1 Stopclock 

P2 1 reel Thread 

b.e PI 1 sheet Graph paper 

b.f PI 1 sheet Graph paper

Notes 

a 

No apparatus is required for 

part c. 

~d Pupils investigate the 

effect of different mass 

pendulum bobs on the 

period of oscillation. 

119

120 


no./q. ref. 

Discussion T **Record, The Bricklayer 

Gravitational field T **Record player 

·7.8 P2-4 L.t supply, 12 Va.c. 

The nature of force or d.c. 


P2-4 1 Dynamics trolley 

P2-4 1set Masses, slotted on hanger 

P2-4 1roll Ticker tape, gummed 


P2-4 1 Trolley runway 

P2-4 2 Wedges to raise end of runway 

b.t..7.9 P2 1 Drawing board fitted with 

Combining forces 

screw 

P2 2 Forcemeters, ION 

P2 1 Metal ring 

P2 1 Protractor 

P2 Rubber band, 10 mm wide 

P2 2 sheets White paper 

·7.10 

Distance and time 

·7.11 

Checking the 

formula 

~bT 

aT 1 set Nuts on a string 

T 

T 

2 

1 

Marble, 25 mm diameter, or 

steel bearing 

Retort stands, bossheads 

Runway, 2.5 m long, grooved 

along one edge and fitted with 

clips and gates

Notes 

A loaded trolley of mass 1.10 kg is used for a repeat of 

the experiment. 

screw 

Other methods of accomplishing this work are described 

in Investigation .&11.2. 


Tie the end of the string to a heavy object then tie nuts on 

at 0.1 m, 0.4 m, 0.9 m and 1.6 m distances from the heavy 

object. 

continued 

121

122 


no./q. 

ref. 

A7.11 continued P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 V a.c. or d.c. 


P2-4 1 Dynamics trolley 



P2-4 1 Trolley runway 

P2-4 2 Wedges to raise end of runway 

A7.12 

Using the formula 

~7.13 

The long jumper 

Discussion 

Models 

c P2 Metre rule 

T 

T 

T 

**Book, Theme 6 Movement, NSS 

**Book, The science of movement 

**Film loop, Change of kinetic 

energy during magnetic 

collision, BBC

Notes 

The rule is dropped and caught as it drops. The reaction 

time is calculated from the distance dropped by the rule. 


continued 

123

124 


no./q. 

ref. 

Discussion T **Film loop, Storing energy 

Models during springboard dive and 

continued pole vault, BBC 


·7.14 a 

Kinetic energy 

b P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 Va.c. 

or d.c. 

P2-4A Connecting leads 

P2-4 Metre rule 

P2-4 Pendulum bob, 25 mm dia 

P2-4 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

P2-4A I reel Thread or fine wire 

P2-4 I roll Ticker tape, gummed 

P2-4 I Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c. 

T **Scaler, photodiodes and light 

sources I 

c P2-4A 

P2-4A 

d P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

P2-4 

2 

I 

1 roll 

1 

4 

I 

2 

Apparatus as in part b 

Additional bosshead and 

clamp 


or d.c. 


Dynamics trolley 



Trolley cords 


Wood blocks to raise end of I 

runway

Notes 

a No apparatus is required. 

b c 

An alternative method of measuring the speed of the bob 

is to use a scaler and to measure directly the time taken for 

the bob to cross the beam of light. 

continued 

125

126 


no./q. 

.7.14 continued T 

T 

·7.15 

Elastic collisions 

e and f 

T 1 

T 1-2 

T 

T 

~g P2 4 

P2 

h P2-4A 

i P2-4A 

P2-4 2 

P2-4A Supply 

Item App. 

ref. 

**Camera, cassette type 

**Lighting system suitable to 

photographic techniq ue used 

**Linear air track and blower 

**Photographic films 

**Photographic processing equipment 

suitable for technique 

used, e.g. Monobath 

**Strobe, motorised disc or 

xenon flasher 4 

Coins 

Lath or rule with hole for 

pivot 

Apparatus as in part d with 

addition of a second loaded 

trolley 

Apparatus as in part h with 

addition of one extra light 

and one extra loaded trolleys 


Compression springs, corks 

and pins, foam rubber, 

magnets, Plasticine, trolley 

cords etc

Notes 


The linear air track and its associated equipment are 

alternatives to dynamics trolleys and runways. 

e and f No apparatus is required . 

.6.g 

coins at equal spacing 

~~recti 0n.( 

rotation ~-' __ ~~ __ ~L- __ ~~ 

~------------------~ pivot 


127

128 


no./q. 

ref. 

Discussion T **Film, An approach to kinetic 

Elasticity theory, Esso film for teachers 

Discussion aT Three-dimensional kinetic 

Particles and theory kit 

molecules 

bT 

T 

T 

T 

cT 

T 

T 

I 000 g 

I 

I 

200+ 

I 

Balance, domestic or lever 

Lead shot 

Screen for balance 

Tray 

Anvil and beam 

Marbles 

Screen and tray as for 

demonstration b

Notes 

This model consists of a transparent tube at the bottom of 

which is a vibrating diaphragm. Small spheres are placed in 

the tube and when in motion form a model of molecules 

moving in the tube. Various forms of the apparatus may be 

bought, anyone of which will be suitable for this 

demonstration. 

The lead shot is dropped onto the inverted scale pan. 

The screen is easily made by using a safety screen for the 

front and hardboard mats for the other three sides. 

Marbles are dropped onto the anvil causing the pointer of 

the beam to be deflected. 

pointer counterpoise 

perspex 

t-----~--glycerol 

-+--steel 

continued 

129

130 


no./q. 

ref. 

Discussion dT Bromine diffusion kit 

Particles and TA Fume cupboard 

Molecules T I pair Pliers 

continued T I Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

T I pair Rubber gloves 

T I Translucent screen and 

60 W lamp 

T 2500 cm ' Ammonia, 2 M in plastic 

bucket 3 

T 500 crrr' Ammonia, i-strength in 

I 000 cm 3 beaker 3 

T Bromine capsule, I crrr' 4 

"7.16 

TA 

How fast do 

molecules move? T 

T 

"7.17 

Predicting the 

behaviour of 

gases 

aT 

T 

0.5 m 

I 

Apparatus as in part d of the 

discussion above. 

Pressure tubing 

Pump, vacuum/compression 

Boyles law apparatus 

Foot pump and adaptor

Notes 

Full details concerning the use of this equipment are to be 

found in Appendix 1. Before assembling the apparatus check 

that all rubber bungs and tubing are not hard or perished due 

to previous exposure to bromine. Replace them if necessary. 

The beaker of i strength ammonia is used to neutralise 

any accidental spillages of bromine. 

After the experiment open the tube under the 2 M ammonia 

in the bucket. Wear rubber gloves for the cleaning operation. 

If a fume cupboard is available it should be used while 

cleaning is carried out. 

See the notes above and Appendix 1 'Bromine diffusion 

experiment' for full details concerning this demonstration 

of the diffusion of bromine into a vacuum. 

continued 

131

132 


no./q. 

ref. 

.•.7. 17 Predicting bT **Beaker, 1 000 cm' 

the behaviour of T **Bourdon gauge 

gases continued T **Bunsen burner, mat 

T **Flask, 250 crrr' ,round 

bottomed, fitted with single 

hole bung and straight 

delivery tube 100 mm long. 

T 0.5 m **Pressure tubing 

T 1 **Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

T **Thermometer,-10 to + 100°C 

T **Tripod, gauze 

c P2 

P2 

P2 

PI 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

1 sheet 

2 

1 

1 

1 

**Beaker, 600 cm ' 

**Bunsen burner, mat 

**Capillary tube with mercury 

index (sealed at one end) 

Graph paper 

**Rubber bands 

**Rule, 300 mm 

**Thermometer, -10 to +100 °c 

**Tripod, gauze

Notes 

The flask should be tilted (or placed in a deep container) 

so that it is immersed to the top of the neck. 

The capillary tubes should be about 180 mm long, of 1 mm 

bore, closed at one end and open at the other. They should 

each have a mercury index in them, about 2.5 mm long and 

about 125 mm from the closed end. 

The capillary tubes and thermometers are fixed to the rules 

with rubber bands at each end. For convenience the end of 

the air column inside the tube should be made to coincide 

with the zero of the scale on the rule. 

The tubes are put into the beakers with the open end free 

to the air. The water is heated steadily and is kept well 

stirred so that its temperature is uniform. The length of the 

air column (which is proportional to the volume) is 

observed at different temperatures and the results are plotted 

on a graph. 

continued 

133

134 


no./q. 

ref. 

.7.17 Predicting 

the behaviour of 

gases continued 

L:\.A7.18 

Gas law 

problems 

·7.19 

Acceleration 

or not? 

a P2 

bT 

T 

c 

T 1 bottle 

Soft ball on length of string 

Coin, 2 p, or washer 

Gramophone turntable with 

smooth paper surface 

Ink

Notes 

In order to prepare the tubes they should be sealed and then 

heated in an oven to about 120°C. The open end of each 

tube is dipped into cold dry mercury in a fume cupboard so 

that an index is drawn in as it cools. 

6d No apparatus is required. 


a The pupils whirl the balls around their heads and let 

go to determine the flight direction when released. 

b A coin is placed near the surface of the turntable and 

its motion is tracked by wetting its under-surface with ink. 

c No apparatus is required. 

continued 

135

136 


no./q. 

ref. 

A7.19 continued d(i) P2 Circular motion kit 

P2 Stopc1ock

Notes 

d(i) 

I 

\ 

I II 

. ))) »»~ 

A piece of cord 1.5 m long is tied to the wire hook. The 

other end is passed through the square indicator, through 

the glass tube and then through one hole of the bung. The 

end is then passed back through the other hole of the bung 

and anchored by plugging the hole with the wooden rod. 

Finally the string is hitched round the wooden rod. 

Washers are slipped over the wire hook to provide the 

'inwards' (accelerating) force. The square indicator is 

adjusted so that it will be just below the glass tube when 

the bung is circling at the required radius. 

continued 

137

138 


no./q. ref. 

"'7.19 continued d(ii) T L.t. supply for motor 

TA Connecting leads 

T Forcemeter, 10 N 

T Fractional horse power motor 

and gear box 

T Turntable fitted with truck 

attachment 

Discussion 

Acceleration 

l:\A7.20 

Calculating 

circular 

acceleration 

l:\A7.21 

Using acceleration 

in a circle 

T **Film, Drive again tomorrow, 

Shell and BP 

T 

**Film, Motoring practice, 

Shell and BP 

T 

**Film, Winter driving, Shell 

and BP 

T 

**Film projector

Notes 

The turntable must be rotated steadily. This can be done 

by hand, but it is more convenient to drive it using the 

fractional horse power motor coupled with its gear box. 

The speed of rotation can be controlled by means of the 

variable Lt. supply. 

It may be necessary to increase the load on the truck by 

adding masses to it. 



139

140 


no./q. 

6A7.22 

Reducing car 

accidents 

6A7.23 

Reducing accident 

injuries 

Discussion 

Safety and cars 

Item App. 

ref.

Notes 




141

Section 8 Changes in atoms 

TIme required 3 weeks 


no./q. 

ref. 

Charge from atoms 

Discussion 

Atoms and ions 

"'8.1 

Electrons in atoms 

T Book, The use of ionising 

radiations in schools etc 

"'8.2 T **Film, An approach to the 

Conduction in a electron Esso film for teachers 

vacuum T **Film projector 

142 

a(i) P2-4 L.t. supply, 0-12 Va.c. 

e.g. transformer 

P2-4 3 **Dry cells (U2), 1.5 V 

P2-4 1 **Circuit board 

P2-4 Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

P2-4 1 Diode EA50, and holder 

P2-4 1 Oscilloscope 

P2-4 1 Resistor, 1.5 kn

Notes 

Teachers and technicians should be familiar with the 

contents of this and any other regulation regarding the use 

of radioactive materials in schools. 

This section is divided into two parts. The second part 

starts at Investigation-s 8.5. 



There are two parts to this investigation. Part a(i) is the 

pupils' version of the demonstration a(ii) and part b(i) 

is the pupil version of the demonstration b(ii). Demonstration 

b(iii) is an optional demonstration using the demonstration 

hot filament triode tube. 

a(i) r~h~~~~~k-l0 8 

o.V 

6.Va.c. 

I I 

I I 

l .---.I.-;-~ c:J () 

I 000 

I 

I 

1.5 

kn. 

continued 

143

144 


no./q. 

6.8.2 continued 

Item App. 

ref. 

a(ii) T H.t. supply. 0-500 V 4 

T Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

T 1 Hot filament diode tube and 

stand 

T Oscilloscope 

T Resistor, 1.5kQ 

b(i) P2-4 L.t. supply, 0-12 V a.c.. 

e.g. transformer 

P2-4 3 **Dry cells (U2), 1.5V 

P2-4 **Circuit board 

P2-4 Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

P2-4 1 Diode EA50,and holder 

P2-4 1 Galvanometer, 3.5-0-3.5 rnA 

P2-4 1 Rheostat, 10-15 Q 

b(ii) T H.t. supply, 0-500 V 4 

T Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

T 1 Galvanometer, 2.5-0-2.5 rnA, 

demonstration 

T Hot filament diode tube and 

stand

Notes 

The oscilloscope is set on time-base range 2, with the input 

switch to d.c. and the gain set between 0.1 and 0.5 div/volt, 

The internal resistance between the input terminals of the 

oscilloscope could be used for the load but it is probably 

better teaching to use the 1.5 kD., 0.5 W resistor as. 

illustrated. The input may be varied. 

If the diode is shorted out by connecting the anode to the 

cathode the effect of the diode as a rectifier is made clear. 

a(ii) A similar circuit to that used in a(i) is required for 

this demonstration. Notes concerning the use of the hot 

filament diode tube are to be found in Appendix 1. 

4.Va.c. 

galvanometer 

The diode must be under-run 

b(ii)

146 


no./q. 

ref. 

&8.2 continued b.b(iii) T ** Apparatus as in b(ii) but hot 

filament triode tube in place 

of the diode

Notes 

b(iii) 

See Appendix 1 for notes concerning the use of the hot 

filament triode tube. 

147

148 


no./q. 

ref. 

.&8.3 aT E.h.t. power supply, 5 kV 4 

Deflections in a T L.t. supply to give 6.3 V 

vacuum T Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

T 1 Maltese cross tube and stand 

b(i)T 

T 

T 

T 

Supply 

1 

E.h.t. power supply, 5 kV 4 

L.t. supply to give 6.3 V 

Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

Deflection tube and stand

Notes 

a 

.-" 

~ / perforated 

screen " ..... __ " anode filament 

Maltese cross 

6.3.V 

~ -o3.A 

It is not essential to connect the Maltese cross to anything 

and it may be most convincing if it is left disconnected. 

However, electrons hitting the cross will charge it negatively 

so that it repels electrons and this may even prevent the 

fluorescence at the end of the tube from being seen. Should 

this happen, connect the cross to the anode. With some tubes, 

electrons hitting the cross cause other electrons to be emitted 

from the cross. These secondary electrons travel to the anode 

and prevent the cross from becoming appreciably negative 

with respect to the anode and the tube fluoresces nearly 

normally. 

The arrangement with the cross connected to the anode may 

be preferred as the problems described above will not then 

be encountered. 

b(i) 

~-- first to e.h.t, + 

then to e.h.t. - 

For details of the operation of the deflection tube see 

Appendix 1. 

continued 

149

150 


no./q. 

ref. 

A8.3 continued bell) T **H.t. supply 4 

0-500 V 

T **L.t. supply, 0-48 Vor 

tapped accumulators 

T Supply **Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m 

T 1 **Fine beam tube and stand 

T 2 **Magnets, magnadur 

T 1 **Rheostat, 10-15 n 

l:::.II..8.4 

Radius of path 

Discussion 

Current through 

a vacuum 

Radiations from 

atoms 

A8.5 

Evidence for 

radiations 

from atoms 

T **Film, Further experiments in 

radioactivity, Esso film for 

teachers 

T **Film, Introduction to radioactivity, 

Esso film for teachers 

T **Film projector 

PI Topic book, Radioactive 

chemicals, NC 

PI Topic book, Radioactivity, 

LPT 

aT 

**Cloud chamber, continuous 

(Taylor) 

T Cloud chamber, expansion 

(Wilson) 

T I **Dropper (teat) pipette 

T 10 cm ' **EthanolOMS) 

T I **Carbon dioxide, solid 4 

b

Notes 

b(ii) This is an alternative demonstration to b(i). 

Full details are given in Appendix 1 'Fine beam tube'. 

Do not operate the tube for longer than necessary. 

Do not raise the h.t. on the anode until the heater filament 

is glowing. 

Use blackout and operate the tube at its lowest operational 

voltage in order to extend its life, i.e. about 90 V with a 

new tube but higher voltage as the tube becomes older. 



The second part of this section starts here. 

a Either type of cloud chamber will suffice for this work. 

Notes on the production of solid carbon dioxide are given 

in Appendix 4 'Gas cylinders'. 

b No apparatus is required. 

continued 

151

152 


no./q. 

ref. 

&8.5 continued cT E.h.t. power supply, ~ kV 4 

T a-source and holder e 39 pu 

or 241 Am), or a 5 pC radium 

source 

TA Supply Sheets of aluminium, paper, 

perspex, etc. as available 

T Spark counter 

4lT E.h.t. power supply,S kV 4 

T a-source and holder e 39 Pu 

or 241 Am), or a 5 pC radium 

source 

T 3 Connecting leads, 0.5 M 

T 2 Electrophorus discs, 150 mm 

diameter 

T 2-4 Electroscopes, and accessories 

T 1 Polythene strip or rod 

T 2 Retort stands, bossheads, 

clamps 

T Translucent screen and 60 W 

lamp 

T 

Woollen (flannel) cloth, 

150 mm X 150 mm minimum size 

TA Supply Compounds of uranium, 

thorium and others available

Notes 

c The high tension lead of the spark counter is connected 

to the positive terminal of the e.h.t. power supply. The other 

terminal of the counter is connected to the negative terminal 

of the supply, and this in turn is earthed. The voltage is 

increased until the counter is just below the point of 

spontaneous discharge. 

If a continuous spark is observed when a source is placed 

over the wire of the counter then the applied voltage is 

too high and the wire will become damaged. Keep the counter 

free of dust and change the wire if it becomes kinked or bent. 

d 

153

154 


no./q. ref. 

6A8.6 T a source e 39 pu or 241 Am) 

How many sorts? T ~ source (90 Sr) 

T 'Ysource (60 Co) 

T 1 GM tube (thin window) 

T 1-2 Lead blocks, e.g. from 

materials kit (NP item 1) 

T Magnet, e.g. Eclipse major 

T 50 g Plasticine 

T 1 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

T 1 Scaler 1 

T **Solid state detector and 

pre-amplifier 

Discussion 

Background 

radiation 

6A8.7 

Identifying the 

radiations 

6A8.8 

What are the 

T 

radiations? T 

TA ** Apparatus as described in 

A8.5 and 6A8.6 

T 

T 

**Film, The discovery of radioactivity, 

OECD 

**Film loop, A lpha particles 

Macmillan 


**Film projector

Notes 

magnet 

Plasticine 

It is worthwhile finding out in advance the appropriate 

positions of the apparatus to give a large reading. Note 

that if no reading is obtained it is probably because the 

radiation is being deflected away from the GM tube. If 

the magnet is turned round the deflection will be towards 

the GM tube. 


The optional practical work illustrates the criteria described 

in the table in Patterns 4. 

scaler 

ISS

156 


no./q. 

ref. 

8.9 T E.h.t. power supply,S kV 4 

Evidence for T Macro-Millikan apparatus 

chunks of charge T Polythene tile (or polystyrene 

ceiling tile) 

T Proof plane 

T Woollen (flannel) cloth, 

150 mm X 150 mm 

minimum size 

T Film, Are there electrons?, 

Rank 

T **Film, The electron'S tale, 

Mullard 

T Film loop, Are there 

electrons? 

Rank 



6&8.10 PA 200- Wooden cubes, 1 crrr' 

Random 1 000 (Tillich blocks or similar) 

radiations T **GM tube (thin window) 

T **Po1ythene bottle, 30 ern" 

T **Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

T **Scaler 1 

T **Stopclock 

T 10 em" ** Amyl acetate or ethyl acetate 

T 7 crrr' **Hydrochloric acid, 

concentrated 

3,4 

T 1 g **Uranyl nitrate

Notes 

The cubes are used as dice. Each die will need to have one 

marked face. 

Dissolve the uranyl nitrate in 3 crrr' of distilled water in the 

polythene bottle. Add 7 crrr' concentrated hydrochloric acid. 

Add 10 cm' amyl or ethyl acetate and shake vigorously. 

The GM tube is directed at the organic layer which separates 

out. This layer contains protactinium/P". The scaler registers 

the decay rate of the 234 Pa or if the GM tube is directed at 

the aqueous layer it will register the growth rate. 

ornanlc laver i. 

aqueous layer ••. 

r-----l r-==I 

~ 

tube 

continued 

157

158 


no./q. 

ref. 

~..~8.1 0 continued T 3-4 **Dropping funnels or burettes 

T 1 **Retort stand 

4-5 **bossheads and clamps 

T 2X 1m **Rubber tubing 

T **Stopc1ock 

Discussion 

Randomness and 

change 

"'8.11 

Looking inside the 

atom 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

1 

3 

2 

2 

50mm 

I 

Dowel, 1 m X 6-8 mm 

diameter 

G-clamp 

Magnets, bar 

Magnets, cylindrical 

Retort stands, bossheads, 

clamps 

Rubber tubing 

wire loop 

TA **Two-dimensional motion 

apparatus

Notes 

~ '--_---. to sink 


wire loop --.!!!!!!fl======1 

dowel 

cylindrical S N 

magnets S 

bar maonet'-i-11 

If dry ice is required it may be produced from carbon dioxide 

cylinders, see Appendix 4 'Gas cylinders'. Magnetic pucks are 

required for this model. continued 

159

160 


no./q. ref. 

8.11 continued T Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

T Sphere, conducting on nylon 

mono-filament suspension 

T Van de Graaff generator 4 

Discussion 

Nuclear structure 

·8.12 

The problem of 

certain atomic 

masses 

Discussion 

Isotopes 

68.13 

Atomic mass, 

atomic number 

and the periodic 

table 

P2 Alpha analogue model 

P2A Supply Marbles 

P2A Supply **Plasticine 

PI Topic book,Inside the atom, 

PI NC 

PI Topic book, Radioactive 

chemicals, NC 


LPT 

T **Film, Conquest of the atom, 

Mullard 

T **Film, Rutherford atom, PSSC 


T 

T 

T 

T 

**Film, Isotopes, UKAEA 

Film loop, Aston's mass 

spectrograph, Mullard 

Film loop projector 

**Film projector

Notes 

A model can be 

constructed using 

an inverted saucer. 




Plasticine 

161

162 


no./q. 

ref. 

"'8.14 PI Topic book, Radioactive 

The philosopher's chemicals, NC 

stone 

8.1 5 PI Topic book, Inside the atom, 

Nuclear energy NC 


LPT 

T **Film, Fuel for the future, 

Mullard 


Discussion 

Uses of energy 

from nuclear reactions 

8.16 PIA Supply Periodicals, books and topic 

Using radioactivity books containing information 

concerning radioactivity and 

radioactive substances and 

their uses 

8.17 

Danger - 

radioactivity 

Discussion 

Restricting the use 

of radioactivity 

8.18 

The politics of 

the Bomb

Notes 





163

164 

Section 9 Changes in molecules 

Time required 2 weeks + l:l.1week 


no./q. 

l:l.Discussion T 

Molar ionisation 

energies of 

elements 

T 

Discussion T 

Ions and giant 

structures again 

T 


Metals 

T 


The covalent bond 

A 

Changes in positions 

of atoms 

9.1 

The case of C2 H60 

T 

T 

T 

Item App. 

ref. 

**Filmstrip, The architecture 

and properties of matter, 

part 1, frames 1,2,5,6,8,10, 

11 

**Filmstrip projector 

**Filmstrip, The architecture and 

properties of matter, part 1, 

frames 13, 14,15,16,17,18 



and properties of matter, part 

1, frames 20, 21, 22,23,24, 

25,26 



and properties of matter, part 1, 

frames 29, 30,31,32,33, 34, 

35 part 2, frames 32,33,34, 37, 

38,39 


**Model of ethanol 

**Model of methoxyrnethane

Notes 

The Peel model kit may be useful in these discussions. See 

Appendix 1 'Peel models' for notes concerning their use. 

This section is divided into three parts, A, Band C. 

The first part starts here. 

For notes on the construction of the suggested models see 

Appendix 1"Molecular' models'. 

165

166 


no./q. 

ref. 

A9.2 P2 Beaker, 250 cm ' 

Comparing alcohols P2 Bunsen burner, mat 

and ethers P2A 1 pack Cotton wool, absorbent 


P2 1 Test tube holder 


P2 1 Tripod, gauze 

T 6 Watch glasses, 50 mm hard 

glass 

TPA Winchester bottle, 

2 500 crn ' in fume cupboard 

P2 10 cm ' Butoxybutane (dibutyl ether) 

P2 10 cm ' Ethanol (IMS) 

P2 10 cm ' Ethoxyethane (diethyl ether) 4 

P2 10 cm ' Methanol 

P2 10 cm ' Propanol 

P2 10 cm ' Propoxypropane (dipropylether) 

P2 1 piece Sodium metal, the size of 4 

a rice grain 

TA **Models of the alcohols and 

ethers used in the experiment 

B 

Changing the size 

of molecules 

A9.3 a(i) P2 

Making ethanol from P2 

a larger molecule P2A 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 2 

1 pack 

1 

2 

2-4 

Beaker, 400 cm ' 

Bunsen burner, mat 

Cotton wool, non-absorbent 

Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

Rubber connecting tubing 0.5 m 

Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm 

Test tube, 125 mm X 16 mm 

with side arm, fitted with single 

hole bung and right angled 

delivery tube 175 mm X 50 mm 

Test tubes 150 mm X 25 mm

Notes 

Pupils should use the beaker as a water bath which is heated 

before they are given the ethers. Flames under the water 

baths are turned out before the experiments start and the 

hot water in the baths is used for warming the reaction 

mixture when esterification is attempted. 

The sodium should be cut in advance of the lesson and placed 

under naphtha or dry paraffin in a glass jar with a ground 

glass stopper until required. Excess sodium can be disposed 

of by dropping small pieces into a sink half full of water. 

Stand back as each piece reacts with the water as the bead of 

sodium oxide formed explodes when it dissolves. 

Keep the work area well ventilated during this work and 

dispose of excess solvents by placing in a Winchester bottle 

standing in a fume cupboard with the extractor fan running. 

Notes on the construction of models of the alcohols and 

ethers are given in Appendix 1 'Molecular models'. 

The second part of the section starts immediately before 

Investigation .9.3 

There are two parts to the experiment. In the first part a 

starch suspension is hydrolysed by acid hydrolysis and by 

enzyme action using saliva. The hydrolysate is examined 

using paper chromatography but in order to do this it will 

probably be necessary to concentrate the pupils' solutions 

by distilling under reduced pressure. The apparatus is listed 

in three parts; a(i) is the apparatus required for the hydrolysis, 

a(ii) is the apparatus required for concentration of the 

hydrolysate, and a(iii) is the apparatus required for 

chromatography. 

continued 

167

168 


no./q. 

ref. 

"'9.3 continued P2 Thermometer, -10 to +110 0 C 

P2 Tripod, gauze 

P2 1 bottle Benedict's solution in 3 


P2 2 cm ' Hydrochloric acid, I M 3 

P2 20 cm' Starch solution, 1% 3 

P2A Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Notes 

a(i) The two methods of hydrolysis to be used are acid 

hydrolysis using the cold finger apparatus illustrated, and 

enzyme hydrolysis using a water bath as illustrated in 

diagram b. 

a 

b 

heat 

t 

heat 

starch and 2 M 

hydrochloric acid 

starch and saliva 

The condenser 

should not be 

inserted until 

the liquid has 

boiled for 2-3 

minutes, and 

must not be 

secured with 

a tight fitting 

bung 

continued 

169

170 


no./q. 

ref. 

£9.3 continued al ii) P2A 1-2 

sets 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

3-6 

1-2 

Xlm 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

1-2 

**Apparatus for distillation 

under reduced pressure, see 

diagram, comprising; 

**Bunsen burner, mat 

**Condenser, Liebig, fitted with 

l-holed bung 

**Filter pump 

**Flask, 500 crrr' Buchner, fitted 

with 2-holed bung, and one 

short and one long delivery tube 

**Flask, 500 crrr' distillation, 

fitted with 2-holed bung, and 

one long delivery tube 

**Hoffman screw clip 

**Manometer, mercury 

**Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

**Rubber connecting tubing 

**Test tube, 1SO mm X 25 mm, 

with side arm, fitted with 

l-holed bung 

**Thermometer, -10 to + 110°C 

**Tripod, gauze 

**Water bath 

10-20 g **Boiling beads or porous pot

Nbtes 

a(ii) Apparatus for distillation under reduced pressure. 

Examine all glassware carefully for faults or cracks and use 

safety screens . 

.-------Hoffman screwclip 

to filter pump 

trap manometer 

continued 

171

172 


no./q. 

ref. 

.&.9.3 continued afiii) P2 1-2 Filter paper, approxima tely 

sheets 250 mm square 

P2 1 Gas jar and cover 

P2 1 Jet, glass, drawn to fine end 

P2A 1 Oven, set at 100°C 

P2 2-3 Paper clips 

P2A 2-3 Troughs for locating agent 

P2 5-10 cm' Eluent (chromatography 

solvent) 3 

P2 5 crrr' Glucose, 1% 3 

P2A Locating agent 3 

P2 5 cnr' Maltose, 1% 3 

T **Model of glucose 

T **Model of maltose 

b(i) P2 Flask, 100 crrr' conical, 

fitted with l-holed bung 

and short delivery tube 

P2 I Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

P2 1 Spatula 


P2 50 cm' Glucose, 20% 3 

P2 10 cm ' Lime water 3 

P2 0.5 g Yeast 

b(ii) T Bunsen burner, mat 

T Condenser, Liebig 

T Filter funnel and pap er 

T Flask, 100 crrr' , conical, for 

use as receiver 

T Flask, 500 ern" , round bottom, 

fitted with I-holed bung 

T 1 Fractionating column 

T 3-4 Retort stands, bossheads, 

clamps

Notes 

a(iii) Ascending paper chromatography is suggested for 

this part of the experiment. The apparatus is assembled as 

shown in the diagrams. 

im of gasjar 

ct=b-+-+--paper clip 

--+-+---cylinder of filter paper 

The fine glass jet is used for spotting the test substances 

onto the chromatography paper. 

Information concerning the construction of appropriate 

models is given in Appendix 1 'Molecular models'. 

The second part of the investigation the pupils ferment 

glucose solution. Their products are collected together 

and filtered into distillation apparatus so that a few drops 

of ethanol can be distilled over and shown by burning to 

be alcohol. b(i) lists the pupils requirements and b(ii) the 

apparatus required for the distillation. 

b(ii) Fractional distillation of fermented glucose. 

continued 

173

174 


no./q. ref. 

"9.3 continued T 2 X 1m Rubber connecting tubing 

T Thermometer, -10 to 

+ 110°C 

T 10 g Boiling beads or porous pot 

"9.4 PI **Background book, 

Catalysis, NC 

Changes in the size T **Film loop, Problems in 

of alcohols and the use of detergents, NAC 

ethers T **Film loop projector 

"9.S PI Patterns topic book, Science 

A detergent story and decision making 

9.6 A Selection **Booklets from National 

Alcohol and society Council on Alcoholism

Notes 

175

176 


no./q. 

ref. 

C 

Changes in 

molecular shape 

l!t.9.7 P2A Balance, reading to 0.00 I g 

The properties of P2 2 Beakers, 100 crrr' 

maleic and fumaric P2 1 Beaker, 250 cm' 

acids P2 Bunsen burner, mat 

P2 Filter funnel and paper 

P2 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

P2 Spatula 

P2 2 Test tubes, 150 mm X 16 mm, 

graduated 

P2 Tripod, gauze 

P2 Watch glass, 50 mm diameter 

P2 15 crrr' Hydrochloric acid, 34 

concentrated 

P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in 3 


P2A Water, distilled 3 

P2 0.2 g Magnesium ribbon 

P2 10-15 g Maleic acid 

P2 1-2 g Sodium carbonate 

T 1 Model of fumaric acid 

T Model of maleic acid 

l!t.9.8 PI Patterns topic book, Science 

The PVC story 

and decision making

Notes 

The third part of the section starts here. 

Pupils are instructed to weigh accurately 0.06 mole of 

maleic acid, i.e. 6.96 g. It is suggested that the requisite 

quantity of maleic acid is weighed out by the technician 

before the lesson, as the weighings will take some time. 

The pupils can then be issued with the correct quantity 

of the acid at the commencement of the lesson. 

Notes concerning the construction of these models are to be 

found in Appendix 1 'Molecular models'. 

177

178 

Section 10 Changes in populations and communities 

Time required 1 week 


For Investigation "'10.6, **turfin seed trays may be required. 


no./q. 

ref. 

"'10.1 PI Patterns topic book, 

Changes in Population patterns 

population size 

10.2 

Changes in communities: 

the seasonal pattern 

10.3 P2 1 **Microscope and lamp 

Long-term patterns P2A 4-6 **Microslides or coverglasses 

of change in with cellulose film attached 

communities P2A 2-6 **Plant pots (clay) 180 mm dia 

P2A 4-6 **Microslides or coverglasses 

with cellulose film attached 

P2A 2-6 **Plant pots (clay) 180 mm dia 

P2A 2-6 **Plastic bags or glass plates to 

cover the plant pots 

P2A 8-12 **Rubber bands 

P2 1 **Soft hair brush 

P2A 1 reel **Thread 

P2 1 **Wash bottle of water 

T 1 **Film, Succession from sanddune 

to forest, Rank 


10.4 

The causes of 

succession 

6A 10.5 

Do climax 

communities change?

Notes 


The optional apparatus is used for an alternative investigation 

in which cellulose film becomes colonised. Cellulose film - 

cellophane (jam jar covers) - will stick to coverglasses if it is 

moistened. The cellophane used here will not need to be 

boiled to remove sugars since such sugar traces are unlikely 

to affect the results. Long pieces of cellophane may be fixed 

to one microslide or be sandwiched between two microslides. 

In either case the film is kept in place by means of rubber 

bands or for long term work by means of bulldog clips. If 

the experiment is carried out using plant pots indoors then 

the slides or coverglasses should be arranged radially with 

the cellulose film facing the same way on each mount, and 

whether indoors or outside a thread attached to the mounts 

should emerge at the surface of the soil for easy retrieval. 



179

180 


no./q. 

ref. 

~10.6 P2A Supply **Grass seed or turf 

The destruction P2A Supply **Topsoil 

of climaxes P2 2 **Filter funnels, 200 mm dia 

plastic 

P2 2 **Roses (sprinklers) 

P2A Supply **Rubber tubing 

P2 2 **Seed trays 

P2 2 **Winchester bottles, 2 500 crrr' 

P2A 2-3 **Book, An A merican Exodus: 

a record of human erosion 

P2A 2-3 **Book, The grapes of wrath 

T I **Film, The plow that broke 

the plain, BFI 

T Film loop, The conservation 

of topsoil, NB 



T Record, Dust bowl ballads 

T Record player

Notes 

Good results have been obtained using grass seed rather 

than turf. If grass seed is used it must be grown well in 

advance of this work. 

turf growing 

in shallow box 

or seed tray 

181

Section 11 Stability 

Time required 3 weeks. 


For Investigation A11.10. Elodea or some other submerged aquatic plant is required. 

For Investigation 6A 11.12. *A selection of plants for growing in a bottle garden is required. 

AdvancePfeparation: ....For Investigatioll12.1, **if miniponds are not used in this 

investigation ,fresh water aquaria should be set up now. 

A 11.1 

Changes up to a 

limit 

A 11.2 

Stability, 

equilibrium 

and forces 

182 

a P2 Drawing board 

P2 3 sets Masses, slotted on hangers 

P2 1-2 Protractors 

P2 2 Pulleys with clamps 

P2 2 Slotted bases 

P2A 1-2 String 

balls 


b P2 Drawing board 

P2 3 Forcemeters, ION 

P2 Mechanics frame 


P2A 1-2 String 

balls 

P2 2 sheets White paper


Three forms of apparatus are suggested for this work. 

The items are listed in three corresponding groups, a, b, and c. 

a 

holes drilled to take 

dowel pegs 

pulley 

drawing board 

frame made from 

25 mm square batten 

strengthening triangles 

on back of frame 

continued 

183

184 


no./q. 

ref. 

A 11.2 continued c P2 3 Clips 

P2 1 Disc, hardboard 

P2 1 Metal ring 


P2A Supply Rubber bands of equal size 


A11.3 PA 

Maintaining 

equilibrium 

611.4 

Stability of 

nuclei 

T 

T 

Discussion aT 

Discussion and 

demonstration T 

experiments on T 

stability in 

chemical systems T 

Supply Constructional materials for 

making bridges, e.g, balsa 

wood, drinking straws, 

string, wire, etc. 

**Film, The Forth Road Bridge 

Shell and BP 

**Film projector 

Bucket, 5 000 em"; metal, 

or metal waste bin 


Metre rule with wood splint 

attached to one end 

Polythene bottle with wide 

neck, fitted with solid bung 

and filled with 2: I mixture 

of hydrogen and oxygen

Notes 

c clip bent 

from thick 

wire 


rubber 

bands 

The discussion centres on the stability of substances. In 

demonstration a, a bottle full of an explosive mixture of 

hydrogen and oxygen is ignited. The appropriate mixture 

of the gases is obtained in advance of the lesson by 

electrolysing water to which a small quantity of sulphuric 

acid has been added. The electrodes need to be lengths of 

platinum wire. The bottle is filled with water and inverted 

over both electrodes as shown in diagram a, in a trough 

such as a plastic aquarium. 

0.5 m diameter 

hardboard disc 

continued 

185

186 


no./q. 

ref. 

Discussion and 

demonstration 

experiments on 

stability in 

chemical systems 

bT 

T 

T 

1 pair 

0.2 g 


Tongs 

Magnesium rib bon 

continued cTA L.t. supply, 4-6 V d.c. 

T 1 Hoffman voltameter 

T 2-3cm3 Sulphuric acid, 

concentrated 34 

11.5 P2 I Dropper (teat) pipette 

The distribution of P2 I Spatula 

iodine between P2 2 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm 

potassium iodide P2 20 crn' Potassium iodide, 1 M 3 

solution and P2 10 cm' Trichloromethane 4 

chloroform: (chloroform) 

investigating an P2 0.5 g Iodine 4 

equilibrium T I **Film loop, Liquid/vapour 

equilibrium, NC 

T **Film loop, Solid/liquid 

equilibrium, NC 

T **Film loop projector

Notes 

4-6 V e_---' 

d.c. 

When the gas is to be ignited the bottle is placed inside a 

metal bucket (or waste bin). The bung is removed and a 

lighted splint attached to the end of a metre rule (diagram b) 

is applied to the bottle. The explosion is unlikely to break 

the bottle. 

In demonstration b magnesium ribbon is burned to produce 

its oxide. 

In c acidified water is electrolysed to give hydrogen and 

oxygen. 

187

188 

Reference Group. Reqd Item App. 

no./q. ref. 

11.6 P2 1 Beaker, 100 cm' 

A reversible P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes 

reaction P2 3 Petri dishes 

P2 1 White tile 

P2 10 cm ' Bromine water 34 

P2 1 bottle Litmus indicator in 3 


P2 5 crrr' Potassium chromate, 0.1 M 3 

P2 20 crn ' Sodium hydroxide, 2 M 3 

P2 20 cm ' Sulphuric acid, 2 M 3 

P2 10 cm ' Water, distilled and freshly 3 

boiled 

·1l.7 P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes 

Another reversible P2 1 Spatula 

reaction P2 1 Stirring rod 

P2 1 Test tube, 100 mm X 16 mm 

P2 4 Test tubes, 150 mmX 25 mm 

P2 Test tube rack 

P2 5 cm 3 Hydrochloric acid, 34 

concentrated 

P2 0.5 g Bismuth(III) chloride 

.6& 11.8 P2A 

Investigating the P2 

Ag + (aq) and Fe 2 + (aq) P2 

interaction P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

P2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

5 ern" 

10 cm ' 

1 bottle 

1 bottle 

Centrifuge and tubes 4 

Dropper (teat) pipettes 

Spotting tile 

Test tubes, 100 rnm X 16 mm 

Iron(Il) sulphate, 0.1 M 3 

Iron(IlI) sulphate, 0.1 M 3 

Potassium hexacyanoferrate 

(III), 0.1 M, freshly 3 

prepared, in dropper bottle 

Potassium thiocyanate, 3 

0.5 M, freshly prepared, in 


Silvernitrate, 0.1 M 3

Notes 

The pupils first try the effects of acid and alkali on 

bromine water which is placed in the beaker. 

The experiment is repeated using potassium chromate 

solution instead of bromine water. 

Finally approximately 10 crrr' of acid, alkali and distilled 

water are placed in separate Petri dishes. 1 cm' of 

indicator is placed in each of the dishes containing acid 

and alkali, and 2 em" of indicator are placed in the dish 

containing water. When the acid and alkali dishes are stacked 

on top of the white tile the colour of the solution appears 

the same as the neutral colour of the third dish containing 

water. 

The bismuth(III) chioride is dissolved in I cm' of 

concentrated hydrochloric acid. 

The four large test tubes are two-thirds filled with water 

and are then treated as follows: tube I, add 5 drops of 

concentrated hydrochloric acid; tube 2, add 10 drops, 

tube 3, 15 drops; tube 4, add no acid. Next add 5 drops 

of bismuth(III) chloride solution to each tube in turn. 

In this reaction the equilibrium between Fe 2 + and Fe 3 + 

ions is investigated. The presence of the ions is shown 

using an external indicator and dropping tile. A drop of 

reaction mixture is placed in a depression in the tile and 

potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) is added. A deep blue 

colour indicates the presence of Fe 2 + ions. A second drop 

is similarly tested with potassium thiocyanate and a red 

colour developes if Fe 3 '" ions are present. , 

I 

189

190 


no./q. ref. 

.6.11.9 

Stability in the 

component 

building blocks 

of the atmosphere 

.6.11.10 P2A Supply Elodea or other submerged 

Predicting the water plant 

composition of P2A 1-2 Aquarium or beaker 1 000 crn' 

gas given off by P2A 3 Beakers, 100 cm 3 , containing 

a water plant reagents for gas analysis 

P2 Filter funnel, 100 mm dia 

short stemmed 

P2 2 J-tubes 

P2 2-3 g Plasticine 

P2 1 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

P2 1 Test tube, 100 mm X 16 mm 

P2A 100 cm' Sulphuric acid, 0.3 M, stained 3 

with methyl orange 3 

indicator

Notes 


The water plant should be set up as shown in the diagram 

some days before the analysis of gas given off is to be 

carried out. In dull weather it will be necessary to illuminate 

the plant artificially. Grolux fluorescent tubes are specially 

made for plant propagation and are recommended for use. 

(If a propagator, see Technician's Manual 1, Appendix 1, is 

in use it will provide a suitable source of lighting for this 

experiment). 

The filter funnel stem needs to be below the level of water 

in the aquarium (or beaker) and should be raised from the 

bottom with small lumps of Plasticine. An aquarium may 

contain several funnels so saving on the use of beakers. 

The water used may have one or two grammes of potassium 

hydrogen carbonate added per I 000 crrr' so as to provide 

a source of carbon dioxide for the water plants. The plants 

should be kept illuminated so that only oxygen is collected 

and not a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide. 

Full details concerning the use of .l-tubes are given in 

Appendix 1 'Composition of air apparatus'. 

191

192 


no./q. ref. 

11.11 P2A 2 Flasks, 500 crn", wide necked, 

Building blocks conical, containing horse dung 

beyond the P2A Supply Litmus paper, red and blue 

decomposer stage 

Discussion PI Background book, Fertilisers 

The 'nitrogen and farm chemicals, NC 

cycle' and PI Background book, The 

agricultural nitrogen problem, NC 

practice T **Film, Conservation and the 

balance of nature IFB 


6Al1.12 PA Supply Materials for making a bottle 

A bottle garden garden 

"'11.13 

The human demand 

PA 2-3 **Book, Consumers guide to the 

protection of the environment 

PA 2-3 **Book, Only one Earth

Notes 

The flasks need to be set up about one week in advance of 

this lesson. One flask and its contents is sterilized in an 

autoclave for 20 min at 10 5 N m -2 (IS lb in -2) and the 

other is left unsterilised. Both flasks should be plugged 

with sterile cotton wool over which is bound a sheet of 

aluminium foil, held in place with a rubber band. The 

rubber band should be fitted to the sterilised flask after 

the flask has cooled to room temperature, but stopper 

and cap need to be fitted and sterilised with the flask. 

\ 

Suitable materials may include, a large sweet jar with 

screw cap, unsterilised potting compost and soil, and a 

selection of plants. Small animals such as snails, 

earthworms, woodlice and beetles will also be required. 

193

194 

Section 12 Changes in the environment 

Time required 2~ weeks 


For Investigation 12.1, Asellus or similar aquatic organisms, together with 

miniponds from Patterns 1 Section 3 


no./q. 

ref. 

12.1 P2A Supply Aquatic organisms e.g. 

Pollution by Asellus 

sewage P2A Supply **Leaf mould (mud) from 

e.g. stagnant pond 

P2A Supply McConkey agar 2 

P2A Minipond communities from 

Patterns 1 Section 3 

P2A 1-2 **Aquaria 

P2 1 Burette, 50 ern", and stand 

P2 Flask, 100 crrr' , conical 

P2 Microscope and lamp 

P2 2 Microslides and coverglasses 

P2 2-3 Petri dishes 

P2 10 cm 3 Fehling B solution 3 

P2 100 crrr' Iron(II) sulphate, 0.0089 M 3 

P2 1 bottle Phenosafranine in dropper 3 

bottle 

P2 5 crrr' Sodium hydroxide,S M 

P2A Supply Sugar 

T 1 Film, The river must live, 

Shell 


12.2 PI Patterns topic book, Science 

Controlling and decision making 

pollution 

[).12.3 PI Patterns topic book, Man and 

Man and the the urban environment 

landscape: a project PI 2-3 Book, Consumer's guide to 

the protection of the 

environment 

PI 2-3 **Book, Man and environment

Notes 

This is a long term investigation taking approximately 

three weeks. 

Sugar may be used as an artificial pollutant rather than 

nitrogenous materials such as horse dung, which can lead 

to unpleasant smells. The concentration of sugar should 

not be allowed to rise above 0.1 M, i.e. 34 g to every 

1 000 cm' of aquarium water. 

The degree of pollution is indicated by the concentration 

of oxygen in the water and also the number of bacteria 

present. The procedure recommended is that using 

iron(II) sulphate and is described fully in Appendix 1 

'Oxygen concentration in water'. 

The method of bacterial counting is given in Appendix 2. 

If miniponds are not used for this investigation one or two 

aquaria should be set up about three weeks before this 

lesson. 

195

Section 13 Changes in society 

Time required ~ week 


no./q. 

ref. 

T **Filmstrip, Background 

environments, VP 

T **Filmstrip, Garden environments, VP 

T **Filmstrip projector 

13.1 PI Patterns topic book, Man and the 

The need to plan urban environment 

PI Patterns topic book, Population 

patterns 

PA **Simulation game, Tenement, 

shelter 

T **Film, A roof over your heads Part 1 

the tenants, Shelter 


the landlords, Shelter 

T **Film, Cathy come home, Shelter 

T **Film, Shelter youth education 

programme, Shelter 

T **Film, Slum housing, Shelter 

T **Film, The Shelter story, Shelter 


6.13.2 T I set **Transparencies, Before you get 

Can we plan to the bird get the cage, Shelter 

suit everyone? T **Film, A roof over your heads Part 3 

the law, Shelter 


try buying it, Shelter 


T **Slide projector 

6.13.3 PI Patterns topic book, Science and 

The Gatwick airport decision making 

story 

196

Notes 

197


no./q 

ref. 

&13.4 PI Patterns topic book, Science and 

The Park Hill story decision making 

l'IA 13.5 PI Jackdaw, Man and towns 

Town planning 

game 

&13.6 PI 1 Patterns topic book, Human groups 

How do we find out PIA 1-2 **Book, Society in Britain, Methuen 

what people want? 

198

Notes 

199

200 

Appendix I Notes on apparatus 

In addition to notes concerning the construction and use of 

apparatus, this appendix includes information about individual items 

and kits used in the Patterns scheme. It is not intended that the 

appendix should be a training manual for laboratory technicians, but 

it does include some elementary techniques which may be required 

by them. 

Bromine diffusion experiment 

This experiment is required for the discussion 'Particles and molecules' 

following Investigation .7.15 and for Investigation .7.16. The 

following notes refer to NP item 8, Bromine diffusion kit. 

Contents of the kit 

6 bungs, to fit stopcock and diffusion tube 

1 brush, for cleaning stopcock 

2 diffusion tubes, approximately 450 mm X 50 mm with 25 mm 

entry tube 

12 rubber tubing lengths to connect test tube to stopcock 

2 stopcocks,8 mm bore (Interkey) with bungs fitted 

6 test tubes, rimless, hard glass (e.g. Pyrex) 

12 bromine capsules, 1 ern" (NP item 8A) 

1 paraffin grease (Vaseline), small tin for lubricating stopcocks 

Other apparatus required 

1 beaker, 1 000 ern? containing 500 em" i-strength ammonium 

hydroxide, see Appendix 3. 

bucket containing 2500 ern" 2 M ammonium hydroxide, see 

Appendix 3 

pair pliers for crushing bromine capsules 

1 pump, motor driven, vacuum 

1 pair rubber gloves 

1 translucent screen and 60 W lamp

One kit and associated apparatus is required per school. 

Safety precautions 

Before and during the experiment a beaker of quarter strength (3.7 M) 

ammonium hydroxide should be at hand. Ammonia combines with 

bromine to form harmless ammonium bromide. If bromine splashes 

onto the bench or skin pour ammonia onto it at once. Ammonia 

must not be used near eyes. Wash out affected eyes with plenty of 

cold water and obtain medical attention, see Appendix 4. 

The apparatus 

The main diffusion tube is a hard glass tube approximately 450 rum 

long by 50 mm diameter, with only one opening to a side tube. A 

rubber bung fits into the side tube and carries the glass tube of the 

stopcock. This glass tube from the stopcock extends through the 

bung and ensures that only bromine vapour comes into contact with 

the bung. Bromine attacks rubber, and contact between liquid 

bromine and the bung could lead to a hazardous situation. The bung 

should be replaced with a new one as soon as bromine has hardened 

its face. The same bung can be used for several experiments, but if it 

is kept for a week or two after use, the rubber will harden and may 

crack. A new bung must then be used. 

The glass tube that continues out from the stopcock carries a 

short piece of thick walled rubber tubing which must be flexible and 

wide enough to admit the capsule or its snout. The other end of the 

rubber tubing is attached to a hard-glass, rimless test tube which is 

used to hold the bromine capsule until the experiment is performed. 

The stopcock should be of good quality, such as Interkey, with a 

bore of at least 8 mm. It is not necessary to use a special high vacuum 

quality stopcock but its tap must be spring-held for safety. 

201

202 

The rubber tubing must be sufficiently flexible for it to be 

squeezed with pliers to crush the bromine capsule, which slides into 

it from the test tube, and it must be long enough not to slip off the 

glass connections when squeezed. 

With this arrangement, the breaking of the capsule to release 

bromine is carried out before the stopcock is opened to admit 

bromine into the main tube. This enables the experimenter to 

concentrate on the crushing of the capsule first, and then to pay 

full attention to the main experiment. 

J------ diffusion tube 

stopcock 

bromine capsule 

Procedure for discussion following Investigation+ 7.15 

1. Check all rubber bungs and connections before assembling the 

apparatus, by squeezing them. If a cracking noise is heard or if 

cracks are seen the item must be replaced. 

2. Clamp the diffusion tube in a vertical position using a retort stand, 

2 bossheads and 2 clamps. 

3. Set up the translucent screen and 60 W lamp behind the diffusion 

tube so that the tube is silhouetted against a bright background. 

4. Fit the stopcock to the diffusion tube and make sure that it is closed. 

S. Fit the rubber tubing to the stopcock. 

6. Put the bromine capsule in the test tube and attach this to the rubber 

tubing. 

7. Tilt the test tube and tap it so that the capsule slides into the rubber 

tubing. Crush the capsule with the pliers to release the bromine. 

8. Open the stopcock to allow the bromine to enter the diffusion tube.

Procedure for Investigation I/;. 7.16 

1. Set up the diffusion tube as described in steps 1 to 4 above. 

2. Connect the outlet tube from the stopcock to the motor driven 

vacuum pump with a length of pressure tubing. An adaptor will be 

required because of the different diameters of tubing. 

3. Open the stopcock and evacuate the diffusion tube. 

4. Close the stopcock. Disconnect the pump and carry out the procedure 

described in steps 5 to 8 above. 

Cleaning the apparatus 

After the experiment the whole apparatus is put into a bucket, half 

filled with 2 M ammonia solution, see Appendix 3. The apparatus is 

taken to pieces under the solution in the bucket. 

The lower end of the apparatus is plunged in first. The bung is 

removed from the diffusion tube and the stopcock and other items 

are separated. The apparatus can later be washed, dried and reassembled. 

Paraffin grease (e.g. Vaseline) should be used to lubricate the 

stopcock. Do not use tap grease. 

It is sensible to wear rubber gloves for this cleaning process. 

Rubber gloves are not necessary during the main experiment as this 

would only invest the experiment with an air of danger which it does 

not deserve if carried out as suggested. 

If the apparatus has to be cleaned and dried quickly for use with 

another class, a hair dryer, with heater, provides much the easiest way 

of drying the main tube. On no account should the used tube be 

evacuated with the pump before the diffusion into a vacuum is 

attempted. A second tube should be used, or the first one should be 

washed and dried as described. Bromine will damage the pump and 

will be expelled from the pump into the atmosphere. 

Composition of air apparatus 

The Ltube method of analysing air samples is recommended for use 

in Investigation 1/;.11.10. The J-tube apparatus is illustrated in diagram a. 

The brass screw should be lubricated with silicone grease to ensure 

airtightness. 

a 

thick walled capillary tubing 

II PVC tubtnq 

l!- ~~~~~~~b"" screw 

brass collar 203

204 

Three solutions are required: 

potassium hydroxide, 25%, 

potassium pyrogallate, 

sodium chloride, saturated. 

Details of the preparation of these solutions are given in Appendix 3. 

The first two of these solutions need to be kept under a layer of liquid 

paraffin to prevent gas absorption from the atmosphere. This means 

that liquid paraffin could enter the capillary tubing of the f-tube and 

prevent gas absorption during the experiment. The apparatus 

illustrated in diagram b avoids this problem. 

The glass tube is placed in the reagent before the liquid paraffin is 

added. The J-tube can be inserted through the glass tube in order to 

avoid contamination by liquid paraffin. 

Approximately 0.3 M sulphuric acid stained with methyl orange 

indicator (see Appendix 3 for preparation of these reagents) should be 

available to pupils for rinsing the tubes between determinations to 

ensure that no residual alkali is carried over from one experiment to 

the next. 

In use, the length of an air bubble trapped in the long limb between 

seals of sodium chloride solution is measured and the outer seal is 

injected into the potassium hydroxide solution which is drawn in to 

absorb carbon dioxide. Absorption is aided by shunting the bubble 

back and forth by manipulation of the brass screw. After measuring 

the length of the bubble again, the J-tube is inserted into the potassium 

pyrogallate, the potassium hydroxide is forced out and replaced with 

this second reagent. After further shunting the length of the bubble is 

measured for the last time. Before each measurement the temperature 

of the tube and its contents should be standardised by, for instance, 

placing it in a cold water bath for about two minutes.

Cleaning J-tubes 

The simplest way to clean J-tubes is to separate the brass screw fitting 

from the glassware and to stand all the tubes in a fairly hot solution of 

one of the more vigorous surface active detergents. Any strong detergent 

will probably suffice. Squirt detergent through the capillary tube 

by putting a teat on one end and squeezing it a few times. Remove the 

teat, fasten the J-tube to a water tap with a piece of rubber tubing and 

run water through it for about half a minute. Remove the tube, dry the 

outside with a towel and then couple it to a filter pump. A minute's 

flow of air through the tube should dry it completely. 

Deflection tube 

The deflection tube is used in Investigation A8.3. 

It is set up with 6.3 Von the filament. The negative terminal of the 

e.h.t. power supply is connected to the filament and the positive 

terminal is connected to the anode. The anode should be earthed. The 

insulation between the filament supply and earth must withstand at 

least 6 kV. If a battery is used care must be taken to ensure good 

insulation, for example by standing it on polythene. Normal transformers 

will not stand this voltage, but the one in an e.h. t. supply 

unit will as it is specially insulated. 

With the e.h. t. supply turned off, the light from the filament 

produces a line on the inclined fluorescent screen where the light 

strikes it. As the voltage is increased to about 3 kV, a fluorescent line 

appears as the beam of electrons from the hot filament passes through 

the perforated anode and meets the inclined screen. 

'-----first to e.h.t, + 

then to e.h.t. - 

r-'----..--O 6.3. V 

'-T-------O 3.A 

205

206 

Electric deflection 

First both the deflecting plates should be connected to the anode. As 

the space between the plates is at a uniform potential the beam will not 

be deflected and the line on the screen will remain straight. One of the 

plates is now left connected to the anode while the other is connected 

to the negative terminal of the e.h.t. power supply. This produces a 

vertical field between the plates and the electron beam is deflected into 

a parabolic path. The light beam from the filament is unaffected by 

the field. An alternative arrangement uses a well insulated battery 

which is connected across the deflection plates. 

If two e.h.t. power supplies are available the following arrangement 

may be used to produce a variable deflection. 

/ 

./ 

,-1-- ---


These trolleys are required throughout Sections 4 and 7. 

There are two types of trolley available which are suitable to the 

work in this course. One was devised by the Nuffield Physics O-level 

project and the other by Nuffield Secondary Science. The illustrations 

show both types of trolley arranged for use with ticker timers on the 

respective trolley runways. In any version it is important that the 

surface on which the wheels run is smooth, straight and rigid. 

The tape can be attached to a trolley quite firmly by using self 

adhesive tape (e.g. Sellotape) or, better still, plastic insulating tape. 

The timer could be clamped to the end of the runway by a G-clamp, 

or supported above the bench to ensure that the tape runs freely. 

Nuffield Physics style trolley runways may be made from blockboard 

or hardboard surfaced chipboard (either 2.4 m X 0.3 m or 

1.8 m X 0.3 m depending on space available) with sides of metal angle 

(e.g. Dexion or Handy Angle). The surface is improved by two coats of 

varnish, rubbed down between coats. The best finish is given by a 

plastic laminate (e.g. Formica). 

Nuffield Secondary Science runways and trolleys are constructed 

from Handy Angle, and have plastic runners. These are not recommended 

for accurate work. 

207

208 

It is necessary in both cases to keep the wheels of the trolley 

adjusted and lightly oiled, and the runners free from dust. 

Fine Beam Tube 

A fine beam tube is suggested for Investigation "'8.3. 

The following information refers to the Leybold tube and power 

supply. 

a 

connecting 

box 

Setting up the tube 

1. Rotate the tube so that the electron gun is pointing upwards. 

2. With the e.h.t. supply set at zero connect the anode to the positive 

(red) terminal and the cathode to the negative terminal. 

3. Connect the Wehnelt cylinder to the cathode. The cathode is connected 

to one heater terminal (H 2 ) inside the connecting box. 

4. Connect the heater terminals (HI and H2) to a 6.3 V supply. 

5. Connect one deflecting plate to the anode and to the Lt. negative 

(l-2 X 12 V accumulators or equivalent d.c. supply). Connect the 

other deflecting plate to a wander lead. With the 1.t. supply at zero 

connect this wander lead to the Lt. position. 

6. Switch on. The heater filament will begin to glow.

7. Raise the h.t. voltage applied to the anode until the beam is just 

visible (about 50 V). The brightness may gradually increase for a few 

minutes. Increasing the voltage will increase the brightness and the 

length of the beam. Use 90 V or as little above this as possible up to 

150 V, such as will give adequate brightness in a darkened room. The 

lower the operating voltage the longer will be the life of the tube. 

8. Reduce the anode voltage to zero when the beam is not actually being 

observed. 

a 

connections 

to cells 

connections to deflection plats 

+ 90-150.V 6.3.V 

9. If a diffuse beam results over all anode voltages apply a low positive 

voltage (up to 6 V) to the Wehnelt cylinder. 

Electric Deflections 

o o 

o I 

A C W 

1. Apply a d.c. voltage (e.g. 12 V) to the deflecting plates by moving the 

lead from the second deflecting plate. This will deflect the beam. 

2. Reverse the connections to the deflection plates. The beam is now 

deflected in the opposite direction. 

3. Use a higher voltage (e.g. 15 V) the deflection is greater. 

209

210 

Magnetic deflection 

1. Place a magnadur or other magnet on one side of the tube. A magnetic 

deflection is produced leading to a curved beam. Two magnets will 

give a more uniform field. 

o 

N S 

o 

N S 

c 

Plan view of tube 

2. Connect the pair of coils to 6 V through a rheostat as shown in the 

diagram below. This will give a result similar to that obtained using 

two magnets. Changing the current and reversing it will illustrate the 

effect of different magnetic fields. With a suitable value the beam can 

be bent into a complete circle. 

GM tube 

90.V 6.3.V 

The tube suggested for use is a thin window tube, type number 

MX 168/0l. 

It is necessary to be familiar with the characteristics of the tube 

in use. In order to plot these characteristics, a source is put at a 

fixed distance from the tube. The voltage is started well below the 

threshold and is turned up slowly from, say, 250 V in 25 V steps 

until counts start. The count rate is measured over a range of applied 

voltages and a plot of count rate against applied voltage is made.

plateau 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I working voltage 

I (approximately 350-400. V) 

I 

I 

starting voltage applied voltage 

The GM tube is normally operated at a voltage on the plateau 

(usually 50-100 V above the threshold voltage). If the voltage is turned 

up higher than this the count rate rises steeply and the tube is likely to 

be damaged. The tube should not be operated in this region. The mark 

of a good tube is a long plateau in its characteristic. The plateau in 

type MX 168/01 is at an operational voltage of approximately 

350-400 V. 

Hot-filament diode tube 

This tube is required for Investigation .8.2. 

a 

211

212 

0+ + 

A [L] 

0- ~ - 

h.t. supply 

The diode tube is set up in the stand and 6.3 V are applied to the 

filament. 

The plate in the tube is connected through the demonstration meter 

(2.5-0-2.5 rnA) to the h.t. power supply. The other terminal of the 

supply is earthed and connected to one of the filament terminals. The 

supply enables the plate to be at 400 V either positive or negative 

with respect to the filament. 

It will be found that no current flows, whatever the potential 

difference across the tube, as long as the filament is not glowing. When 

the filament is glowing, a current flows if the plate is positive. If, 

however, the plate is negative, no charge flows. 

Hot-filament triode tube 

This tube is suggested for Investigation "'8.2.

The basic connections to the hot filament triode tube are the same 

as for the hot filament diode. 6.3 V are applied to the filament and 

500 V are applied across the plate and the filament connections. 

The grid is connected to a 12 V d.c. supply as shown in the circuit 

diagram below. Voltmeters can be connected across the 12 Vand 

500 V supplies as shown. In some h.t. supplies an Lt. output is also 

available which can be used for the grid instead of a battery. 

If the current is due to negative charge flowing from the filament, 

the positively charged grid would cause an increase in the plate 

current. If, however, it is positive charge which flows, then a positively 

charged grid would cause a decrease in the current. The experiment is 

carried out so that a decision is made between these alternatives. 

With the applied voltage of 500 V the following currents are typical: 

Grid voltage/V + 12 0 - 12 

Applied current/rrrA 1.2 0.4 o 

6.3.V 

,.,..---- •....•• -, 

__________ J // -, \ 

----------\ , '.•... 

213

214 

Inertia balance kit 

The inertia balance kit is suggested for the optional discussion 'Inertia 

measurement' following Investigation 6.6.4.4. 

Nuffield item 146 can be purchased or the apparatus may be 

constructed as shown below. 

hardboard 

or plywood 

base 

a 

hardwood block 

screws 

Masses may be made by cutting steel rod into suitable lengths. The 

apparatus is firmly fixed to the bench by means of G-clamps. 

Alternative method using a dynamics trolley 

b 

The ends must be rigidly fixed for the trolley to oscillate effectively. 

It may be easiest to attach the springs to G-clamps screwed to the 

bench. 

Inoculating loops 

Inoculating loops are required for Investigation 66.19. Ideally they 

are 60 mm lengths of platinum wire about 24 s.w.g. (see 'Standard 

wire gauge' below) with a terminal loop, which are mounted in some 

form of holder. Nichrome wire of similar thickness makes a good 

substitute for platinum wire and is much cheaper. The loop in the 

end of a 60 mm length of wire is made by wrapping it around a 5 mm 

diameter rod and twisting two or three times to secure the loop.

The easiest way of mounting the wire is to insert it into a needle 

holder. This is more expensive than other methods of mounting but 

it avoids the problems of cracking which arise if glass holders are 

accidentally heated. 

Macro-Millikan apparatus 

This is required for Investigation 8.9. The apparatus described is 

Nuffield physics item 142. 

Procedure 

The pair of metal plates are set up horizontally, 75-100 mm apart, 

one above the other. The lower plate is connected to the negative 

terminal of the e.h.t. power supply, which in turn is connected to the 

earth terminal, the upper plate is connected to the positive terminal. 

(If it is desired to reverse the field, the leads to the supply are changed, 

but in each case the lower plate should be earthed). Take care that the 

power supply is off when making connections and adjustments to 

the apparatus. 

Through the hole in the upper plate is lowered the small conducting 

sphere with its nylon suspension. The upper end of the nylon suspension 

is looped and connected to the glass (Pyrex) spring. This spring 

must be kept free from grease. 

The best arrangement for securing the upper end of the spring is to 

attach it to another loop in a nylon thread which is taken up over a 

pulley connected to the ceiling, and then to an eyelet on a block of 

wood. Alternatively, a support from a long retort stand rod can be 

used, see the diagram. 

Rub the polythene tile and put the proof plane on it. Touch the 

proof plane with a finger so that it becomes charged by induction. 

Without touching the plates, bring the proof plane up to the conducting 

sphere to charge it by contact. Adjust the suspension so that the 

sphere is almost exactly halfway between the two plates. This is most 

conveniently done, in the first arrangement described above, by moving 

the block of wood nearer to, or away from, the apparatus, the sphere 

will be lowered or raised. 

Switch on the e.h.t. supply with 2 000-4 000 V; the sphere will be 

seen to move as the extra force stretches the spring. The sphere can be 

brought back to the central position by moving the block of wood. 

The movement is particularly easy to see if a plane mirror is 

placed behind the suspension with a horizonta11ine ruled across it 

215

216 

insulating 

handle 

!J 

proof planes 

whilst a small cardboard disc is attached to the nylon suspension to 

act as a pointer. After the sphere has been positioned at the centre of 

the plate this pointer is aligned with the mark on the mirror by no 

parallax before the field is switched on. This special arrangement may 

divert attention from the general idea and need not be used in this 

qualitative demonstration.

There are no measurements to be made in this demonstration; it 

is a qualitative experiment to demonstrate this principle of a force on 

a charged body between two parallel plates. In any case, there is a 

tendency for the charge to leak away along the suspension and 

quantitative experiments do not lead to very satisfactory results unless 

considerable trouble is taken. 

If the sphere is near one plate, the charge on it induces an 

opposite charge on that plate, so there is attraction. It is undesirable 

that the effect of this attractive force should appear in the demonstration. 

Therefore, the sphere must be approximately half way between 

the two plates, so that these attractive forces cancel out. 

A realistic model of the Millikan experiment may be produced by 

placing a very small light metal sphere (or a piece of aluminium foil) 

in the field between the plates. The sphere becomes charged by contact 

with one of the plates which then repels it. As in the actual Millikan 

experiment the position of the sphere between the plates can be adjusted 

by varying the e.h.t. supply. The charge on this sphere needs to be 

made as small as possible and the potential of the plates as large as 

possible in order to overcome the problems mentioned above. 

Magnets 

Magnets are liable to become demagnetized if roughly treated, and if 

stored separately. Ceramic based magnets such as magnadur or alcomax, 

tend to hold their magnetism well but are brittle and will break easily 

if dropped onto a hard surface. It is advisable to keep magnets in pairs 

with opposite poles in contact, preferably with soft iron keepers, as 

shown in the diagram. 

217

218 

Care should be taken not to allow iron filings to adhere to the 

magnets as these will form centres for the start of corrosion. It is possibl 

to wrap magnets in thin polythene sheeting or polythene bags when 

using them with iron filings so that any filings can be removed by carefully 

unwrapping them and lifting them away from the clean side of 

the polythene. Soft Plasticine or putty can be used to remove iron 

filings adhering to magnets. The attraction between strong magnets 

and iron filings may be sufficient to prevent the Plasticine/putty 

cleaning technique being effective. The filings will then need to be 

carefully picked off. 

On no account should magnets be washed to remove iron filings, 

because washing will not remove them and the wetted filings will turn 

rusty. 

Molecular models 

Expanded polystyrene spheres are useful for making models of 

molecular structures. The information given is for the construction of 

simple tangential contact models. Instructions for more accurate models 

are given in the references. 

Nuffield Chemistry Handbook for Teachers. Longman, 1967 

Nuffield Chemistry Sample Scheme III: A Course of Options, Appendixe 

to Options 2 and 7. Longman, 1967 

Platts, C.V. Instructional Booklet. Griffin & George 

Sanderson, R.T. Teaching Chemistry with Models, Van Nostrand, 

1962 

Tetlow, K.S.L. Modelling of Chemical Structures with Expanded 

Polystyrene Spheres, Royal Institute of Chemistry Reprint, Education 

in Chemistry, vol. 1 no. 1, January 1964 

The polystyrene spheres can be fixed together by dab bing the 

point of contact with trichloromethane (chloroform), propanone 

(acetone), amyl acetate or a number of other organic solvents and then 

pressing together. A glue made of a polystyrene sphere dissolved in a 

minimum quantity of amyl acetate may be used. Use these organic 

solvents and glues sparingly as they tend to dissolve the spheres. 

Commercially produced expanded polystyrene adhesive (EPA), 

obtainable at home decorating shops, does not dissolve the spheres 

but takes 24 hours to dry. Alternatively the spheres may be wired 

together or joined by toothpicks (wooden cocktail sticks), pipe 

cleaners, etc. A combination of physical linkage and glue makes a 

very firm permanent structure.

Make the linkages by cutting approximately 15 mm of connecting 

material. Bore the points of contact using an awl or similar 

pointed instrument and force the linkage into one sphere before 

forcing the other sphere onto the free end of the linkage. A dab of 

glue or solvent applied before the spheres are finally pressed together 

then finishes the joint. 

If spheres of different colours are to be used in the model, 

prepare them by making any holes needed and then colour them 

before assembling the model. Probably the easiest method of colouring 

the spheres is to use plastic emulsion paints, or plastic emulsion 

white base and colourisers. If in doubt about any paint it is worth 

testing a sample on a spare piece of polystyrene to ensure that the 

paint does not contain a solvent which will dissolve the plastic. 

Spheres may be dyed. Details are given in the Nuffield references. 

Spheres required for the models 

All of the models required are of compounds containing carbon, 

hydrogen and oxygen. The spheres for carbon should be coloured 

black and be marked tetrahedrally at 109.5°. Hydrogen spheres 

should be white with one hole, and oxygen red with two holes at 

104.5°. The most accurate sizes of the spheres are; carbon, 45 mm 

(1 ~ in) diameter; hydrogen, 12.5 mm (~ in) diameter; oxygen, 38 

mm (I ~ in) diameter. However, in the interests of economy these 

sizes could be, respectively, 25 mm (I in), 12.5 mm (~in) and 18 

mm (* in). 

In order to mark the spheres at the appropriate angles two 

protractors are required. These can be made from carboard, and are 

illustrated in diagrams a and b. 

38.mm or 

18.mm 

diameter 

45.mm or 

25.mm 

diameter 

template for oxygen template for carbon 

Spheres to represent oxygen are placed in the semicircle cut out 

of the protractor and are marked in two positions 104.5° apart. 

Spheres to represent carbon need to be marked tetrahedrally with the 

219

220 

marks mutually at 109.5 0 

apart. Mark each sphere at 120 0 

intervals 

around the equator (the seam) and then make marks for the connectors 

at the pole and at 109.5 0 

from the pole on the longitudinal lines 

passing through the pole and the equatorial 120 0 

marks. Finally bore 

holes for the connectors at the appropriate marks and colour the 

spheres ready for assembly. 

Butoxybutane (di-n-butyl ether) 

This model is suggested for Investigation .6.9.2. 

Requirements for the construction are: 

8 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon 

18 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen 

1 red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen. 

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) 

This model is suggested for Investigations 9.1 and .6.9.2. 

H H-O 

\ / 

c-c 

w"/ I I

Ethoxyethane (diethyl ether) 

This model is suggested for Investigation "'9.2. 

:>SC:O):

222 




6 red spheres, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen. 

Maleic acid 

This model is suggested for Investigation ~9.7. 




4 red spheres, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen 

2 35 mm lengths of curtain wire, representing the double bond. 

Maltose 

This model is suggested for Investigation ~9.3a. Essentially maltose 

consists of two a-glucose units linked via oxygen at the 1,4 positions. 

H 

H \ o_H H HI 

-C \ O-H 

H" 0 H H./ 

\ "/.~ I I C", ° 

/~~ ,H ~~C C -, /. H~ H 

H--O ~cVI ""'0/ ~~ o/~c~c/ 

0 I \ 

I 

H 'HI ) o. ""-H 

0 

""'H 




11 red spheres, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen. 

H

Methanol (methyl alcohol) 

This model is suggested for Investigation &9.2. 

O __ H 

T 

C 

H/T"H 

H 


black sphere, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon 


red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen. 

Methoxymethane (dimethyl ether) 

This model is suggested for Investigation 9.1. 

H H 

H I I H 

'c c"""'" 

H/ '0/ ""-H 





Propan-I-ol (n-propyl alcohol) 


H 

\l 

H c O-H 

'c/ ~c/ 

/\ /\ 

H H H H 





223

224 

~Propoxypropane [di-n-propyl ether) 






Multiflash Photography 

In multiflash photography it is necessary to highlight the subject 

against a dark background to ensure good contrast in the picture. The 

successive photographs of the event, at regular time intervals on the 

same negative frame, are achieved either by using constant illumination 

and a motor driven stroboscope, or by using intermittent 

illumination with a xenon stroboscope. Notes on both methods are 

given below. 

Stroboscopic photography using a 35 mm camera and a synchronous 

strobe disc 

A camera focussing down to about 1.5 or 2 m is required. It must have 

a lens aperture of at least f/8, although f/6.3, f/4.5 or f/3.5 are preferred. 

A 35 mm camera is best because the technique of developing the 

film in the cassette is so convenient and simple to use. The shutter 

should be fitted with time (T) or brief (B) settings: in practice the 

brief setting is the more convenient. Unless the camera has a reflex 

viewfinder, it is as well to check the field of view by putting a strip of 

translucent material, such as greaseproof paper, in the position normally 

occupied by the film, opening the shutter and checking that all 

the motion to be photographed is observable through the camera. 

Set up the camera firmly about 1.5 m from the experiment to be 

recorded. Focus the lens for this distance. Fit the synchronous motor 

with the appropriate black slotted disc. A five-slit disc gives intervals 

of 1/25 s and a six-slit disc intervals of 1/30 s between shots, if the 

frequency of the motor is 5 Hz (300 r.p.m.). Place the disc about 

10 mm in front of the lens of the camera, so that the rotating slits 

will sweep across the lens.

The intervals between exposures can be varied by covering unwanted 

intermediate slits with black adhesive tape. This will enable a sufficient 

number of exposures to be chosen to appear in the final picture. The 

width of the slit controls the sharpness of the images obtained, and 

the narrowest slit which is consistent with adequate illumination is 

best. 

The scene can be illuminated with a slide projector, placed so that 

its beam lights the whole of the action without either illuminating the 

background or spilling light onto the camera. 

A dark background is required. A matt black cloth surface gives 

good contrast, but this is not essential. The method can be used in 

very subdued room lighting. Best results are obtained if total blackout 

can be achieved in the room. 

Using a xenon stroboscope and a 35 mm camera 

Theoretically, sharper pictures than those taken with the motor 

stroboscope are possible if a xenon stroboscope is used. In practice 

there is little to choose between the two techniques. The xenon flash 

replaces the slide projector and slotted disc used in the method 

described above. The procedure is basically the same as for motor 

driven stroboscope photographs. It is essential to have a first class 

blackout although with the high power xenon flasher (available from 

Service Trading Ltd.), which is bought in kit form, it is possible to 

gain satisfactory results under conditions of subdued room lighting. 

The beam from the xenon stroboscope must be directed on to the 

object" to be photographed, and should be kept off the background. 

It should not be used as a general floodlight since this will produce 

pictures lacking in contrast. 

Using a Polaroid camera 

The types of Polaroid camera which have only an automatic exposure 

time and no facility for holding the shutter open can usually be used 

for stroboscopic work, if the 'magic eye' is blacked out with insulating 

tape. 

The Polaroid camera combines the making of an exposure and the 

production of a print, which makes the whole process simpler and 

quicker, but it is more expensive than the 35 mm camera technique. 

The Polaroid film is faster (3000 ASA) than the 35 mm negative films, 

but this is balanced to a certain extent by the comparatively small 

(f/9) lens aperture of the Polaroid camera. 

225

226 

A typical exposure value for Polaroid film is EV13 (f/9), when 

used for stroboscopic photography. 

Developing 35 mm films in the cassette 

This technique employs a special Kodak Monobath, and it is best to 

use the recommended Kodak film, Plus-X, although Tri-X film is also 

suitable. 

The film used must not be longer than a 20-exposure length, 

otherwise the pumping action which should take place in the cassette 

during the developing procedure, will not take place. The Monobath 

solution is alkaline (caustic) and poisonous and can cause dermatitis, 

so rubber gloves should be worn. 

Make the first 2-4 exposures of the film as blanks and then take up 

to 16 exposures. Wind the film back into its cassette leaving about 

20 mm of film and the tongue protruding. Remove the cassette from 

the camera. Cut off the tongue and bend the last piece of film back 

over the cassette. Secure the film with a rubber band. 

Take a short slotted rod and fit the slot over the key in the end of 

the cassette. Wind the fum gently on its spool inside the cassette and 

lower the cassette into 40 ern" of the Monobath solution in a small 

container, until all but the top of the cassette is immersed. The 

container is a glass beaker or medicine glass of about 70 crrr' capacity. 

As the cassette is lowered into the Monobath solution, gently unwind 

the film by twirling the slotted rod. Air will bubble out as the film is 

moved. Carefully rewind the film so that the solution is pumped 

through the cassette, and repeat the winding process until liquid is 

forced out of the top of the cassette. Immerse the cassette fully in the 

Monobath solution. Wind and unwind the film through 1~ turns every 

2 seconds, so continuing the pumping action. Carry out this winding/ 

rewinding operation continuously for 3~ -4 minutes for Plus-X film and 

for at least 5 minutes for Tri-X film, 

Push the end off the cassette or pull out the film under water and 

wash well with running water. Should the film appear cloudy, transfer 

it immediately to a bath of acid fixer containing a hardener. If on 

inspection the film has horizontal dark bands across it then the back 

and forth winding action has been carried out for too many turns each 

way. If there are longitudinal scratches then the winding has been 

carried out too vigorously. 

Re-fixing and further washing will improve the keeping qualities of 

the film but the method should not be expected to produce high 

quality negatives.

Drain the film, select a negative and mount.it for projection. It is 

often convenient to adjust the projector-screen distance so that the 

image is the same size as the object photographed. 

Oscilloscope 

Operating instructions for the demonstration oscilloscope 

The details and operating instructions given below refer to the 

Telequipment S 51 E cathode ray oscilloscope which was the instrument 

used in the Nuffield O-level physics trials. For other instruments 

these notes should be read in conjunction with the manufacturer's 

instructions. 

Procedure 

The controls are as shown in the diagram. 

Note that the V-shift and timebase variable controls are the red 

knobs on the front panel. 

To prepare the oscilloscope for use, plug into the mains supply and 

set the controls as follows: 

brightness to OFF 

focus to the mid-position 

X-gain fully anticlockwise 

X-shift to the mid-position 

trig control to + 

227

228 

timebase: time/em control to 1 ms 

timebase: variable control fully clockwise 

stability control fully clockwise 

trig level control fully clockwise 

amplifier: V/cm control to 0.5 

V-shift to the mid-position 

input switch to d.c. 

Switch on by means of the brightness control. After warming up 

for about one minute, turn brightness control clockwise until a trace 

appears and set the control so that the trace is clearly visible but not 

excessively bright. If no trace appears, leave the brightness control in 

the fully clockwise position and adjust the X-shift and V-shift until 

the trace appears. This is best done by rotating X-shift backwards and 

forwards while slowly advancing the V-shift from the fully anticlockwise 

position. Immediately the trace is found, reduce the brightness 

control to a convenient level. 

Centre the trace using the X-shift and V-shift controls, and adjust 

the focus control to give a sharp trace. 

Slowly turn the stability control anticlockwise until the trace just 

disappears and, finally, rotate the trig-level anticlockwise and switch 

it to the auto position. The trace (which reappears when the trig-level 

is rotated) may dim when this is done, but will brighten again when an 

input is applied. 

The oscilloscope is now ready for use, but it is advisable to be 

familiar with the function of the various controls. Put 2-4 V, 50 Hz 

a.c. on the input. Change V/cm to 5. Turn the variable timebase 

control (red knob) fully anticlockwise and then back to the calibrated 

position (fully clockwise). Change the timebase control to 100 /J.S, 

then return it to 1 ms. Change trig + to - (if the sine curve trace is 

not inverted by this, turn the stability control very slightly anticlockwise 

until it is) and return the control to +. 

Details regarding the use of the stability and trig-level controls are 

given in the oscilloscope handbook. For most experiments the triglevel 

control can be left at auto. To give a steady trace the stability 

control should be turned as far as possible anticlockwise without 

losing the trace. This setting may vary slightly with different timebase 

speeds. 

To avoid screen damage, do not use excessive brightness. With the 

timebase off, do not leave the spot in a fixed position longer than 

necessary.

Operating instructions for the class oscilloscope 

The details given below refer to the Telequipment Serviscope Minor 

cathode ray oscilloscope. 

Procedure 

The oscilloscope controls are as shown in the diagram. To prepare the 

instrument for use, plug into the mains supply and set the controls 

as follows: 

brightness to OFF 

focus to the mid-position 

Y-shift to the mid-position 

Y-gain to 1 division/volt 

AC-DC switch to DC 

timebase range switch to 2 

timebase switch to OFF 

Switch on the oscilloscope using the brightness control. Allow the 

instrument to warm up for one minute. Turn the brightness control 

clockwise and move the Y-shift control gently about its mid-position 

until a trace appears. Adjust the brightness and focus controls until a 

clear, sharply focussed trace is obtained. With the timebase switched 

off, do not allow the spot to be too bright. It may be found impossible 

to obtain a sharp focus when the brightness control is set near maximum. 

If this is the case, turn the brightness control anticlockwiseuntil 

a sharp trace is seen. 

229

230 

The AC-DC switch should normally be set to DC even when the 

oscilloscope is used for a.c. work. In the AC position there is a capacitor 

in series with the input and this will separate the a.c. component 

of a wave form. In the DC position this capacitor is shorted out. When 

the oscilloscope is used for pure a.c. setting the switch to AC will 

cause a smaller deflection at low frequencies than when switched to 

DC. 

When the timebase is switched off the spot is automatically centred 

and there is no X-shift control. When switched on, the speed of the 

spot is determined by the setting of the range and variable controls. 

The frequency of repetition of the timebase is not much increased at 

the higher speeds and it is often interrupted by slow changes of the 

input voltages. When the instrument is used as a d.c. voltmeter it is 

best to have the time base off. When an alternating voltage is applied 

to the input, it automatically triggers the timebase and gives a steady 

trace. 

The input terminal labelled 'low' should normally be connected to 

that part of a circuit, if any, which is at earth potential. As the terminal 

is not directly connected to earth it does not matter if it is 

connected to a point above or below earth potential. 

The 'high' input terminal is sensitive and should normally be 

connected to the part of the circuit which is above earth potential. If 

it is touched, the spot will often show considerable deflection on 

account of the high potential of the body of the person touching it. 

This effect is not often seen with a.c. voltmeters on account of their 

much lower internal resistance. 

The gain control is roughly calibrated and the markings are not 

intended to be precise. For accurate readings of voltage the 

calibration should be set with a moving coil voltmeter connected to 

the terminals. The numbers on the gain control indicate approximately 

'scale divisions per volt'. 

These oscilloscopes are discussed in detail in the film Oscilloscopes 

and slow a.c., Esso Nuffield. 

Oxygen concentration in water 

The degree of pollution of river and pond water can be measured in 

terms of the quantity of oxygen available to organisms. The Miller 

method of estimating the quantity of oxygen in water, is described 

below and should be suitable for use in Investigation 12.1. Other 

methods of analysis are given in Nuffield Biology Teachers' Guide IV, 

Chapter 18.

A solution of iron(II) sulphate will decolourize some dyes, but if 

oxygen is present then it will react with the oxygen before acting on 

the dye. This preferential reaction occurs in alkaline solution when the 

dye phenosafranine is used. This principle is used in Miller's method for 

determining the oxygen content of samples of water. 

1. Obtain a sample of water (50 ern") from one locality in the pond or 

tank, causing as little disturbance as possible. Use a large pipette or 

plastic syringe fitted with a disposable filling tube or length of plastic 

tubing. Take care not to allow any air to be taken in with the sample. 

Carefully run the sample into a 100 crrr' conical flask. 

2. Add 5 ern" of 5 M sodium hydroxide solution (see Appendix 3) or 

10 cm' of Fehling B solution. 

3. Add 2 drops of phenosafranine solution, see Appendix 3. 

4. Extend the end of the burette with a length of glass tubing so that 

the end is below the surface of the sample as shown in the diagram. 

Fill the burette with 0.0089 M iron(II) sulphate solution, see 

Appendix 3. 

5. Titrate the sample against the iron(II) sulphate solution very gently 

swirling the flask until the colour of the phenosafranine just disapears. 

6. The quantity of iron(II) sulphate used is approximately equal to the 

volume of oxygen per 1 000 crrr' of water from which the sample was 

taken. This may be converted into a percentage by using the information 

in the table below, providing the temperatures of the sample 

and its source are the same and are known. 

For notes concerning titration techniques see 'Titration' below. 

4---- burette containing 

iron (II) sulphate 

extended jet below surface 

of liquid in the flask 

pond water (50 cm 3 sample) 

231

232 

Table of oxygen contained in air-equilibrated water at different 

temperatures 

The table shows the volume of oxygen, reduced to s.t.p. (OOe and 

760 mmHg), which will dissolve in 1 000 crrr' of water at a range 

of temperatures. Note that under some circumstances in pond water, 

it is possible for more oxygen, than the quantity in the table, to be 

dissolved at a given temperature. 

Temperature/" C Dissolved oxygen/cm ' 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

Peel models 

8.13 

7.95 

7.77 

7.60 

7.44 

7.28 

7.12 

6.96 

6.82 

6.68 

6.54 

6.40 

6.28 

Peel (probability envelopes of electron location) models are suggested 

for use in Section 9. The kits consist of plastic spheres (atom units), 

springs and expanded polystyrene shapes (orbitals). In any compound 

it is possible to specify the positions in space in which bonding 

electrons are most likely to be found. The orbitals are a three dimensional 

representation of the probable positions of these bonding 

electrons. 

The four types of orbital are illustrated below in longitudinal 

section. 

Protonated orbitals (white)

Sigma orbitals (white) 

Lone pair or non-bonding orbitals (red) 

Pi or delocalised electron models (green) 

Procedure for using Peel components 

1. Fit the spring connectors to the atom units before attaching orbitals. 

2. Screw the springs into the atom in an anticlockwise direction (against 

the coils of the spring). This gives a tight fit of the spring in the atom 

unit, and helps resist removal of the spring by the orbitals when the 

model is dismantled. 

3. When the springs have been inserted into the atom unit, attach the 

orbitals by carefully pushing them into place on the springs. 

4. When dismantling the model, carefully unscrew the orbitals. Do not 

pull them off as this will enlarge the holes. 

5. After a while the holes in the orbital units will become enlarged. The 

external diameter of the connecting springs can be increased by gluing 

on a length of thin walled plastic tubing with an Araldite adhesive, or 

the diameter can be increased by binding the spring with plastic 

adhesive tape. 

Peel models can be used as alternatives to the polystyrene sphere 

constructions described above, see Molecular models. The diagram 

below illustrates a Peel model of methanol as suggested for 

Investigation &9.2. 

233

234 

Pump 

C sigma 0 

lone pair 

A vacuum pump is required for Investigations 7.7b and'" 7.16. 

In order to protect the pump a water trap should be inserted 

between the apparatus and the pump. An easily assembled form of 

trap consists of a U-tube held by a retort stand, bosshead and clamp 

adjacent to the pump. Freshly roasted calcium chloride or silica gel 

acts as the desiccant and this is prevented from being drawn into the 

pump by the insertion of rocksil plugs between it and the U-tube 

outlet. 

Water in the pump leads to corrosion of metal surfaces and also 

impairs the efficiency of the vacuum oil. Water traps should be fitted 

whenever the pump is to be used in the presence of water or water 

vapour. 

For most efficient use the pump should be regularly checked and 

maintained according to the manufacturer's instructions. If the pump 

has been unused for some time it should be specially checked before 

it is required in case it has corroded. Failure to start is probably due 

to corrosion. Switch off immediately to protect the motor. It is sound 

practice to run vacuum pumps regularly (e.g. for fifteen minutes once 

a week), with the inlet closed to purge the pump oil of water. 

Resistors 

A 1.5 kD. resistor is required for Investigation "'8.2. A wire wound 

resistor will be suitable and can be distinguished from carbon resistors 

by the fact that wire wound resistors are usually shiny as they have a 

vitreous covering, and have a higher wattage rating, from about 3 W 

upwards. Carbon resistors have a dull finish and are rated at less than 

3W.

Resistor codes 

There are two codes in current use. The older code consists of a series 

of coloured bands painted onto the resistor while the newer code 

consists of figures and letters printed onto the resistor. The resistor 

required will either have its first three colour bands brown, green and 

red or it will have the letter code 1K5 with a second letter to indicate 

the tolerance. 

Rockets 

Water rockets 

Various kinds of water rocket are obtainable from toy shops. A suitable 

water rocket is made by Merit, Merit Lunar Rocket catalogue 

number 9220. A plastic bottle fitted with a rubber bung with a bicycle 

valve inserted (cut from an old inner tube) can also be used. The 

rocket should be attached horizontally to a truck, or allowed to rise 

vertically from a loose support. 

Carbon dioxide capsule rockets 

A simple arrangement is to attach a carbon dioxide capsule (as used 

for soda siphons) to the top of a toy truck or a dynamics trolley. The 

capsule should be horizontal with its neck facing the rear of the truck. 

An easy method of mounting the capsule is to fix an aluminium or 

other metal tube to the truck. The forward end of the tube is closed 

with some form of stop and the capsule is placed inside it. The capsule 

can be opened with a round nail and a sharp blow from a hammer. The 

best size of hole can be found by trial. 

Balloon rocket 

A simple balloon rocket can be employed as alternative or supplementary 

to water or carbon dioxide rockets. A 'sausage' balloon is attached 

by Sellotape cradles to two lengths of standard glass tubing, each of 

which should be 50-60 mm long and flame smoothed at both ends. It 

is easiest to assemble the rocket by threading the glass tubes onto a 

button thread guide line which is then fixed horizontally. Inflate the 

balloon and then connect it to the glass tubing with two Sellotape 

slings. Do not try to remove the Sellotape after use as this will 

probably puncture the balloon. 

235

236 

balloon 

button thread 

For successful firing of the rocket, it is important that the thread 

should be as taut as possible, otherwise the leading edges of the glass 

tubes tend to snag. The thread should be 3-5 m long and should be 

horizontal or sloping slightly downhilL 

Scaler (counter) 

The type of scaler recommended is one with a built in pulse generator 

producing 1 000 pulses per second. In Section 8, a GM tube is used 

with the scaler, which must, therefore, incorporate an appropriate (up 

to 450 V) voltage supply. The output from the pulse generator is led 

to an external switch and back to the scaler which records the number 

of pulses received. The instrument records.in milliseconds the duration 

for which this switch is closed. The instrument may be made to start 

counting by connecting the green sockets (Panax scaler SA 102 ST) 

and stopped by breaking this connection. 

A second pair of sockets (red) are fitted across the counter. When 

connection is made between the sockets the instrument stops counting 

providing the green sockets are connected. With these connections the 

counter can be started by breaking the red connection, see the diagram 

below, and stopped by breaking the green connection, thus giving the 

time taken over a measured distance. 

Breaking aluminium tapes 

(G) 

green? 

I 

I 

I I 

redo : 

(R) l I, I 

o 

make to start 

break to stop 

o 

(R) 

G 

G 

---- .•... 

.... bR 

break to start 

make to stop

Start-stop mechanisms 

break-to-start tape break-to-stop tape 

----}--trolley motion of trolley ~ 

runway 

G 

R R 

L..------O 

G 

scaler sockets 

- --- 

The ends of the start tape are connected across the red terminals and 

the stop tape is connected across the green terminals. The scaler 

measures the time in milliseconds between the breaking of the two 

tapes. 

Using a photodiode The green sockets are connected with a short 

connecting lead and the photo diode is connected across the red 

sockets. In order that the photodiode should not activate the scaler 

under conditions of diffuse light it should be shielded so that only 

the direct beam from a prefocussed 2.5 V bulb can impinge directly 

on it. The speed of a passing trolley is calculated from the length of 

a piece of card mounted on it, so as to break the light beam, and the 

time for which the light beam is broken. 

Hgh~ rOtOdiOdl~ I oR 

connections on scaler 

G 

G Ii 

btackl, J 

Using photo transistors Phototransistors, type OCP 71 may be used in 

the same way as photodiodes. They are more sensitive than photodiodes. 

Light should be focussed onto the emitter junction for maximum sens- 

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238 

itivity. The emitter is the smaller of the two junctions. Only emitter 

and collector connections are used, the base is left unconnected. The 

emitter should be connected to the right-hand red socket and the 

collector to the left-hand red socket with the green sockets connected 

by a short lead. 

Speed of an air-gun pellet 

This is Investigation A4.5. 

Plasticine 

R 

rule 

G 

G 

R 

end stop 

Mount the rifle on its side to a board so that the pellet will enter 

the Plasticine (In the flat truck. Time the truck through one metre, 

starting the truck 50-100 mm before the end of the rule. 

The air-gun end of the board should be raised sufficiently to compensate 

for friction. When in the correct position the truck should 

move along the track, if given a start, without accelerating. A pellet 

trap must be placed at the end of the range. This may consist of a 

large block of Plasticine, clay or polystyrene, backed with a 20 mm 

backing sheet of wood which itself is backed with a metal plate. A 

large cardboard box of sand will also suffice. 

Circuit breakers

The circuit breakers must be accurately in the line of fire of the airgun. 

Alignment is easily achieved by placing a sheet of paper in each 

of the circuit breaker stands and then loading and firing the air-rifle. 

Thin strips of aluminium foil are then connected across the pellet 

holes in the sheets of paper. An alternative to aluminium foil is graphite 

rod as used for the 'lead' in propelling pencils. 

The connections to the scaler are made by connecting the circuit 

breaker nearest to the rifle to the red terminals and connecting the 

other circuit breaker to the green terminals. For notes on the use of 

the scaler see above. 

Standard wire gauge 

The standard wire gauge (s.w.g.) is related to metric and imperial 

measures as shown in the table 

s.w.g. diameter/mm diameter lin 

10 3.25 0.128 

12 2.64 0.104 

14 2.03 0.080 

16 1.63 0.064 

18 1.22 0.048 

20 0.914 0.036 

22 0.711 0.028 

24 0.559 0.022 

26 0.457 0.018 

28 0.376 0.014 8 

30 0.315 0.0124 

32 0.274 0.0108 

34 0.234 0.0092 

36 0.193 0.0076 

38 0.152 0.0060 

40 0.122 0.0048 

42 0.102 0.0040 

44 0.081 0.003 2 

46 0.061 0.0024 

Titration 

Titration techniques are required in Investigations "'3.9, "'3.10 and 

12.1 

The description of the technique which follows, is the traditional 

method using volumetric glassware, and should give accurate results if 

all precautions are taken. Minor variations in style do exist and some 

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240 

slight modification may be dictated by the type of apparatus and 

reagents used. 

Apparatus required 

balance, weighing bottle or watch glass, and spatula 

burette, 50 ern", fitted with ground glass stopcock 

1 burette stand, or retort stand, bosshead, clamp 

1 filter funnel, 50-75 mm diameter 

3 flasks, 100 em", conical 

1 flask, 100 ern" , volumetric 

1 pipette, 20-25 ern", and pipette filler 

1 reagent bottle, 250-500 ern? 

1 spotting tile, for use with external indicators 

1 white tile 

Note that all apparatus should be clean and that weighing bottles 

should be kept dry in a desiccator until required. 

Procedure 

Essentially a titration is the determination of the concentration of 

one reagent by comparing it with a known standard. The unknown is 

thus titrated against the known standard, although at times it is the 

standard which is actually run in to the unknown from a burette. 

Before the determination can be made the standard solution must be 

prepared. Technically such solutions should be standardised against a 

primary standard, but in the school situation this procedure is often 

ignored and the 'standard' solution is one made up accurately from a 

solid analytical grade reagent. In school acidimetry the use of a strong 

base such as sodium hydroxide as a standard for titration by a strong 

acid, is open to the criticism that the hydroxide may not be of the 

purity required especially if the solid has been in store for some time, 

but its use avoids the complication of selecting an appropriate indicator, 

as would be the case if sodium carbonate were used instead. 

Preparing the standard 

1. Calculate the mass of solid standard required to make up the appropriate 

quantity of solution, e.g. for 0.1 M sodium carbonate, 1.06 g are 

required for 100 ern" of solution. 

2. Find the approximate mass of the weighing bottle (or watch glass) and 

put some of the solid reagent into the bottle. 

3. Reweigh the bottle and its contents and adjust the total mass by tipping

out some solid until the total is approximately equal to the mass of 

the bottle plus 1.06 g. 

4. Tip the contents of the bottle into the volumetric flask then reweigh 

the bottle accurately. The mass of solid actually used is calculated by 

subtracting this last mass from that found in 3 above. 

5. Add the appropriate solvent (usually distilled or deionised water) to 

the flask so as to half fill it. Put the stopper in the neck of the flask 

and dissolve the solid by shaking. Add further solvent if necessary 

until it is about 15 mm below the bottom of the neck of the flask. 

6. When all the solid is dissolved and the solution is at room temperature 

the flask is topped up to the appropriate graduation mark by the 

addition of more solvent, until the bottom of the meniscus is on the 

mark when viewed horizontally. The mark will be easiest to see if a 

white background (e.g. the sleeve of a laboratory coat) is placed 

behind the neck of the flask. 

Volumetric flasks frequently have two graduation marks on the 

neck. The upper one is used when the prepared solution is to be 

completely poured from the flask. The lower one is used when the 

flask's contents form the stock solution from which samples will be 

taken. It is this lower mark which is normally required for titrations; 

the other one being used when an exact volume of liquid is required 

to be measured before pouring into some other vessel. 

7. The concentration of the standard solution is calculated from the mass 

of solid used, and the theoretical mass required, i.e. if in the example 

(sodium carbonate) quoted an actual mass of 1.08 g were made up 

into the standard solution, the molarity would be: 

1.08 X 0.1 M = 0.102 M 

1.06 

Titrating against the standard 

The pipette 

1. Shake the volumetric flask well by repeatedly inverting it. Draw a 

small quantity of the standard into the pipette and wet the inside of 

the instrument by rotating it horizontally. Expel this solution to waste. 

2. Draw in sufficient solution to the pipette to fill it to the graduation 

mark on the stem. The bottom of the meniscus should be on the mark 

when viewed horizontally. 

3. Wipe the outside of the outlet end of the pipette and expel its contents 

into a conical flask. Two types of pipette are in common use. In one 

type the pipette is designed to deliver the correct volume by simply 

241

242 

running the liquid out slowly, while in the other type the contents are 

blown out. In either case allow the pipette to stand vertically in the 

flask for ten to fifteen seconds then either blowout (but not by mouth 

especially when alkalis are in use), or touch the end onto the surface of 

the liquid already expelled, depending on the type of pipette in use. 

4. Repeat the pipetting procedure for the other two conical flasks. Make 

such other additions to the flasks as are demanded by the experiment. 

Indicators should be used sparingly; between one and five drops will 

usually be quite sufficient. Note that pipettes with damaged outlet 

ends will not deliver an accurate quantity of liquid, and should therefore, 

be discarded. 

tt« burette 

1. Wash out the burette with a little of the liquid to be used in it. Allow 

some of this washing to run out through the burette tap. 

2. Fill the burette with the liquid using a filter funnel in the top of the 

apparatus. Remove the funnel and allow enough liquid to run through 

the burette tap to bring the meniscus onto the graduated part of the 

burette. Allow the burette to stand for ten to fifteen seconds before 

reading the scale. 

3. Run solution slowly from the burette into the standard solution in one 

conical flask and make a note of the quantity used. The first additions 

may be quite large, e.g. 5 ern", at a time but as the end point is approached 

only 1 em" or 0.5 em? quantities should be allowed to enter 

at a time. In the following two titrations the final additions are made 

one drop at a time. 

4. Top up the burette so that the same portion of its scale is used for 

each titration. Titrate the second sample of the standard as accurately 

as possible, using the first titration as a guide to the total quantity 

required. Finally titrate the third sample. These latter two determinations 

should not vary by more than 0.1 crrr' from each other. 

5. If a magnifier is available for reading burettes it is possible to extend 

the limits of the burette's accuracy by counting the number of drops 

required to reach the end point from the previous scale division. The 

number of drops per 0.1 crrr' needs to be found by trial and error but 

may well be more than five or ten so that the reading may be made to 

the nearest 0.02 crrr' or better. 

6. Generally alkalis are not put in burettes as they can cause clogging of 

the ground glass tap. The taps should be lightly greased after cleaning 

and should not be interchanged between burettes.

All glassware should be carefully cleaned and dried after use. A 

washing with dilute hydrochloric add followed by rinsing with tap 

water and finally distilled water will usually keep glass clean but with 

some reagents other cleaning fluids may be required. Scouring powders 

should never be used on volumetric equipment. 

Two-dimensional motion apparatus 

This apparatus is suggested for Investigations A4.12 and A8.11. 

Several varieties of this apparatus are commercially available. In 

each case the apparatus consists of a selection of pucks, with or without 

magnets, and a suitable means of allowing the pucks to move 

'without friction' over a surface. 

The de luxe apparatus consists of an air table which works on the 

same principle as the linear air track. The table consists basically of a 

box with a smooth top perforated with fine holes. The pucks are made 

of plastic with ring magnets which can be loaded into them. The disadvantage 

of an air table is that in use the working surface tends to distort 

slightly (especially in the cheaper versions) and the pucks, therefore, 

tend not to travel in straight lines. 

Another type of apparatus consists of a glass plate over which the 

pucks can run. Pucks may be of several types. 

Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) pucks 

These are open underneath rather like the top of a Petri dish, and may 

be magnetic or non-magnetic. For supply of dry ice see Appendix 4 

'Gas cylinders'. The cavity receives 1-2 em" of dry ice at a loading. As 

the dry ice evaporates allowing a relatively slow escape of gas the puck 

will move on the gas cushion. It is advisable to clean the glass plate 

with ethanol (IMS) before use. 

Compressed air pucks 

These have a chamber above the base which can be pumped up using 

a bicycle pump. The pucks should be handled with care since over 

pumping can cause them to split open. The puck moves on a cushion 

of air expelled through the base. The simplest type of compressed air 

puck uses a toy balloon as the source of compressed air. 

Self propelling pucks 

These are miniature hovercraft. They contain a small electric motor 

driven by batteries contained in the puck itself. The motor drives a 

pump which forces air through the base of the puck. 

243

244 

Using polystyrene beads 

If the glass plate is sprinkled with polystyrene moulding beads then 

aluminium discs, coins or washers can be used to illustrate two dimensional 

collisions. The discs run very well over this surface (better than 

when sliding on a polished bench) but the technique is not suitable for 

quantitative work. Polystyrene (Styrocell) beads are very dangerous 

when dropped on the floor so great care must be taken if they are to 

be used. The plate must be framed with a raised edge. 

The glass plate is best made of plate glass and should be kept very 

clean by washing with IMS and polishing carefully with a soft cloth or 

leather. Before use it needs to be levelled carefully using small wedges 

until an operating puck does not drift appreciably.

Appendix 2 

Notes on biological materials 

This appendix is mainly concerned with hints for the culture and 

maintenance of organisms. It is helpful to have a special animal room, 

apart from the main work areas. A greenhouse is advantageous for the 

culture of plants but in its absence some sort of propagator will be 

found useful. 

The point needs making that organisms are alive and are susceptible 

to disease and death. They need constant care and overseeing, 

and will not survive long periods without attention, such as occur 

over holidays. When organisms are diseased it is usually more humane 

to kill than to try to cure them. 

It is worth checking all cultures daily and where incubation 

procedures are involved the setting of the incubators should be 

checked frequently. Strict cleanliness should be observed when 

handling cultures to prevent cross contamination or self infection 

through handling them. Always wash hands well with soap and 

water after dealing with animals. 

The information given concerning culture methods has been tried 

and tested, but it is not claimed that the methods are infallible nor 

that they are the only correct ones. There are often variations on 

these methods and different technicians are likely to have their own 

favourite and effective procedures. 

Agar 

Petri dishes prepared with MacConkey agar are required for Investigation 

12.1, and with milk agar for Investigation ~3.13. Minimal 

medium is required for 66.19. 

Agars are mixtures of nutrients made into a jelly with agar and 

water. Organisms usually grow only on the surface. 

Media are usually in powder or tablet form. All that is required is 

to add appropriate quantities of water according to the directions 

which are usually printed on the bottle label. The medium is mixed 

thoroughly and then sterilised. 

245

246 

The necks of containers should be sterilised by flaming in a Bunsen 

burner flame after the top has been removed and before the medium 

is poured from them. Petri dishes should be uncovered for only as 

long as it takes to fill them with medium. Allow 10-15 crrr' of 

medium for each 90 mm diameter Petri dish. 

Take care to keep media sterile during transfer. 

Condensation can be avoided by pouring the agar as cool as 

possible and stacking the plates on top of each other. Any condensation 

which forms on the plates or the covers can be removed before 

use by drying them in an oven or incubator without a fan. Set the 

oven for 37-40 °C. Open the Petri dish quickly and place both halves 

open side down. Place the bottom half on the oven shelf and rest the 

top half over it. Leave until most of the cloudiness disappears. Dried 

plates cannot be stored for later use. 

bottom containing 

agar 

oven shelf 

Prepared plates can be stored in a refrigerator for about one month 

until required. Put the plates in a polythene bag which can be sealed. 

Incubate plates infected with bacteria with the lids down, and with 

lids up for fungal cultures. All cultures should be labelled on the 

underside of the dish, not the lid, with the initials of the medium, 

the date of inoculation and the type of organism used. 

Infected medium should be burned after use and the containers 

must be sterilised. Medium can also be rendered harmless by autoclaving 

(or soaking in disinfectant for 24 hours) before wrapping 

and disposing by burying or in the dustbin. 

Media 

Media should be made up exactly as directed. Tap water is often 

better to use than distilled or deionised water as it affects the pH 

(degree of acidity /alkalinity) less. Resterilisa tion of media should be 

avoided as each heating tends to make them more acid, and also 

causes darkening due to sugars becoming carameIised. 

MacConkey agar 

MacConkey agar may be purchased as a ready prepared sterile gel. 

The container needs to be warmed in a water bath until the contents

are liquid. Before warming any cap on the container should be loosened 

but not completely removed. Pour the molten agar into Petri 

dishes as quickly as possible to reduce risk of contamination by aerial 

micro-organisms. Tablets are also available which are usually made up 

at the rate of 1 or 2 tablets per 10 em" of sterile distilled water. 

Milk agar 

This is a special agar required for experiments on enzyme activity. If 

required suitable buffer tablets can be added to the agar so that 

enzyme activity at various degrees of acidity or alkalinity can be 

investigated. To prepare the agar mix: 

2 g agar 

4 g instant non-fat milk powder (e.g. Cadbury's Marvel) 

200 crrr' water 

Sterilise the agar by autoclaving at 10 5 N m -2 (15 p.s.i.) for 

10-15 minutes and pour the agar into Petri dishes to produce a very 

thin layer (5-10 cm ' of agar per 90 mm diameter dish). 

Autoclaves must be allowed to steam for five minutes to expel all 

air before bringing to pressure. After the sterilising time the autoclave 

must be allowed to cool and the pressure must be equalised with 

atmospheric pressure before the instrument is opened. 

Minimal medium 

This agar is required for the yeast mutation experiment, 

Investigation 6.6.19. It may be bought ready prepared. 

Details of the preparation of the agar are to be found in Nuffield 

Biology Teachers' guide V, Chapter 4 which should be read in conjunction 

with the Pupils text V, Chapter 4. Unless schools intend to 

culture the ad-strain of yeast it is not worthwhile to prepare the 

medium required. If culturing is to be undertaken then minimal 

medium plus adenine will be required. 

Light will cause mutation. Cultures should therefore be kept in 

the dark. 

Bacterial counting 

The following method of counting bacteria is suggested for 

Investigation 12.1. 

It may be assumed that each colony of bacteria is produced from 

a single bacterium so that a total count of the colonies arising from 

a sample of water represents a count of the individual bacteria present 

247

water from 

polluted source 

9 em" MacConkeyagar 

(45°C) 

248 

in the sample before incubation. Before the pollution is first started it 

is likely that a count can be made without diluting the sample, unless 

an established minipond is used as the starting community. It is best 

in all cases to prepare agar plates using several different dilutions of 

the water sample, as indicated in the diagram below, which refers to 

the 'pour plate method'. If a simple plating method is used it is 

advisable to make two further dilutions so as to count the number of 

colonies in 0.001 crrr' and 0.00 1 em" of polluted water respectively. 

I 'em3 sample 

! 

incubate 1-2 days at 37 °C 

1 

count no. of 

colonies from 

1 cm ' of polluted water 

9 em 3 sterile 

distilled water 

! 

, em' ,ample U 

9 ern" MacConkey agar 

(45°C) 

\ 

I 'ern? sample 

! 

Incubate '.2rav, at 37·C 

count no. of 

colonies from 

0.1 cm ' of polluted water

Pour plate method 

9 ern" of sterile MacConkey agar (see 'Agar') at a temperature near its 

setting point, are mixed with 1 ern" of the appropriate sample in a 

Petri dish. The resulting 10 cm ' of mixture are allowed to set and are 

incubated at 37°C for 1-2 days. Mixing is accomplished by gently 

swirling the contents of the Petri dish. 

9 cm 3 sterile 

distilled water 

t 

1 cm 3 U 

sample U'em' ,ampl. further dilution 

~. and plating 

9 crn' MacConkey agar 

(45°C) 

\ 

1 

1ern" sample 

! 

incubate 1-2 days at 37 °C 

l 

count no. of 

colonies from 

0.01 cm ' of polluted water 

249

250 

Simple plating method 

MacConkey agar plates are prepared the day before required and are 

dried over night. 1 em" of sample is placed on the surface of a dry 

plate and spread over the surface either by swirling or by streaking it 

with a sterile inoculating loop. 

Calliphora, blow-fly 

Blow-fly or other fly larvae (maggots) are required for Investigation 2.1 

It is so easy to obtain maggots that it is not worthwhile keeping fly 

cultures specifically for this purpose. Larvae are obtainable during the 

fishing season from bait shops where they are sold as 'gentles'. They 

will pupate in damp (not wet) sawdust. The pupae hatch after ten days. 

Fly larvae may be obtained from the environment by placing a 

piece of liver in the bottom of a jam jar which is then placed in a 

sheltered situation outside, particularly near dustbins. Flies will lay 

eggs on the moist liver which is scored with a knife to provide cracks 

in which the eggs are deposited. Leave the jars for 2-3 days to ensure 

a good supply of maggots. Wash the larvae with clean water and 

transfer them to a jar of damp sawdust. Eggs will take about ten hours 

to hatch and the larvae pupate in eight days. 

Larvae may be separated from the sawdust by sieving. 

Note that there is a risk of infection from fly larvae, especially 

when collected locally. Take care to wash hands well after handling 

maggots. 

Clover 

The following information is required for Investigation 6.6.6.9. 

The aim of this work is to show the correlation between the 

selective eating of clover by snails and the inheritance of the ability 

of some clover plants to generate hydrocyanic acid when the cells are 

damaged. The work consists of identifying and planting clover with 

the ability to generate hydrocyanic acid and then comparing the 

number of leaves the snails eat from these plants with the number of 

leaves they eat from plants without this ability. 

Obtaining clover plants 

Clover plants of cyanogenic and acyanogenic types are established 

by one of the following methods. 

a. Seeds of New Zealand certified permanent pasture white clover are 

sown in John Innes no. 1 compost in small pots. The plants are

thinned after six weeks leaving one plant per pot. In summer these 

plants will be usable three to four weeks after thinning. The plants 

should be numbered and later identified as cyanogenic or acyanogenic. 

b. A lawn with isolated patches of white clover may be used as a source 

of clover plants. When the plants in the clone have been identified as 

cyanogenic or acyanogenic, runners from the patch may be transplanted 

into pots to provide a suitable number of plants of each 

type. The diagram shows the preparation procedure. 

three months ahead collect put at once into separate test a leaf for cyanide 

20 runners of clover from corked, numbered boiling generation in a numbered 

20 different patches of tubes to prevent roots tube (do this at once) 

white clover on a lawn drying 

John Innes 

compost 

two hours later pot up 

enough runners to produce 

6 cyanide and 6 non cyanide 

generating plants, label 

clearly and permanently 

grow on plants quickly two weeks before the lesson, 

in moist warm conditions for cut back to produce a plant 

10 weeks, do not let runners with about 20 young leaves 

passfrom pot to pot ready for the lesson 

The propagation of clover and the determination of the nature of 

the clover plants is best carried out beforehand so that enough plants 

of both types are available for the pupils' work. 

Testing leaves for hydrocyanic acid 

The diagram shows how the plants are tested. Two leaves from each 

plant are bruised to pulp. The pulp from each plant is scraped up 

with a spatula and put in the bottom of small glass tubes or small 

McCartney bottles and covered with two drops of water and one 

drop of toluene. A strip (20 mm X 5 mm) of sodium picrate paper 

is pushed into a slit in each cork or is taped to the screw top so that 

it does not touch the side of the tube or the liquid in it. The tube is 

251

252 

now closed. If the tubes are incubated at 40°C a reaction will occur 

in two hours. If they are left at room temperature the reaction will 

occur overnight. The results will be: 

hydrocyanic acid colour 

none 

some 

much 

yellow 

brown 

red/brown 

sellotape@ 

1 attach picric acid paper 2 thoroughly bruise two 

to lid of tube leavesfrom one plant 

4 put at bottom 5 add 2 drops 

of glasstube of water 

Experimental procedure 

3 scrape up leaf 

6 add 1 drop 7 cork and incubate 8 compare 

of toluene at 35-40 0 

2 hours 

C for colours 

Approximately one week before the investigation sufficient land 

snails Helix should be collected and kept in a plastic aquarium or 

large jar (e.g. a sweet jar) containing a moist 1: 1 mixture of peat and 

soil. A piece of limestone should be placed in the jar together with 

a source of food such as carrot or potato. Cover the jar with a glass 

plate so that the snails do not escape. On setting up the experiment 

2 leaves from each plant used are tested and the leaves in each plant 

counted by pupils. Put two or three snails on each of 2 or 3 of each 

type of plant and enclose the pot in a plastic bag. 

Set up control pots without snails. 

Count the leaves of both control and experimental plants at 2 day 

intervals for the next 2 weeks.

Drosophila melanogaster, fruit fly 

The fruit fly,Drosophila is a small fly well known to amateur winemakers 

as the vinegar fly. These flies are attracted to ripe and overripe 

fruit and will congregate around mashed bananas. The flies can 

be collected by leaving a jar of mashed banana outside on a summer's 

evening but with the availability of recognized strains from biological 

supply houses the effort is hardly worthwhile. The organism is 

suggested as an alternative to Tribolium for Investigation 6A6.13. 

Culture medium 

There are many different formulations of culture media for Drosophila 

ranging from simple fruit pulps to highly sophisticated specialities. 

The particular formulation given here has proved successful in trials 

as, too, have some of the commercially available ready mixed and 

sterile media. Fruit pulps are not recommended as they have a tendency 

to rot and promote fungal growths which results in wastage 

of cultures. 

The recipe given is sufficient for 20 one-third pint orange juice 

or milk bottles. 

30 g agar powder 

100 g oatmeal (breakfast oats) 

50 g soft brown sugar or 40 ern" black treacle (molasses) 

26 g yeast, dried 

1 000 ern" distilled water 

Mix the ingredients together and bring to the boil while stirring. 

Simmer until a uniform consistency is obtained, stirring continuously. 

In order to help prevent the medium from growing moulds it 

should be sterilized in an autoclave, and may also be treated with 

Nipagin. Conflicting reports concerning the efficacy of this chemical 

exist and the alternative, propionic acid seems not to work. Nipagin 

(methyl p-hydroxy benzoate or n-propyl p-hydroxy benzoate) is 

prepared by dissolving 0.5 g of solid in 2 crrr' of ethanol. This solution 

is diluted to 80 ern" with distilled water. The solution is added 

to the food medium just before it is added to the culture bottles. 

Sterile culture media may be kept in a refrigerator for about six 

weeks or in a deep freeze for about six months when protected 

from desiccation by storing in a sealed polythene bag. 

Culture bottles 

Before use, containers should be thoroughly washed out with hot 

water and disinfectant such as Izal or Lysol (5% solution), but care 

253

254 

must be taken with the hot disinfectant which may be caustic. They 

then need to be rinsed well with clean water before filling with 

culture medium and sterilizing. 

~--cotltoml\lool stopper 

enclosed in muslin 

H--l-----filter paper pushed into culture 

medium with glass rod 

30-50mm { 

deep --- culture medium 

t pint milk bottle 

The culture medium is poured into the bottles whilst still hot and 

fluid. A 50-80 mm X 25 mm length of grade 3 filter paper is folded 

in half lengthwise and pushed into the medium using a clean glass rod. 

The bottles are stoppered with non absorbent cotton wool covered 

with muslin, or with foam plastic stoppers. 

One-third pint orange juice or milk bottles are suitable for stock 

cultures. Each bottle should be labelled with the date and number of 

flies used to start the culture, see 'Keeping cultures'. 

After sterilization allow the medium to cool and then add a little 

granular dried yeast to the medium in each bottle just before adding 

the flies. Since the flies will be unconscious when added to the bottles 

the yeast is powdered and sprinkled over the surface of the food 

medium so that the flies do not become stuck. The yeast is also 

required so that the medium will ferment. 

Handling of flies 

It is best to use at least five to ten pairs (male and female) of flies to 

start a stock culture. Each female on average will produce about 80 

offspring. If sexing proves difficult an initial stock of ten to twenty 

flies should ensure the presence of males and females. 

There are basically three methods of immobilizing flies for transfer: 

using ethoxyethane (ether), using carbon dioxide, and refriger- __ 

ation. The standard method is to anaesthetize the flies using 

ethoxyethane in special etherizers. The ether is put on the cotton

wool inside the etherizer so that it is damp but not saturated. When 

the flies have been transferred to an etherizer the apparatus should 

be rotated while watching the flies until none of them move. 

Quickly empty the flies onto a sheet of filter paper and sort out the 

ones required using a brush. Place the unconscious flies on the filter 

paper strip inside the new culture bottle. Close the bottle and lay it 

on its side (so that the flies do not fall onto the sticky medium) 

until recovery is complete. 

If large quantities of flies are to be transferred by this method do 

not try to make them all go into the etherizer at the same time but 

deal with them in batches. The ethoxyethane can be diluted by mixing 

with ethanol so that there is less danger of over etherizing. Notes 

on etherizers are given at the end of this appendix item. 

Flies may also be rendered unconscious by treating them with 

carbon dioxide from a gas cylinder. Do not use a gas generator as 

there is a chance of killing the flies with acid fumes from the gas 

producing reactants. The carbon dioxide treatment is safer than 

etherization and most of the flies will recover. An emergency 

etherizer will be required in addition to the source of carbon 

dioxide. The gas is let into the culture jars by means of a hypodermic 

syringe needle which is inserted through the stopper. The 

needle is connected to the gas cylinder by means of rubber connecting 

tubing, and the gas must be applied slowly. 

If the culture bottles are placed in a refrigerator for up to half an 

hour the flies can be easily handled. Should they recover too quickly 

during sorting operations, have an emergency etherizer nearby. 

In all cases it may be advantageous to keep the culture bottles and 

tubes on their sides until the flies have recovered so that they do not 

become stuck to the food medium. Flies which escape into the work 

area may be trapped in a narrow necked jar fitted with a filter funnel 

and containing mashed banana. It is easier, however, to use a fly 

spray and write-off the escaped organisms. 

Keeping cultures 

Keep the stock bottles on trays holding six to twelve bottles each. 

They may be stored, inspected and handled easily when on these 

trays. Label each bottle with details of the strain, the date of starting 

the bottle, and the genetic cross involved. In order to reduce the 

risk of infection of cultures by mites it is advisable to put motor 

oil (e.g. SAE 30) in the trays and to stand the bottles in Petri 

dishes placed in the oil. 

255

256 

Drosophila breed best at 25°C. They become sterile if kept above 

28 °c for any length of time and the rate of reproduction is 

significantly reduced below 15°C. It is best to keep them in a 

reliable incubator. Normal room temperatures are usually adequate 

providing the cultures are not kept on window sills where the greatest 

temperature fluctuations tend to occur. Rapid changes in temperature 

cause condensation in the culture bottle. Flies become stuck to 

this and die. 

Life history 

At 25°C the adult hatches from the pupa approximately nine days 

after the egg is laid. Females can lay eggs twelve hours after emergence 

(sometimes this is 48 hours if the flies have been etherized). Males 

are potent three hours after emergence. The average length of adult 

life is 26 days for females and 33 days for males. Allow for a life 

cycle of 12-14 days in planning work. If the cultures are not kept in 

an incubator at this temperature the times quoted are likely to be 

incorrect with all stages taking much longer. 

Sexing the flies 

To obtain virgin females all the adults are removed from a culture. 

Any flies emerging in the next eight hours are likely to be virgins. 

Under school conditions a suitable and reliable procedure is to 

remove the adults first thing in the morning and "then remove the 

virgin stock at lunchtime and again immediately after school. Separate 

the males from the females as soon as possible and keep them 

separate until required. (Virgin flies are required for 6A6.13.) 

Young virgin females have a pale, almost white, body colour. They 

tend to hatch earlier than the males. When in doubt the absence of 

the sex comb (see diagram) should be used to confirm identification. 

Other criteria for sexing are the brown chitinized claspers at the end 

of the abdomen of the male which are absent in the female. The 

dorsal surface of the male's abdomen is darkly pigmented at the 

posterior while in the female this dark hind portion has lighter 

bands across it. 

Etherizers 

Etherizers are easily prepared from specimen tubes and small filter 

funnels as shown in diagram a below. Diagram b shows a commercially 

available etherizer in which the side arm may be used either for 

adding ethoxyethane or for pouring out the flies.

female 

dorsal 

view 

ventral 

view 

ventral 

view 

side 

view 

male 

features to distinguish between male and female Drosophila 

257

258 

In either case the ethoxyethane may be diluted with ethanol and 

only sufficient should be added to moisten and not soak the cotton 

wool. 

A 

J

I----final position of t pint 

milk bottle 

putting flies into the etheriser; the movements 

should be performed as Quickly as possible 

transfer them all at one go but take out several batches until the 

bottle is empty. 

The flies are usually anaesthetized very quickly and are soon 

ready for examination. 

If at any stage flies are seen with their abdomens arched, their legs 

bunched together, and wings stretched over their backs it is a sign 

that some flies are dead due to the use of too much ether. Immediately 

take the funnel off the etherizer and replace it with a stopper. 

Shake any flies in the funnel back into the culture bottle and replace 

the bung. Start again using less ether. 

etherised cotton wool 

259

260 

Place one edge of the etherizer just in front of the flies and 

quickly close it over them. Do not rush the movement or the flies 

will be blown away. 

Locust testes 

Locust testes may be prepared up to a month in advance of the 

required lesson if aceto-carmine stain is to be used. Aceto-orcein is 

best for use with fresh material and Feulgen's stain can be used with 

material preserved for several months although in this latter case a 

second staining with aceto-orcein may be required. If the testes are 

to be kept for later use they should be fixed for 24 hours in acetic 

alcohol and then stored in 70% ethanol (IMS). 

Obtaining the testes 

Locusts may be bought from biological suppliers specially for this 

work or they may come from the school's continuing stock, if 

available. 

Male locusts can be distinguished from females by the shape of 

the terminal segments of the abdomen. 

Male Female 

Holding locust ready 

for dissection

The males (fifth instars) can be killed by decapitation, injection of 

ethanol (lMS) into the brain region, or by using a killing jar. 

The testes are dissected out by pinning the animal down dorsal 

surface uppermost on a cork mat and cutting up the midline of the 

back with a fine pair of scissors. The body wall is pinned back revealing 

the abdominal contents. Add a few drops of Ringer's solution 

(see Appendix 3) to the internal organs but do not flood the body 

cavity. Notice the yellow fat material covering the gut. The testes lie 

between the second and seventh abdominal segments. and are usually 

obscured by the fat. 

Remove all the fat containing the testes from the top of the gut, 

place it on a glass slide, and moisten the material with Ringer's 

solution. The testes will become whiter and easier to see against the 

yellow fat if the preparation is left in Ringer's solution for about 

10 minutes. 

Gently press on the tissues with a scalpel blade or similar instrument 

to break up the fat. The testes look like a bunch of bananas 

and can be seen if the slide is held against the light. Tear them carefully 

from the fat. 

When looking for testes care needs to be taken not to confuse 

the glistening white tubes of the tracheal system, which will be 

found to the side of the gut. 

fat containing testes 

tracheal system 

Abdominal wall pinned back 

261

262 

The testes are fixed for a minimum of two hours and a maximum 

of 24 hours by soaking them in acetic alcohol, see Appendix 3. They 

are then removed to 70% ethanol, IMS (see Appendix 3) for storage 

for up to a month. 

Staining techniques 

Using prepared material The testes are removed from the 70% 

ethanol into tap water in a watch glass. After 5 minutes transfer 

them to 0.8 M ammonium iron (III) sulphate (iron alum), see 

Appendix 3, and leave them for 5 minutes. 

Place the material on a micro slide and add a few drops of acetacarmine. 

Warm until the aceto-carmine is about to bubble. Repeat 

this warming several times. Wipe off the stain. Place fresh stain on the 

slide, cover and squash by tapping the cover glass gentlywith a 

needle, or by pressing gently on the cover glass with a pad of paper 

towelling. 

Fresh material can be treated in the same way providing it is 

first fixed using acetic alcohol. 

The mount is improved if Euparel mounting medium is used. 

Stuck cover glasses may be removed by soaking the slides after use 

in IMS. 

Using fresh material The fresh testis is stained with one or two drops 

of aceto-orcein (or propionic orcein), see Appendix 3, on the slide 

for 2-3 minutes. The slide must be heated during staining and extra 

stain is added to replace any lost by evaporation. Excess stain is 

washed off and the material is squashed between coverglass and 

slide for viewing. 

Using well preserved material The Feulgen technique is particularly 

valuable for preparations which have hardened due to being stored 

too long in a flxative such as ethanol. 

1. Fix the material in acetic alcohol for at least one hour and preferably 

one day. 

2. Hydrolyse the material in 1 M hydrochloric acid (see Appendix 3) 

for 6 minutes at 60 °e. Transfer to Feulgen's stain (see Appendix 3) 

and leave for one hour in the dark. 

3. Place a piece of material in one drop of Feulgen's stain (see Appendix 

3) and squash with the end of a glass rod. 

4. Put on a cover glass, warm gently and squash under filter paper. 

Should the Feulgen's stain not be very effective the cover glass 

should be removed and the material macerated again with aceta-

orcein stain. Such double stained material is likely to be more effective 

than any single stained material as described above. 

Schiff's reagent is effectively the same as Feulgen's stain. 

Mice 

Mice are suggested as alternative organisms for breeding in 

Investigation LA6.13. 

Hands must be carefully washed with soap and water after handling 

mice in order to reduce the risk of transferring disease organisms 

either to other animals or to oneself. 

Keeping mice 

Mice are best kept in shallow cages with separate areas for nesting 

and feeding. 

The 'Cambridge' cage consists of a plastic (polypropylene) trough 

with internal dimensions 275 mm X 220 m X 80 mm. It is covered 

by a wire lid sloping down towards the centre of the trough. On the 

lid a metal plate acts as a cover to the nesting area. A half-pint milk 

bottle supplies water. 

Up to six adults can be kept in one cage. For breeding, a trio of 

two does and a buck can be kept in a cage. The does can nurse 

several litters at the same time, but if the litters are of unequal age, 

and equally if one of the mothers tends to eat her young, it is best to 

separate the does for parturition (birth) and nursing. 

Cages can be kept on racking made of metal strips or wooden 

battens fixed to a wall. A space of 165-180 mm is needed between 

shelves and a space of 50 mm between adjacent cages. Three shelves 

of four cages each will occupy a wall area about 1.2 m wide by 0.6 m 

high and will project about 0.3 m. 

A room temperature of around 20 DC and reasonable ventilation 

with no draughts is desirable. Each doe should have her own record 

card which is clipped to the cage by a spring clip. If these are to be 

permanent records, writing in ball-point pen, Indian ink or spirit ink 

will safeguard against accidental wetting. Pencil will not run on wet 

card but is likely to smudge with handling. 

It has been found that noise may impede breeding procedures 

presumable by disturbing the does' oestrus cycles. The mothers 

disturbed in this way are likely to eat their litters and adults are 

frequently found to become vicious giving painful bites to the 

handler and to prying fingers. Should mice become vicious only one 

or two people should handle them, giving them time to become aware 

263

264 

of their presence. All movements made near the mice wne.; cleaning 

them should be slow and gentle so as not to disturb them. 

Cleaning 

Mice urinate and defaecate during exercise and especially when eating 

and drinking. They are extremely clean around the nesting area. In 

the Cambridge cage, the soiled bedding can be scooped out without 

disturbing the nest. If the mice are very active, a mesh shield, shaped 

to fit the nesting corner, can be held over them during cleaning. With 

particularly lively animals, the cage can be put in a large cardboard

ox, a dry sink, an aquarium, or the equivalent. It is particularly 

desirable not to disarrange the nest when birth is imminent or during 

nursing. 

If the cages are cleaned and additional bedding is added at least 

once a fortnight, the smell of mice should not be objectionable and 

the animals will remain healthy. Mice fed on cheese tend to smell 

strongly. Mouse food as described below contains all the necessary 

ingredients and does not need a supplement such as cheese. 

A layer of peat on the cage floor about 5 mm deep plus a handful 

of hay provides a suitable bedding. The hay can be twisted into a 

rough sort of nest and put in the nesting area, but this is not 

necessary as the mice will construct a nest without human help. 

Sawdust may be used as an alternative to peat but it may be 

contaminated by wild mouse droppings and should therefore be 

sterilised by autoclaving for at least an hour. Peat is more sterile than 

sawdust and also absorbs the smell more effectively. Check hay for 

the presence of mites and if necessary sterilise it by autoclaving. 

It is a wise procedure to wash the troughs and other parts of the 

cages weekly with hot water (75°C). If a detergent or disinfectant 

(e.g. Cetavlon, TCP) is used, the cages must be thoroughly rinsed out 

afterwards. The trough and the rest of the parts can withstand boiling 

water and may be sterilised in an autoclave at 5-6.7 X 10 4 N m- 2 

(8-10 p.s.i.). This is only necessary should the mice become diseased. 

Strongly smelling cages need cleaning. In warm, unventilated 

conditions the cages will need cleaning more frequently than in cool 

well ventilated conditions. 

Feeding 

Rat cake pellets obtainable from many pet stores make a good food. 

When placed on the cage cover they do not become contaminated 

with droppings and approximately 1-1.5 kg can be put there at a time. 

This will last about a fortnight with a maximum cage population. Use 

a smaller quantity if there are not many mice in a cage so as to prevent 

the uncovered pellets becoming stale by prolonged exposure to 

the air. Other recommended foods are Oxoid 41 B diet which is 

available in small quantities and mouse diet FM available from E. 

Dixon Ltd. in 25 kg (~hundredweight) sacks. Addition of extra seeds 

such as sunflower or barley improves the fertility of the mice. 

The water bottles have a single-holed bung through which passes 

a piece of glass tubing (5 mm internal diameter) whose open end has 

been heated until it has only a small hole (1 mm) in it. Capillary 

265

266 

tubing 1.25-2 mm internal diameter and 6-8 mm external diameter, 

can be used but tends to become airlocked. The tubing protrudes 

from the bung about 15 mm and needs to be about 30 mm long, 

depending on the depth of the bung. The bottle is placed with the 

spout protruding through the hole below the two short horizontal 

bars, in the space left for it by the upright divider. It will then be at 

the correct angle and distance from the cage floor. The bottle is filled 

with water to within 25 mm of the top and the bung is pressed in 

tightly. The bottle is inserted gently into the cage so as not to shake 

any water into it. The water should be replenished when the inner 

projection of the tube is out of the water. A supply usually lasts for 

a week. 

Mice rarely flood the cage by building up their bedding against the 

water tube but they may do so if there is too much bedding. A routine 

daily check should be made that flooding has not occurred and that 

there is sufficient water in the bottles. Algae grow in the bottles if they 

are in sunlight. Such bottles should be emptied and sterilised by filling 

with a 10% solution of sodium hypochlorite for a few hours. They 

need to be rinsed well, refilled with water and replaced in the cages. 

Handling 

Mice should be picked up by the tail held half way along. They will 

stay still if allowed to hold a coat sleeve or the bars of the cage with 

their front feet. They quickly become accustomed to handling 

providing this is carried out gently. A doe which is used to being 

handled is less likely to desert her litter when that is handled, than 

is one which is not used to such treatment. Up to 12 days old the 

whole litter may be held in the hand and each mouse should be 

returned to the rest of the litter as soon as possible after examination. 

Does are likely to reject cold young. Sometimes a litter born 

in new surroundings is abandoned but it is usual that subsequent 

litters are well cared for. 

When mice are first received from suppliers they may find their 

new environment unsettling. Occasional handling at first with a 

gradual increase in frequency will help them settle in two or three 

weeks. 

Young mice become very lively at 2-3 weeks of age and are difficult 

to catch because they move so fast. After 5-6 weeks they slow 

down and become more amenable to handling. It is sensible to open 

the cages inside a large box so that young mice do not escape.

Breeding 

Mice become sexually mature when they are 6-8 weeks old. Gestation 

takes 19-21 days and longer if the doe is suckling. The minimum 

generation is 9-10 weeks. The regular oestrus cycle is 4-5 days and 

the doe will only accept a male every fourth or fifth night. Mating 

can be detected by the presence of a vaginal plug formed by the male 

after copulation. It is a hard white substance which completely fills 

the vagina so that it can be seen with the naked eye. When it is more 

deeply placed it can be detected with the aid of a small spatula gently 

inserted into the vagina. For exact timing an inspection for vaginal 

plugs should be carried out daily. The plug usually disperses after 24 

hours but may sometimes persist for 2-3 days. 

Does may have eight or more litters in their lifetime. The first 

litter tends to be small but subsequent litters average about six. The 

second and third litters are likely to be the largest with up to eleven 

or twelve young. 

Sexing 

The young may be weaned at about twenty days old. 

\ 

_ I 

teatsof mammary'---'-- ) 

i .',"d, \.. - I 

) V'-----'(';------genital papilla ) \ 

j()}A1 

( \ 9"'''' 

anus 

papilla { ~ 

Y5j~ 

~ L~ 

maleadult femaleadult 

Sexing is easiest from 0-15 days and after 6 weeks. The penis of the 

male is further from the anus than is the vulva of the female. At about 

one week the does show milk teats. Cases of mistaken identity do 

occur and some mice may have genital abnormalities which give rise 

to incorrect sexing. It is best for breeding purposes to kill any abnormal 

mice at an early age. 

267

268 

Social effects 

Mice are social animals. They react to each other in many subtle, as 

well as obvious, ways. The oestrus cycle is modified differently by 

the presence of males and by the presence of females. The cycle is 

shorter when males (or their smell) are present, but in the presence 

of females only the cycle is mutually suppressed. 

The presence of a different male after removal of a doe from the 

male with which she has mated can cause a failure of pregnancy, 

especially if the second male belongs to a different strain from the 

first. All litters born to females which have mated twice, with different 

males, have been found to be sired by the second male. 

Marking, killing and preserving mice 

It is necessary to mark mice and this is best done by using stains of 

different colours which dye the fur. Some stains are not permanent 

and may have to be renewed from time to time, others will grow out 

as the hair is moulted. Vegetable dyes or hair dyes, obtainable from 

the local pharmacy are recommended. 

Mice are killed, either by etherisation or by use of trichloromethane 

(chloroform) in a closed airtight box. The killing box should have a 

separate compartment for the killing liquid, which must not come 

into contact with the animals. The vapour escapes from this compartment 

into the main part of the box, where the mice are placed. A 

wad of cotton wool dampened with the killing liquid is placed in the 

compartment. 

If mice are to be preserved the easiest method is to skin them 

when freshly killed and to mount the skins on hardboard or wooden 

formers. Skinning is carried out by slitting the ventral surface from 

hind leg to hind leg and peeling off the skin forwards, cutting at tail 

tip, paws, ears and nose. Rub salt and borax into the skin then stretch 

it on a former made to the size of the mouse. The former needs an 

extension at the posterior end on which details of the mouse are 

noted. Allow the skin to dry on the former and store with mothballs 

(naphthalene).

Mice intended for dissection may be dropped into 70% ethanol 

providing the abdominal wall is first cut open to allow the preservative 

to bathe the gut and other abdominal organs. 

Tradescantia 

T. paludosa or T. bracteata are suitable alternatives to locust testes 

for chromosome staining. The cultivated forms of T. virginia are not 

suitable because of the larger number of chromosomes in the nuclei. 

Immature flower buds taken from the bulbs of wild bluebells are also 

suitable as an alternative to Tradescantia. Bulbs should be obtained 

in February or March. 

Anthers are removed from the young flower buds and are 

stained using toluidine blue stain (see Appendix 3) without first 

transferring to acetic alcohol. The buds need to be removed before 

they open and the anthers, which will be pale yellow, are removed. 

If aceto-carmine is to be used the anthers are transferred to acetic 

alcohol. The presence of meiotic divisions in the immature pollen 

will prove diagnostic of the size of bud to choose for this work. 

Staining with toluidine blue 

Anthers are placed on a micro slide with 1 M hydrochloric acid. The 

slide is warmed to near boiling and allowed to cool. The warming is 

repeated several times then the acid is blotted off and replaced with 

toluidine blue stain. Crush the anther slightly in the stain using a 

needle then repeat the warming procedure. Blot away the old stain. 

Add fresh stain, cover and squash by tapping the cover glass with a 

needle. 

269

270 

Tribolium 

Tribolium castaneum is suggested as the organism for breeding in 

Investigation 6&6.13. Alternatives are Drosophila or mice. 

Culture method 

The culture medium consists of 19 parts of wholemeal flour to one 

part of powdered dried yeast. No water is necessary since the beetles 

obtain their requirements from their food. 

Containers are 500 g Kilner type jars in which the glass lid has 

been substituted by filter paper or a perforated polythene sheet. The 

culture is best kept at 35°C over a tray of water to maintain humidity. 

The culture is divided when the beetle population becomes high. 

Handling 

To obtain adult beetles put a screw of paper in the culture container 

and leave overnight. Many beetles will crawl into the crevices. 

Remove the paper and unravel it over a tray. Pooters (see diagram 

below) should not be used to remove beetles from the container 

because of the dusty medium, but can be used to pick up adults from 

the tray. 

An alternative method is to sieve the medium using a flour sieve, 

wire mesh tea strainer, or any sieve with holes approximately 1 mm 

X 1 mm. In this way adults, pupae and larvae can be collected. Eggs 

are so small that they remain in the flour or adhere to the mesh of 

the sieve, so a different sieve should be used for each culture to avoid 

cross contamination. For the same reason the cultures should be 

sieved well away from each other. 

Life cycle 

The adult beetles mate soon after emergence from pupae and store 

sperm for some time, so if breeding experiments are to be undertaken 

the sexes should be separated at the pupal stage. Females lay eggs 

about ten days after emerging from pupae and continue laying for a 

couple of months. Eggs hatch after about four days and start a larval 

period of about three weeks. The larvae then pupate for about one 

week before emerging as adult beetles. Times will vary considerably 

according to temperature and humidity.

Sexing 

pooter 

IrUbbertubing 

i-------c:nAcimen tube 

150mmx25mm 

Adult beetles are very difficult to sex even for the experienced 

handler. It is useful to sex pupae. 

In the male pupa the external genitalia are two short appendages 

which are little more than rounded protuberances, whereas in the 

female the appendages are divergent, segmented and altogether more 

prominent. 

~Female 

Ventral surface of the abdomen of Tribolium pupae 

MaleCi' 

A stereo microscope giving X 40 magnification is desirable for 

this method of sexing. 

In the adult stage sexing relies on the differences in the grooves 

and ridges at the apex of the elytra. In the male these are discontinuous, 

whereas in the female all but the extreme outside ones are 

continuous. 

271

272 

QFemale 

elytra of Tribolium 

\\ 

Malecf 

Unfortunately when viewed by normal top illumination it is 

difficult to see the ridges since they are on a curved surface. It is 

advisable to use a combination of top and lateral lighting in conjunction 

with a X 40 stereo microscope. 

Sexing by probability 

T. castaneum is preferred to T. confusum for genetic work because 

the latter species tends to eat its eggs and small larvae. 

The red/brown variety is the 'wild-type' and the factor is 

dominant. The ebony (black variety) factor is recessive. Beetles 

can be sexed at the pupal stage but this is not easy and 'sexing by 

probability' is the technique employed in Investigation .6A6.13. 

Two larvae or pupae are put into each of twelve specimen tubes 

containing food medium. Between four and eight tubes will 

probably contain both male and female larvae. 

Due to the dominance of red/brown genes over ebony, great care 

should be taken not to cross-contaminate the pure breeding stock 

cultures. Pure breeding ebony beetles can be obtained by separating 

the very young specimens from a mixed stock and then breeding 

them, but the red/brown beetles of mixed stock are likely to be 

carrying the ebony gene. Careful breeding procedures are therefore 

necessary for isolating and maintaining pure breeding wild type 

Tribolium. 

Procedure for Investigation .6A6.13 

Place one larva or pupa of the wild type (red/brown) beetle in each 

of twelve small (75 X 25 mm) specimen tubes. To each of the tubes 

add one larva or pupa of the mutant (ebony) stock. The organism 

should be handled carefully using a section lifter (or spatula) and 

soft hair brush. Close the tubes and keep in an incubator set at 35°C 

and containing a dish of water. 

30 days after emergence of adults young larvae should appear in 

approximately 50% of the tubes. Remove the original adults from the

tubes and, after killing, keep them as a record, stuck to card. When 

the new adults emerge in about 20 days check for colour and transfer 

twenty to the large (I20 X 40 mm) specimen tubes. Kill and mount 

the rest as before. All adults in this generation should be red/brown 

wild types. 

In another 30 days larvae should appear in the large tubes. 

Separate out the adults and add to the killed, mounted specimens. 

Incubate the larvae for another 20 days and finally colour check 

them. They can be killed and mounted or be carried on in fresh 

specimen tubes to provide results for Investigation "'6.20. If such 

a continuous experiment is carried out then remove the ebony 

beetles from the continuing culture but keep an accurate count of 

each generation of adults of each colour. 

273

274 

Appendix 3 Chemical preparations 

For common reagents, solutions are made by diluting stock solutions. 

This appendix gives instructions both for diluting to the required 

strength from stock solutions, and for preparing the more dilute 

solutions from solids and concentrated reagents. In most cases 

there is no need to take quantities accurately, they are intended 

to be guides to the order of concentration: thus a 1.1 M solution 

will be as satisfactory as a 0.9 M solution and both of these can 

be used where a 1.0 M solution is required. 

Most of the recipes given here produce molar solutions rather than 

percentage solutions. Where percentage solutions are given they are 

prepared according to the following convention: 

Solutions whose components are liquid 

These are vlv (volume/volume) solutions in which the combined 

volume of the liquid components is 100 crrr' or a multiple or submultiple 

of this volume in which the relative proportions of the 

components is the same as if the total volume were 100 em? . 

Solutions of solids in liquids 

These are m/v (mass/volume) solutions in which the required mass of 

solid is dissolved in solvent and the total volume is made up to 

100 ern" , or a multiple or submultiple of this volume, in which the 

relative proportions of the components is the same as if the total 

volume were 100 ern". 

Where appropriate, solutions are cross-referenced against the 

investigations where they are used, or against appropriate appendix 

references. 

Acetic acid, glacial (concentrated), 1.05 s.g. 

The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparation has a 

specific gravity of 1.05 g em -3. It is approximately a 99.5% solution 

of acetic acid and has a molarity of approximately 17.5 M. The 

melting point of the acid is approximately 16.5 °c so in cold

weather the stock bottle should be brought into a warm room and 

the cap loosened if the acid is to be used. 

Acetic acid, 1.0 M 

This acid is required for Investigation "'3.6. The solution needs to be 

made as accurately as possible. 

Carefully and slowly pour between 57.1 and 57.2 ern" of concentrated 

(1.05 s.g.) acetic acid into 500 em" of cold distilled water. 

Stir continuously as the acid is added. Make up the volume to 1 000 

ern? with water. 

Acetic alcohol 

Acetic alcohol is suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for use 

during staining procedures in Investigation 6.14. 

Dilute 25 em" of glacial acetic acid to 100 crrr' with ethanol 

(IMS). This solution must be freshly made for use. 

Aceto-carmine 

This is one of the stains suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for 

use in Investigation 6.14. It is best to buy the stain ready prepared 

as the preparation requires refluxing. 

Dissolve 1 g of carmine stain in 45 ern" of glacial acetic acid. Add 

55 em" of distilled water and bring the mixture to the boil. Reflux 

for up to an hour in the apparatus illustrated. 

Allow to cool and filter the solution. It may be necessary to filter 

the solution, before use, as sediment may form even if ready 

prepared solution is bought. 

Aceto-orcein 

This is one of the stains suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for 

use in Investigation 6.14. It is easiest to buy the stain ready prepared. 

Mix together 1-2 g of orcein, 45 ern" of glacial acetic acid and 

55 crrr' of distilled water. Boil for 30-60 minutes or reflux (see the 

diagram in appendix item 'Aceto-carmine') for 15-20 minutes. 

275

276 

heat 

An alternative is propionic orcein which is reputedly better than 

aceto-orcein. It is prepared by replacing the acetic acid as described 

above with propionic acid. The rest of the preparation is as for 

aceto-orcein. 

Ammonium hydroxide 0.88 s.g. 

The concentrated solution referred to in the following preparations 

has a specific gravity of 0.88 g ern -3. It is a 35% solution of ammonia 

(NH3) and has a molarity approximately 18.1 M.

Ammonium hydroxide ~-strength 

This solution is used in the discussion following ..•.7.15 and for ..•.7.16. 

Dilute 125 ern" of concentrated (0.88 s.g.) ammonia solution to 

500 ern" with water. 

Ammonium hydroxide 2 M 

This solution is used in the discussion following ..•.7.15. 

Dilute 1 000 ern" of 5 M ammonia to 2 500 ern" with water; or 

dilute 276.5 crrr' of concentrated (0.88 s.g.) ammonia solution to 

2 500 em" with water. 

Ammonium iron (III) sulphate 0.8 M (iron alum) 

This solution is suggested for use in Investigation 6.14. 

Dissolve 38.6 g of the solid in distilled water and make up the 

volume of solution to 100 em" with water. A drop of concentrated 

sulphuric acid added to the solution will help to stabilise it. 

Barium hydroxide, 0.1 M 

This solution is required for Investigation ..•.3.7. 

Dissolve 31.5 g of solid barium hydroxide (Ba(OHh.8H2 0) in 

distilled water and make up the volume to 1 000 em" with water. 

Benedict's solution 

This solution is required for Investigation ..•.9.3a. The solution may 

be bought ready made. 

Make the solution as follows: 

100 g Sodium carbonate Na2C03.10H20 

173 g Trisodium citrate Na3 C6 H, 07 .2H2 0 

1 000 ern" Water, distilled or de-ionised 

Dissolve the solids in distilled water and filter if necessary. Dissolve 

17.3 g of copper (II) sulphate (CUS04 .5H2 0) in the carbonate/citrate 

solution and make up to 1000 em" with distilled water. Filter the 

final solution if it appears cloudy. 

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278 

Bromine water, Br 2/H 20 J 

This solution is required for Investigation 11.6. 

Shake 2-3 em" of bromine with 200 crrr' of water in a glass 

stoppered bottle. Some liquid bromine should be kept in the bottom 

of the stock bottle to ensure saturation of the water. 

Calcium hydroxide, saturated 

See 'Lime water' below 

Congo red indicator, 0.1% 

This indicator is required for Investigation A2.7. 

Dissolve 0.1 g of solid in 100 ern" of distilled water. 

Eluent 

An eluent is required for Investigation A9.3a. Two suggested formulations 

are given below. 

a. Mix 10 crrr' distilled water with 80 ern" ethyl acetate and 20 cm' 

pyridine. Shake the mixture well before use. 

b. Mix 60 ern" propan-Z-ol (iso-propyl alcohol) with 20 ern" of acetic 

acid (1.05 s.g.) and 20 ern" distilled water. 

Ethanol 70% 

This solution is used in the staining methods suggested in Appendix 2 

'Locust testes'. 

Dilute 70 ern" of ethanol (IMS) to 100 cnr' with distilled water. 

Fehling B solution 


Dissolve 173 g potassium hydrogen tartrate (COOH.CHOH.CHOH. 

COOK) and 50 g sodium hydroxide pellets in water to make 500 em" 

of solution. The solution should be made with constant stirring to

prevent localised heating and possible breaking of the container. The 

solution may be safely made in polythene beakers. 

Alternatively dissolve 121 g sodium hydroxide pellets and 93.1 g 

of tartaric acid in water to make 500 ern" of solution. 

Feulgen's stain (Shiff's reagent) 

This stain is suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for use in 


Boil 0.5 g of basic fuchsin in 100 ern" of distilled water. Cool the 

solution and filter it. Add 15 ern" of 1 M hydrochloric acid (see 

below) and 1.5 g of potassium disulphate (VI) 

Store the solution for 24 hours in a tightly stoppered bottle in the 

dark. Shake with 1-2 g of decolourising (activated) charcoal and filter. 

The solution should finally be stored in a dark, glass-stoppered bottle 

away from the light and in a refrigerator. 

Gelatine containing potassium nitrate, 30% 

This substance is required for Investigation 63.12. 

30 g Gelatine 

1 g Potassium nitrate 

Supply Universal (Yamanda's) indicator, see below 

100 em" Water, distilled 

Boil 90 crrr' of distilled water and dissolve the gelatine and 

potassium nitrate in the hot water. Add sufficient water to make up 

the volume to 100 crrr' when the solution has cooled but not set. 

Stir in sufficient of the indicator to colour the gel. Pour into the 

U-tubes and allow to set. 

Glucose, 20% 

This solution is required for Investigation .A9.3b. 

Dissolve 20 g of glucose (dextrose) in water and make up the 

volume to 100 crrr' with water. 

Glucose, 1% 

This solution is required for Investigation ~9.3a. 

Dissolve 1 g of glucose (dextrose) in water and make up the 

volume to 100 em" with water. 

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280 

Hydrochloric acid, 1.18 s.g. 

This acid is required in Investigations 6&8.10, "'9.7, and "'11.7. 

The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparations 

has a specific gravity of 1.18 g cm- 3 . It is approximately a 35.4% 

solution of hydrogen chloride (HCI) and has a molarity of approximately 

11.5 M. 

Hydrochloric acid, 5 M 

This may be regarded as the stock solution from which other dilute 

solutions are made. 

Carefully pour 437.5 crrr' of concentrated (1.18 s.g.) acid into 

500 em? of cold water. Add the acid slowly and with stirring. Allow 

to cool. Makeup the volume to 1 000 em" with cold water. 

Hydrochloric acid, 1.0 M 

This acid is required for Investigations "'3.2,3.3, "'3.5, 6&3.11, 

63.12 and "'9.3a. The acid needs to be made as accurately as 

possible for Investigation "'3.5, and should, therefore, be made up 

by dilution of concentrated acid. 

Dilute 220 ern" of 5 M hydrochloric acid to 1 000 em" with cold 

water. 

Or, carefully pour 87.5 ern" of concentrated (1.18 s.g.) acid into 

500 ern" of cold water. Add the acid slowly and with stirring. Make 

up the volume to 1 000 em" with cold water. 


This acid is required for Investigations "'2.7, "'3.8, "'3.9, and "'3.10. 

Dilute 20 ern" of 5 M hydrochloric acid to 1 000 crrr' with cold 

water. 

Or, carefully pour 8.75 crrr' of concentrated (1.18 s.g.) acid into 

500 em" of cold water. Add the acid slowly and with stirring. Make 

up the volume to 1 000 ern" with cold water.


This solution is required for Investigation "'2.7. When made the 

solution should register as pH 3 when tested with Universal indicator 

paper or solution. 

Dilute 10 ern? of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid to 1 000 ern" with 

distilled water. 

Iron (II) sulphate, 0.1 M 

This solution is required for Investigation 6.A 11.8. 

Dissolve 28 g of iron (II) sulphate (FeS04 .7H2 0) in a mixture of 

3 crrr' of concentrated sulphuric acid and distilled water. Make up 

the volume to 1 000 em" with distilled water. 

The iron(II) sulphate solution should be made up fresh and not 

kept as it tends to oxidise. 

Iron(II) sulphate, 0.0089 M 

This solution is required for determining the oxygen content of water. 

It is used in Investigation 12.1. 

Dissolve 2.48 g of iron(II) sulphate (FeS04 .7H2 0) in water to 

make 1 000 ern" of solution. Make up fresh and use immedately. For 

best results the water should be freshly boiled and cooled, and the 

solid weighed as accurately as possible. 

Iron(III) sulphate, O.IM 

This solution is required for Investigation 6.A 11.8. 

Dissolve 40 g of iron(III) sulphate (Fe2 (S04)3) in water to make 

1 000 crrr' of solution. 

Lime water, calcium hydroxide, saturated 

This solution is required for Investigations "'3.2 and "'9.3b. 

Prepare the solution by standing water over calcium hydroxide 

(slaked lime) in a Winchester bottle and shaking it. Allow to settle 

and filter as required. From time to time the stock bottle should be 

shaken and more water and fresh solid added occasionally. 

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282 

Litmus indicator, 0.1 % 

This indicator is suggested for use in Investigations .&3.10 and 11.6. The 

solution may be bought ready made or may be prepared as follows. 

Dissolve 1 g of azolitmin in 1 000 ern" of distilled or de-ionised 

water. The solution may be warmed to help the solid dissolve. Filter 

off any undissolved solid. 

Locating agent for sugars 

A locating agent for sugars, separated by paper chromatography, is 

required for Investigation .&9.3a. 

Mix together the following reagents. 

0.9 ern" aniline 

48 crrr' butan-l-ol (n-butyl alcohol) 

48 em" ethoxyethane (di-ethyl ether) 

4 crrr' water 

1.6 g phthalic acid 

Shake to dissolvethe solid and apply as a spray. 

Maltose, 1% 

This solution is required for Investigation .&9.3a. 

Dissolve 1 g of maltose in water and make up the volume to 

100 ern" with water. 

Methyl orange 

This indicator is suggested to colour sulphuric acid in Investigation 

.&11.10. 

A concentrated stock solution consisting of 0.5 g of solid dissolved 

in 1 000 em" of distilled water or ethanol will keep indefinitely. 

For use as an indicator dilute 100 em" of this stock solution to 

1 000 em" with distilled water. 

Nitric acid 1.42 s.g. 

The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparation has a 

specific gravity approximately 1.42 g em -3. It is approximately a 

70% solution and has a molarity of approximately 22.5 M. Acid 

which has been in stock for some time often takes on a yellow tinge 

due to the presence of nitrogen oxides.

Nitric acid, 1.0 M 

This acid is required for Investigations "'3.5 and 6&3.11. It should be 

made as accurately as possible for Investigation "'3.5. 

Pour 44.4 crrr' of concentrated (1.42 s.g.) acid slowly and carefully 

into 500 crrr' of cold water. As the acid is added to the water 

stir continuously. Allow the solution to cool and then dilute to 

1 000 ern? with cold water. 

Phenolphthalein indicator, 0.05% 

This indicator is required for Investigations e2.7 and "'3.7. 

Dissolve 0.5 g of solid in 500 em" of ethanol (IMS) and make up 

to 1 000 em" with distilled water. 

Phenosafranine, 1% aqueous 

This solution is required for determining the oxygen concentration 

of water. It is used in Investigation 12.1. 

Dissolve I g of the solid stain in water and make up the volume 

to 100 crrr' with water. 

Potassium carbonate, 1M 


Dissolve 138.2 g of the anhydrous salt (K2 C03) in water and 

make up the volume of solution to 1 000 ern" with water. 

Potassium chromate, 0.1 M 

This solution is required in Investigations 6.'.3.11 and 11.6. 

Dissolve 19.4 g of the solid (K2 Cr04) in water and make the total 

volume up to 1 000 crrr' with water. 

Potassium dichromate, 0.1 M 

This solution is required for Investigation 6.'.3.11. 

Dissolve 29.4 g of solid (K2 Cr207) in water and make up the 

volume of solution to 1 000 crrr' with water. 

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284 

Potassium hexacyanoferrate( III), 0.1 M, potassium ferricyanide 

This solution is required for Investigation 6A 11.8. 

Dissolve 33 g of the solid, K3Fe(CN)6' in distilled water and make 

up the volume of the solution to 1 000 ern" with water. 

Potassium hydroxide, 25% 

This solution is required in Investigation .6.11.10. 

Dissolve 25 g of pellets in 100 em" of cold water, with constant 

stirring to prevent localised heating and possible breaking of the 

container. The solution may be safely made in polythene beakers. 

Potassium hydroxide, 1.0 M 

This solution is required for Investigations .6.3.2, .6.3.5, .6.3.6, and 

6A3.11. The solution should be made as accurately as possible for 

Investigations .6.3.5 and .6.3.6. 

Dissolve 66 g of (85%) pellets in 800 ern" of cold water, with 

constant stirring to prevent localised heating and possible breaking 

of the container. After cooling make up the volume to 1 000 ern" 

with cold water. The pellets used should not be dull nor contain 

powder (potassium carbonate). The solution may be made safely 

in polythene beakers, buckets or other containers. 

Solutions of potassium hydroxide should be kept in bottles 

fitted with rubber bungs NOT ground glass stoppers, which may 

become cemented into the necks due to the formation of 

potassium carbonate. 

Potassium iodide, 1M 


Dissolve 166 g of potassium iodide crystals in water and make up 

the volume of solution to 1 000 crrr' with water. 

Potassium pyrogallate 

This solution is used in Investigation .6.11.10. 

The reagent can be stored indefinitely under a layer of liquid 

paraffin in a well sealed flask or bottle.

Dissolve 5-15 g of resublimed pyrogallol in 100 em" of freshly 

boiled and cooled distilled water. Cover the solution with liquid paraffin 

to a depth of about 10 mm and add 100 cm-' of 25% potassium 

hydroxide through a funnel whose stem is inserted through the layer 

of paraffin. Gently swirl the container to mix the aqueous constituents. 

Potassium thiocyanate, 0.5 M 

This solution is required for Investigation 6J;..11.8. 

Dissolve 49 g of solid (KSCN), in water to make 1 000 crrr' of 

solution. 

Ringer's solution 

This solution is suggested for use in dissecting out locust testes in 

Investigation 6.14. Tablets are available for making up this solution, 

or it may be prepared as follows. 

0.24 g calcium chloride, CaCl2 .6H2 0 

0.42 g potassium chloride, KCI 

6.0 g sodium chloride, NaCI 

0.2 g sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHC03 

Dissolve the solids in I 000 ern" of distilled water. It is best to keep 

stock solutions of known concentration of each constituent and to 

mix the solutions. This applies in particular to calcium chloride 

because the solid is deliquescent. 

Silver nitrate, 0.1 M 

This reagent is required for Investigation 6J;..11.8. 

Dissolve 17 g of solid in distilled water to make I 000 cnr' of 

solution. Do not use tap water as this will produce a cloudy suspension 

of silver chloride. 

Sodium chloride, saturated 

This solution is used in Investigation "'11.10. 

The solubility of sodium chloride at 20°C is 36 g per 100 em", 

Add 40 g of sodium chloride to a beaker containing 100 ern" of cold 

water. Stir well and leave the solution standing over the excess salt. 

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286 

Sodium hydroxide, 5 M 

This solution may be regarded as the stock solution. It is used in 


Dissolve 208.3 g of (96%) or 204.1 g of (98%) pellets in 800 em" 

of cold water, with constant stirring to prevent localised heating and 

possible breaking of the container. After cooling the volume of 

solution is made up to 1 000 ern" with cold water. The pellets used 

should not be dull nor contain powder (sodium carbonate). The 

solution may be made safely in polythene beakers, buckets or 

other containers. 

Solutions of sodium hydroxide should be kept in bottles fitted 

with rubber bungs NOT ground glass stoppers, which may become 

cemented into the necks due to the formation of sodium carbonate. 

Sodium hydroxide, 2 M 


Dilute 400 em" of 5 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 em" with 

water. Or, dissolve 83.4 g of (96%) or 81.6 g of (98%) pellets to 

make 1 000 ern" of solution. 

Sodium hydroxide, 1M 

This solution is required for Investigations "'3.2,3.3, "'3.5, "'3.6, 

6&3.11, and 63.12. The solution should be made as accurately as 

possible for Investigations "'3.5 and "'3.6. 

Dilute 200 em" of 5 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 ern" with 

water. 

Or, dissolve 41.7 g of (96%) or 40.8 g of (98%) pellets in water 

to make 1 000 ern" of solution. 

Sodium hydroxide, 0.1 M 

This solution is required for Investigations "'3.9 and "'3.10. It 

should be made as accurately as possible. 

Dilute 20 em" of 5 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 em" with 

water. 

Or, dissolve 4.17 g of (96%) or 4.08 g of (98%) pellets in water 

to make 1 000 em" of solution.

Sodium hydroxide, 0.00 J M 

This solution is required for Investigation &2.7. When made the 

solution should register as pH 11 when tested with Universal 

indicator paper or solution. 

Dilute 10 ern" of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 ern" with 

water. 

Sodium hydroxide, 0.000 1M 

This solution is required for Investigation &2.7. When made the 

solution should register as pH 9 when tested with Universal 

indicator paper or solution. 

Dilute 100 ern" of 0.001 M sodium hydroxide to 1 00n:::Cm 3 

with water. 

Sodium picrate papers 

These test papers for hydrocyanic acid are required for 

Investigation 6&6.9. 

Make a saturated solution of picric acid (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol) by 

standing 100 crrr' of distilled water over surplus picric acid crystals 

for a few days. Agitate the container at intervals. 

Decant the saturated solution and add small quantities of solid 

hydrogen sodium carbonate to neutralise the acid. Approximately 

0.5 g of sodium hdryogen carbonate will be required for each 100 em" 

of acid solution. The neutral point is reached when no further effervescence 

occurs on addition of a further small quantity of solid. 

Filter the neutralised solution into a shallow tray and soak sheets 

of filter paper in the solution. 

Dry the papers by allowing evaporation to occur at room temperature. 

Keep the paper away from strong sunlight. 

Discard any paper which is not uniformly impregnated, and cut 

the remainder into 50 mm X 5 mm strips and store in a dark glass 

bottle or in a can. The papers will keep for several weeks. 

287

288 

Starch,1% 

This solution is required for Investigation .&.9.3a. 

Mix 109 of analytical grade starch with a little distilled water to 

make a thin paste. Make up the volume to 1 000 em" with boiling 

distilled water and simmer the mixture while stirring until a clear 

solution is obtained. 

Sulphuric acid, 1.84 s.g. 

This acid is required for the discussion following Investigation 611.4. 

The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparations 

has a specific gravity of 1.84 g ern-3. It is a 98% solution of sulphuric 

acid (H2S04) and has a molarity of approximately 18.3 M. 

Sulphuric acid, 2 M 


Carefully and slowly pour 108.4 crrr' of concentrated (1.84 s.g.) 

sulphuric acid into 500 ern" of cold distilled water. Stir continuously 

as the acid is added and take care that it does not splash upwards. 

After cooling make up the volume of the solution to 1 000 ern" with 

cold water. Work with the vessel in a sink and do not lean over it 

while mixing. 

Sulphuric acid, 1M 

This solution is required for Investigations .&.3.2,3.3, .&.3.7and 6.&.3.11. 

Dilute 500 ern" of 2 M sulphuric acid with cold water to make 

1 000 em" of solution. 

Or, carefully and slowly pour 54.2 em" of concentrated (1.84 s.g.) 

sulphuric acid into 500 ern" of cold water. Stir continuously as the 

acid is added and take care that it does not splash upwards. After 

cooling make up the volume of solution to 1 000 crrr' with cold water.

Sulphuric acid, 0.50 M 

This solution is required to be made as accurately as possible for 

Investigation &3.5. 

Dilute 250 em" of 2 M sulphuric acid with cold water to make 

1 000 ern" of solution. 

Or, carefully and slowly pour 27.1 crrr' of concentrated (1.84 s.g.) 

sulphuric acid into 500 ern" of cold water. Stir continuously as the 

acid is added and take care that it does not splash upwards. After 

cooling make up the volume to 1 000 em" with cold water. 

Sulphuric acid, 0.3 M 

This solution is used for neutralising splashes of alkaline reagents 

in Investigation & 11.10. It is stained with methyl orange indicator 

before use. 

Dilute 150 ern? of 2 M sulphuric acid with cold water to make 

1 000 em" of solution. 

Toluidine blue-O stain, 1% aqueous 

This stain is suggested in Appendix 2 'Tradescantia' for use in 6.14. 

Dissolve 1 g of the solid stain in 100 crrr' of distilled water, with 

warming. Cool and filter the solution if necessary to remove any 

undissolved solid. 

Trypsin, 4% 

This solution is required for Investigation 6&3.13. 

Dissolve 0.5 g of trypsin in 12.5 em" of distilled water. 

Universal (Yamada's) indicator 

This indicator is required for Investigations &3.2, &3.8, &3.9, 

D,3.12 and &9.7. 

Yamada's indicator forms a cheap and useful alternative to 

Universal indicator. For accurate work it is best to use a pH meter 

or a commercial pH indicator. Prepare the indicator as follows. 

250 mg bromothymol blue 

62.5 mg methyl red 

500 mg phenolphthalein 

25 mg thymol blue 

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290 

Dissolve the solids in 500 crrr' of ethanol (IMS). Neutralise to a 

green colour with 0.05 M sodium hydroxide solution (a few drops 

only are required). Make up the volume to 1 000 ern" with 

distilled water. 

Water 

De-ionised (DI) water can be substituted for distilled water for 

school uses. The only time distilled water has any advantage over 

DI water is when pH indicator and culture solutions are being 

prepared. On standing both types of water will dissolve carbon 

dioxide (and in industrial areas, sulphur oxides) from the air. 

Freshly distilled water will tend to have negligible quantities of 

these acidic gases (and other gases) present. In any case indicator 

solutions should be made using freshly boiled water. (NB pure water 

is only neutral at 22°C and at standard pressure of one atmosphere 

(10 5 N m- 2 ). 

It is a false economy to use tap water rather than distilled or 

de-ionised water, and the following cases do require the purified 

water. 

1. Solutions of indicators and stains, and culture solu tions. 

2. Solutions required for accurate analytical work. 

3. Solutions made from substances likely to react with salts dissolved 

in tap water. 

4. Test reagents.

Appendix 4 Hazards and 

precautions 

Centrifuge 

Centrifuges used by pupils should be fitted with a lid which should 

be kept closed all the time the machine is in operation. Pupils must 

not be allowed to open the lid until the centrifuge tubes have stopped 

moving. In particular fingers must not be inserted into the centrifuge 

safety chamber in order to arrest the motion of the tubes. 

The centrifuge should be loaded evenly. If necessary tubes of 

water should be used to counterbalance tubes full of mixtures. 

If a tube should break, glass will be likely to be flung around 

inside the casing. The centrifuge should be switched off and the lid 

kept closed until movement stops then the machine should be 

thoroughly cleaned and dried. 

Chemical hazards 

Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) 

This acid is very corrosive and has an irritating vapour. The glacial 

acid assists burning. Spillages should, therefore, be mopped up with 

plenty of water with all sources of ignition turned off. 

Lungs Remove from exposure, rest and keep the patient warm. 

Skin Wash the affected skin with plenty of water. Remove contaminated 

clothing and wash it before reuse. If severely affected 

Obtain medical attention 

Mouth Wash out mouth well with fresh water. Give a large quantity 

of water to drink, followed by milk of magnesia, and 


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292 

Ammonia, 0.880 s.g. (ammonium hydroxide) 

Poisonous and corrosive solution giving off an irritant choking vapour. 

Bottles which have been previously opened tend to contain a quantity 

of gas above the solution, which escapes on opening. Open in a fume 

cupboard with a rag over the top. 

Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If 

severely exposed 


Skin Wash well with water. If severely affected 


Mouth Wash out well with water. Give vinegar or 1 % ethanoic acid 

(acetic acid) to drink. 


Eyes Irrigate eyes with water by placing head under a running tap 

(or use an eye bath). If direct contact has occurred (i.e. by splashing) 


Aniline (phenylamine) 

Use in a fume cupboard if possible. Absorbed by the skin. 

Lungs Remove the patient from exposure and keep warm. In 

severe cases 


Skin Wash well with soap and water. Wash and dry clothing before 

reuse. 

Mouth Wash out well with water. Give emetic such as 1 tablespoon 

of mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon of common 

salt (sodium chloride) in warm water. 

Obtain medical attention

Barium hydroxide 

This is a Schedule 1 poison. On no account should it be pipetted by 

mouth. Has an accumulative effect. 

Mouth Wash out mouth with plenty of water and give 2 tablespoons 

of magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) in water. Give an emetic such 

as 1 tablespoon of mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon 

of common salt (sodium chloride) in warm water. Keep 

patient warm. 


Bromine and bromine water 

Both liquid and gas of this element are very volatile. Causes severe 

burns if spilt on the skin and prompt first aid treatment is very 

important. The vapour is particularly corrosive to the eyes and 

respiratory system. Bromine is also a fire hazard and can inflame 

organic materials including sawdust. 

Wear rubber gloves when using bromine and work in a fume 

cupboard. 




Skin Drench affected area with water and remove any contaminated 

clothing. Bathe with a dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate (hypo). 


Mouth Wash out mouth thoroughly and give large quantities of 

water to drink. 


Eyes Irrigate eyes thoroughly then 


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294 

Carbon dioxide (dry ice) 

Handle with gloves to avoid burns especially when the solid is in a 

metal container. Effects are similar to frostbite. The affected area 

should be placed in warm water. Take care that the cylinder nozzle 

is not directed towards any person when making dry ice. 

When carbon dioxide capsules are in use as rockets the operator 

should wear protective gloves and safety goggles and should take 

care that the opening of the capsule is not directed towards any 

other person. 

Carbon tetrachloride 

See tetrachloromethane. 

Chloroform 

See trichloromethane. 

Ethoxyethane, (Ether, diethyl ether) 

Highly inflammable. Anaesthetic. May form explosive peroxides if 

stored for long periods and exposed to light. Use in a fume cupboard 

or well ventilated room. 

No naked flames in the room when ether is in use. 


exposure is severe 


Other ethers should be similarly treated with extreme caution. 

Hydrochloric acid 

Very corrosive. Gives off irritant vapour. Use in a fume cupboard. 

Lungs Remove from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If exposure is 

severe 


Skin Wash well with plenty of water. In severe cases 


Mouth Wash out mouth with plenty of water. Give plenty of water 

to drink, then give milk a/magnesia and 


Eyes Irrigate eyes with water by placing head under a running tap 

(or use an eye bath). If direct contact has occurred (i.e. by splashing) 


Iodine 

Poisonous volatile substance. Vapour irritates eyes and respiratory 

system. 

Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. 

Skin Drench with water, then bathe with a dilute solution of sodium 

thiosulphate (hypo) 

Mercury 

Extremely poisonous vapour. In all cases of suspected mercury 

poisoning 


Spillages of mercury should be cleaned up immediately. If the 

spillage is in an inaccessible place it should be treated to render it 

harmless. It is advisable to wear rubber gloves when handling mercury, 

and if gloves are not available all cuts and abrasions on the hands 

should be well covered. Personal jewellery (rings, etc.) should be 

removed before handling mercury since the gold will readily form 

an amalgam and turn 'silver'. The amalgam is unstable and as it 

decomposes the mercury released is likely to be absorbed by the 

skin. 

When spillages occur a proprietary collecting instrument (such as 

the mercury collecting pad from GG, or the E-mil suction mercury 

retriever) may be used to pick up the mercury, or small globules may 

be pushed together by means of the edge of a card and be picked up 

using a plastic hypodermic syringe as a suction pump. If the mercury 

has run into inaccessible cracks, for instance between floorboards, 

pour zinc dust or sulphur powder to form the non-volatile zinc 

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296 

amalgam or mercury(II) sulphide. Both substances take time to react 

completely. The sulphur technique requires several weeks before any 

attempt is made to clean out the crack. 

If mercury has become chemically contaminated the safest mehod 

of decontamination is to send it to Belgrave (mercury) Ltd. who will 

redistill it a reasonable cost. 

Surface-dirty mercury is most easily cleaned by using Fison's 

mercury cleaner which produces clean, dry mercury by simply 

pouring the metal through the cleaner over a collecting vessel. 

4-Methyl phenylamine 

See p-Toluidine. 

Nitric acid 

Very corrosive. Gives off irritant vapour (dinitrogen tetroxide) in 

many reactions. 






Mouth Wash out mouth with plenty of water. Give plenty of water 

to drink, then give milk of magnesia and 


4-Nitro to luene 

Poisonous. 

Lungs Remove the patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If 



Skin Wash well with soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing 

and wash before reuse. 

Mouth Wash out with water. Give emetic such as 1 tablespoon of 

mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon of common 



Picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol) 

Poisonous if swallowed. Can be absorbed by the skin and can cause 

dermatitis. May explode if jarred or knocked and, therefore, it must 

be kept as a saturated solution in water. Check the storage container 

regularly to ensure that it does not dry out. Clean up any spillages 

immediately, washing down with plenty of water. 

Skin Wash skin well with plenty of water, then with soap and water. 

Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse. 

Mouth Wash out well with water and give plenty of milk to drink. 


Potassium hydroxide 

See sodium hydroxide 

Pyridine 

Use in a fume cupboard. Has a highly irritant vapour. 

Lungs Remove from exposure, rest the patient and keep him warm. 

Skin Drench the skin well with water. Wash contaminated clothing. 

In severe cases 


Mouth Wash out well with water. Give emetic such as 1 tablespoon 


salt (sodium chlbride) in warm water. 


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298 

Sodium 

Reacts violently with water to produce hydrogen which will be 

spontaneously ignited by the heat of reaction and may cause explosion 

as well as fire. Reacts in air giving sodium oxide, a caustic 

compound which causes severe skin burns. Store under naphtha or 

liquid paraffin. 

Skin Drench skin with water after removing any metal particles. 

Sodium hydroxide (and potassium hydroxide) 

Very corrosive as solid or solution. Generates heat when dissolving. 

Wear protective gloves when using. 

Skin Wash affected area with plenty of water, then bathe with 

vinegar or 1% ethanoic (acetic) acid. 

Eyes Irrigate thoroughly with water and 


Sodium picrate 

Poisonous if swallowed. Treat as for cases of picric acid poisoning. 


Sulphuric acid 

Very corrosive. Reacts violently with water. When diluting, the 

concentrated acid must be poured slowly and carefully with stirring 

into a large volume of cold water. Do not lean over the vessel while 

mixing. The reaction with water releases a large amount of energy. 

When diluting the acid use polythene or hard glass vessels standing 

in a sink. 



Mouth Wash out with water. Give plenty of water to drink, then 

give milk of magnesia and 


Eyes Irrigate well with water by placing the head under a running 

tap (or use an eye bath), and 


Tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride) 

Poisonous. Continuous exposure to low concentration may give rise 

to irreversible liver damage. Use in a fume cupboard. 




Skin Drench skin with water, then wash with soap and water. Air 

clothes before reuse. 

p-Toluidine 

This reagent will irritate skin and is poisonous if swallowed. 

Lungs Remove the patient from exposure, rest and keep warm. 

Skin Wash well with soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing and 

wash it well before reuse. 

Mouth Wash out mouth with water then give an emetic such as 1 tablespoon 



Trichloromethane (chloroform) 

Has a narcotic effect, can cause hallucinations and unconsciousness. 

The poisonous gas phosgene may be present. Use in well-ventilated 

conditions. 

2,4,6- Trinitrophenol 

See picric acid. 

Electrical hazards 

Electrical supplies are classified into low tension (1.t.) under 100 V, 

high tension (h.t.) 100-500 V and extra high tension (e.h.t.) over 500 V. 

299

300 

Van de Graaff generator 

The Van de Graaff generator is capable of producing extremely high 

voltages. On a dry, cold day it can produce a voltage well in excess 

of 3 X 10 4 V, providing all surfaces are clean and dust free. 

Generally this equipment is reasonably safe as the current it produces 

is at the microampere (pA) level, but some people (e.g. those with 

weak hearts) are susceptible to these voltages. All electrical 

equipment should be used with great care. Discharging tongs are 

available from reputable manufacturers of static electricity 

generators and it is advisable to discharge the generator spheres 

before making any alterations to the circuit. It is advisable to earth 

the chassis of the generator to a metal pipe (but not a gas pipe). 

Electrically driven generators are usually supplied with a three cored 

lead in which the earth lead (green and yellow) makes this connection 

to earth without the need for a special arrangement. 

E.h.t. supplies 

The rules regarding the Van de Graaff generator also apply here. 

However, as the supply is taken from the mains it is possible to 

draw a higher current than that usually produced in the generator. It 

is, therefore, essential, when purchasing e.h.t. power supplies, to 

ensure there is a large current-limiting resistor in series with the 

positive (+) terminal, fitted into the supply. Always connect the 

negative socket to the earth socket unless otherwise instructed. 

Gas cylinders, carbon dioxide 

Carbon dioxide cylinders are usually painted black with, in some 

cases a silver neck. The valve outlet has a left-hand screw thread. 

All cylinders should be labelled by the suppliers with the name 

of whatever gas is in them. They should be checked on receipt of a 

recharged cylinder. If there is any doubt concerning the contents of 

a cylinder it should not be accepted. It is a good plan to label each 

cylinder with the date on which it was recharged. Check the gas from 

time to time, particularly before it is required, so that there is time 

to have the cylinder recharged if it is empty. The quantity of gas in a 

carbon dioxide cylinder is checked by weighing the recharged cylinder 

on arrival, and at intervals afterwards. The mass of contained gas 

and the tare mass (the mass of the empty cylinder) should be stamped 

on the cylinder. 

Cylinders should be stored in a cool place away from radiators.

They should be protected from rusting and from corrosive conditions 

but grease or oil must not be used on them. 

Store and use gas cylinders in an upright position, secured so that 

they cannot fall over. They must not be propped up against a wall, 

nor left unsupported. Cylinder trolleys may be used for both storage 

and use. 

Never use cylinders in an inverted position. 

Cylinders should be kept clean and free from grit, water and oil. 

This is particularly important for the cylinder valves, and the key 

spanners, which should not be regarded as general purpose implements 

but kept for use with the cylinders. 

When returning the cylinders to the supplier for recharging 

always close the main valve, remove any accesories and close any 

outlets with the plastic cap provided for that purpose. Collection, 

refilling and return of cylinders often exceeds a month, so plan well 

in advance. 

The recommended carbon dioxide cylinder for producing dry ice 

(solid carbon dioxide) is the siphon type and it is fitted with asimple 

valve. Pressure gauges are not fitted and pressure control is very 

limited. The supplier's instructions should be followed. This type of 

cylinder is not suitable for supplying carbon dioxide gas. A second 

cylinder fitted with regulator and pressure gauges is recommended 

for supplying carbon dioxide gas. 

Dry ice 

It may be possible to arrange delivery of solid carbon dioxide from 

some local source such as an ice-cream manufacturer. However, 

experience has shown that it is best not to rely on these sources but 

to use high pressure carbon dioxide cylinders fitted with a special 

attachment, and to make the dry ice as required. 

When the cylinder has been fitted with the special attachment a 

burst of 10-15 seconds duration should produce sufficient dry ice for 

a whole class set of cloud chambers or dry ice pucks. As the gas issues 

from the cylinder the valve and cylinder will cool down rapidly. 

A simple dry ice attachment is shown below. It is inadvisable not to 

attempt to construct your own attachment. The diagram is intended 

to show how the components are assembled. Care should be taken 

that the nozzle and attachment are not directed towards any pupils 

when the cylinder is in use because, should the attachment come 

adrift, then solid carbon dioxide may be sprayed on them. 

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302 

thick rubber bands 

metal delivery tube cylinder 

~==============~ 

cork bung 50 mm diameter 

fine canvas sleeve 

F------400 crr?polythene beaker 

If all the dry ice is not used immediately it is advised that a vacuum 

flask without a fitted top or stopper is used to store excess solid for 

some time, or it can be stored in a polythene bag surrounded by 

expanded polystyrene packing. 

Radioactive materials 

Radioactive sources are categorised as either open or closed. 

Open sources required in this course consist of compounds of 

uranium and thorium which are used in small quantities in Section 8. 

Unused supplies of the compounds can be returned to the storage 

bottle as they are not required for chemical reactions. The materials 

should be handled with the same precautions as are taken with 

poisons. There is little risk from these sources. 

The closed sources used in the course are obtained from' the 

suppliers mounted in holders which are kept in special containers. 

The sources should only be removed from their containers at the 

working area and should be returned to them as soon as the experimental 

work is complete. At no time should the holders be handled 

manually, but only with suitable forceps or the special handling tool 

which is usually provided with the sources. Always maintain maximum 

working distance between the operator and the mounted source, 

and avoid directing the source towards the operator or anyone else. 

If disposal of closed sources is necessary then they should be 

returned to their manufacturer. 

Apparatus which has become contaminated with radioactive 

chemicals may be cleaned with such proprietary cleaners as Decon- 

90. The apparatus is rinsed thoroughly on removal from the cleaning 

agent and the rinsings are diluted until the background radiation 

count is reached, before they are flushed away with plenty of water. 

Rubber gloves should be worn when this type of cleaning operation 

is carried out. The background count is obtained using a scaler 

connected to a GM tube. The time for which counting is carried out

should be at least five minutes and an average number of counts per 

minute is obtained. The GM tube is then directed towards the diluted 

wastes and dilution is continued until the count falls to approximately 

that of the background radiation. There should be few problems of 

disposal in the Patterns scheme as the open sources are relatively 

weakly radioactive. 

Xenon strobes 

The flashing of a xenon strobe can cause dizziness, vomiting, trance 

states or hallucinations, or epileptic fits in susceptible persons. The 

particularly relevant range of flashing is between 7 and 15 Hz (cycles 

or flashes per second) although some people may be affected by 

higher frequencies (some are given headaches by 50 Hz as in a fluorescent 

tube). Make sure that no one in the class suffers from epilepsy 

before using a strobe. 

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304 

Appendix 5 Accommodation 

for Integrated Science 

In the past it has been possible to accommodate 'integrated' science 

schemes within the framework of traditional style laboratories, 

mainly because such schemes have tended to be easily divided into 

biology, chemistry and physics components. Recent trends in the 

development of science courses, which cut across the separate science 

subject boundaries, have resulted in the traditional laboratory suite 

becoming an hindrance rather than an aid to good science learning. It 

becomes increasingly sensible to regard science as being taught in 

work areas rather than laboratories, and this is especially true where 

the Patterns approach is adopted. Science work areas for Patterns 

need to provide all the facilities and services required for traditional 

science courses, and in addition there is also a requirement for 

adequate library, visual aids and discussion facilities. In many ways 

open plan suites recommend themselves to a Patterns approach, 

although there are disadvantages associated with noise and security 

of materials. 

Services required for work areas 

The benches required for integrated science practical work should 

provide all the facilities necessary for any specific aspect of practical 

work in the spectrum of sciences taught at any time. This raises the 

old problem of whether to adopt fixed or moveable benches. In the 

planning of laboratories for teaching the separate sciences there has 

been a tendency to have moveable tables for work in biology and 

physics, while fixed benches are preferred for chemistry - as they 

are safer and can provide all the essential services (water, gas and 

electricity) within reach of a pupil's working place. In physics and 

biology there is perhaps not the same need to have all services within 

reach all the time, but it is absolutely essential for any chemical 

work. It should be remembered that it is reasonably easy to carry 

out experimental work in physics and biology in a chemistry laboratory, 

but not vice versa. So it would seem that the general purpose 

facilities to be provided for integrated science practical work must 

primarily facilitate the teaching of chemical topics with access to all

B 

Key 

basic services at the respective working places. If this provision is 

made as a priority then the teaching of other science topics will be 

automatically accommodated. Past practice in the provision of general 

science laboratories has usually been to plan for moveable tables 

with limited services on the fixed perimeter benches. Such laboratories 

were adequate for physics and biology but most inconvenient 

for chemistry. 

A combination of fixed service points and.moveable tables 

provides the best setting for a practical work area. The plans below 

show two of the work areas in use for the Patterns scheme at Valley 

Comprehensive School, Nottinghamshire, and illustrate well two 

approaches to the successful accomplishment of this combination. 

B = bench 

BS = book shelves 

C = cupboard 

R = rack for plastic trays 

all 

moveable 

tables 

O_-R-B----10 

FC = fume cupboard 

RB = roller board 

S = sink 

GE = gas + mains electricity 

In the first case all the benches are moveable and service bollards 

are provided to which the benches can be moved as required. The 

problem of this type of accommodation is that, in the interests of 

safety, bottles cannot be stored on the benches. Storage for items 

usually kept with the benches has thus to be arranged elsewhere in 

the work area or within easy access of it. 

S 

305 

S

306 

The second design combines fixed benches with moveable tables 

and a dry services boom. The problem of storage disappears with this 

system but the area is large, designed to accommodate approximately 

sixty pupils at a time, and without some form of central divider the 

area tends to be unsuitable for traditional work, if such work is run 

concurrently with integrated science. 

s 

B 

II 0 R BS 

II RB 

II 

II 

I! 

I 

\: 

!I 

Ii 

il 

il 

8 =0 bench 

BS =0 book shelves 

C =0 cupboard 

R =0 rack for plastic trays 

II service 

14-boom 

I GE 

II C 

II 

S 

G E 

S 

S 

G E S 

S 

S 

G E 

S 

S 

G E 

S 

FC =0 fume cupboard 

RB '" roller board 

S '" sink 

GE '" gas + mains electricity 

Whatever type of work area is used there is always the problem of 

waste disposal, indeed the removal of liquid often poses constraints 

on design due to the location of drainage channels. Solid waste 

materials may be collected easily in simple boxes or bins placed in 

numerous convenient positions around the work area. Metal drums 

and coal hods are useful in this respect and are more durable than 

wooden or plastic containers. They are also safer than those made of 

other materials as they will not burn if, for instance, smouldering 

material is inadvertently placed in them. Biological waste is best 

incinerated in an automatic disposal unit, if a suitable location can 

be found for the installation of the unit. Liquid waste can provide 

2 tier 

shelve

problems, but the majority can be simply flushed through the drainage 

system. Poisonous wastes need to be collected and special 

arrangements made with the local authority for their removal from 

the premises. Organic solvents generally are collected and allowed 

to evaporate slowly in a fume cupboard with its fan running, although 

some such substances need special treatment. Information regarding 

the disposal of such substances is included on the wallchart Spillages 

of hazardous chemicals available from BDH; and most chemical 

suppliers will give advice if asked. 

Fume cupboards are essential in any work area which is to be 

used for teaching Patterns. A general purpose work area will require 

at least two units, and a fume hood is a most useful additional facility 

for housing ovens, furnaces, water baths, etc. An extraction grill in 

the ceiling is desirable, but failing initial planning for this unit then 

it is often possible to install one or two three-speed forward and 

reverse extractor fans in the windows. Suitable fans are 225 mm or 

300 mm (9 in or 12 in) diameter Vent-Axia window fans. 

Ancillary spaces associated with practical work areas 

Apart from the provision of practical work areas it is essential to plan 

and organise associated facilities which are increasingly necessary in 

the teaching of any integrated science course. 

A science reference library close to the practical work area, containing 

practical, project and reference texts is vital for ready use by 

staff, technicians and pupils. There may be initial objections to this 

localised departmental science library but books must be considered 

as essential as other scientific equipment. Usually a compromise on a 

.policy dedicated to one centralised school library can be achieved. 

The traditional concept of even a departmental library must be 

widened to include not only books but also all the other resources of 

educational technology, such as film strips, photographic transparency 

slides, films, film loops, overhead projectors and their transparencies, 

loop projectors and slide projectors, which will be used by staff and 

by pupils working singly or in small groups. Similarly it is essential 

that such a resource area should contain copying (duplicating) 

facilities. Ideally the library/resource area should be central and 

accessible both from the practical work areas and from outside the 

science suite. 

Study space and small rooms with blackout and sound proofing 

will be required for using visual and sound aids, and these rooms may 

also serve well as discussion and project rooms as teaching techniques 

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308 

are developed and become less dependent on the formal class methods 

based on one teacher with one form in one room. 

A teaching area adjacent to the practical work area, but capable of 

being shut off from it by sliding or folding doors is recommended 

for discussion, demonstrations, films, television, etc. Adequate blackout 

facilities should be provided within this area which needs to be 

permanently equipped with film, slide and overhead projectors. 

Stepped pew type seating enables pupils to see and be seen easily, 

and bench seats enable more pupils to be accommodated than is 

possible with separate seats. 

Consideration needs to be given to furnishing so as to provide a 

comfortable situation conducive to work. Carpet tiles and rubber 

flooring tiles can improve the appearance and reduce noise in the 

teaching and study areas if these are separate from the practical 

work areas. Stools at work benches are uncomfortable and their 

movement contributes considerably to noise, which is lessened 

if separate teaching/discussion areas are provided. 

Chalk boards can be of the double panel vertical sliding type with 

glass surfaces such as those produced by Westland Engineering Ltd. 

They are excellent for chalk writing and always clean well. If both 

panels are pushed down to expose the wall behind, then this surface 

covered with Sundeala medium hardboard painted with ultra-white 

matt emulsion paint, provides a dual purpose projection screen and 

pinboard. Roller boards are also suitable and can be fitted with panels 

which are specially prepared for such purposes as graph plotting. It is 

possible to have one of the sections replaced with a white projection 

screen, or such a screen can be mounted over the board, being rolled 

away when not in use. However, additional facilities for hanging 

charts will need to be provided if this type of board is used. 

Staff facilities 

Staff should have their own study/offices near the laboratory complex 

with desk, bookshelves, filing cabinet, typewriter, and space 

for consultation with one or two pupils. This sort of provision has 

not been customary in past planning, and may not be possible in 

many existing departments, but future planning should include it 

for the benefit of staff and pupils. 

Apart from the desirability of providing small individual studies 

for each member of science staff, as a matter of professional 

necessity and efficiency, it is equally essential to have a general 

departmental staff room. This room, or two adjacent rooms,

divided by a folding or sliding door should make reasonable provision 

for staff work, meetings, reading, marking, relaxation, coffee breaks, 

etc. Some social amenities must be incorporated within modern 

professional facilities. In this context 'social' denotes staff facilities 

which will be increasingly necessary for discussion and integrated 

activities for team teaching on the broader basis which the Patterns 

approach fosters. 

Large centralised storage facilities need to be provided for the 

apparatus and resources demanded by modern schemes. These 

facilities have to provide almost a 'supermarket' system of 'off the 

shelf service' to all the work areas with trolleys, which technicians 

prepare and organise for specific lesson activities. Such storage 

facilities need to be separated even from open plan suites, otherwise 

there is a serious security problem with the small items, in particular, 

disappearing from the store. For the same reason it is advisable to 

store in corridors only if the cupboards used are securely locked, 

and providing that access routes are not so diminished in size as to 

impair their efficiency as fire escapes. Reasonably wide and straight 

corridors without steps are best where trolleys are in use. 

The traditional technicians' preparation room/storeroom/workshop 

of the past has proved too small and consequently cluttered 

for really effective organisation and service, so it becomes necessary 

to plan storage in larger areas and provide additional technicians' 

rooms or alcoves. 

The technicians' workshop, fully equipped with hand and simple 

machine tools, and materials, for the maintenance, repair and making 

of apparatus is increasingly important as the quantity and cost of 

equipment rises. The chief requirements are for work benches with 

vice, power points, gas, simple glass blowing equipment, pillar and 

hand drills, grinder, lathe, and facilities for electronic work. 

While it is an ideal to have all accommodation on a single floor 

level, this is not often achieved in practice. Multi-floor departments 

are usually built and there is then the necessity for the installation 

of lifts which will take equipment trolleys and staff personnel. Lifts 

are costly and for that reason seldom planned, but there is a sound 

case for their installation on the grounds of safety, speed and 

efficient service, especially if large centralised storage rooms are 

used. The difficulties and waste of time incurred in the transport 

of equipment between floors has to be experienced to be appreciated. 

The location of a lift should be considered in relation to the 

entrance for personnel and deliveries of goods, the central storeroom, 

and access routes between the various work areas. 

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310 

Provision for special requirements 

Extra bench space, apart from the normal laboratory-style working 

places, needs to be available for long-term experiments and the 

increasing use of projects. Ideally separate alcoves leading off the 

main work area should be planned, but in existing accommodation 

it may only be possible to allocate perimeter benches for this 

purpose. The chief requirements of a project area are access to all 

services with fixed and/or moveable benches, and, if possible to 

prevent possible interference by pupils unconnected with the project. 

Animal rooms should be outside the main building and located on 

a shady site. Adequate ventilation, heating, lighting, electrical and 

water services are required. The floor and walls should be of suitable 

materials to facilitate cleaning. Floor drainage grills should be fitted 

to allow for hosing down. Animal cages may be placed on adjustable 

shelving (e.g. Spur) fitted to metal trolleys with lockable wheels. 

A greenhouse, or other plant propagation room, is necessary outside 

the work area. It may be sited in the grounds, or on a flat roof, 

with provision to control sunlight and ventilation. Electricity and 

water are essential, and heating is desirable. Details of a simple 

plant propagator are given in Technicians' manual 1, 'Appendix 1.' 

Associated outside facilities will depend on location and availability 

of space to make provision for a pond and garden which are 

easily accessible from the main work area. If no specific area can be 

found outside, then aquaria and plant boxes will have to be 

improvised inside on shelving, window sills, trolleys etc. The 

substantial weight of aquaria makes it essential to provide strong 

supporting structures, e.g. in Dexion metal angle, Handy-Angle, or 

Speedframe. Aquaria will need water supplies and drainage as well 

as electricity. 

Display facilities can be organised in corridors (fire regulations 

permitting) approaching and within the work area and on any free 

wall spaces by putting up pinboards in large sheets. These sheets 

can be emulsion painted to tone in with the general decor. Glass 

fronted display cupboards with adjustable wooden and glass shelves, 

and internal fluorescent lighting are desirable. Open adjustable 

shelving is useful but lacks some aspects of security and tends to 

collect dust. Sloping shelving as distinct from horizontal shelving is 

advantageous for the display of books, journals etc. It is worthwhile 

mounting valuable charts on sealed hardboard and spraying the chart 

surface with a protective covering as used on some wallpapers or 

artists' drawings. Large periodic classification charts are best mounted 

in this manner, unless they are purchased on canvas or a linen backing.

Patterns in the open plan situation 

Much of the preceding has been concerned with the ideal situation, 

and has been considered in the light of open plan science suites, John 

Smeaton School, Leeds was one of the phase 2 trials schools for the 

Schools Council Integrated Science Project and has an open plan 

science suite which is described below. Further details concerning 

Patterns in this school are discussed in the Teachers' handbook 

pages 63-66. 

Key 

chemistry areas 

biology areas 

physics areas 

storage and maintenance areas 

lecture room 

tutor and technician's office 

reference library 

dark room 

electronics room 

fume cupboards 

toilets 

1 and 2 

3 and 4 

5 and 6 

S 

L 

T 

R 

D 

E 

F 

T' 

311

312 

The diagram shows the layout of the science work areas which 

are situated on the first floor of one building. The work areas and 

reference areas are open plan. The six main areas are furnished and 

equipped for different activities. Areas 1 and 2 with fixed, hexagonal 

island benches are designated chemistry; areas 3 and 4 with service 

pillars and moveable tables are best suited to biology and areas 5 and 

6 having both fixed benches and moveable tables are intended for 

physics. 

The library reference area is also open, the lecture room being 

the only teaching room provided with a door. 

The work areas vary in size; areas 1, 3 and 4 can accomm oda te 

twenty and twenty-four pupils comfortably, while areas 2, 5 and 6 

have an optimum capacity of thirty. The lecture room can hold 

approximately forty pupils. 

Experience during the first year of working has shown two major 

drawbacks of open-plan work areas: 

1. security 

2. noise. 

There are not enough areas which are inaccessible to pupils where 

apparatus and materials can be stored. Inevitably losses and damage 

occur when pupils have the freedom to move around a department. 

The noise and disturbance are greatest when a teacher attempts 

to teach a class in a conventional manner. While team teaching tends 

to minimise the need for such lessons, it does necessitate a greater 

degree of careful preparation of activities for small groups and 

individuals. Often quite trivial things can lead to the breakdown of 

the open plan system. For example the poor design of stools led to 

a large number being without seats. This meant that pupils removed 

chairs from the library area to the science work area. The lack of 

permanent seating in the library area was enough to discourage many 

from using the area as was intended. 

Storage 

The case study conceals the fact that storage was a major problem 

in most of the trials schools. Nowhere was this inadequacy felt more 

than in the older schools with traditional laboratories. The following 

notes are included in the hope that they may prove of use to schools 

attempting Patterns, in which storage of materials proves to be one 

of the major problems. 

Shelving is a basic requirement in any storage system, and may be 

simple or sophisticated in wood and/or metal but should in all cases

provide adjustable facilities for diverse sizes of equipment. Narrow 

wooden shelves 150-300 mm (6-12 in) width, for bottles, books, etc. 

can be erected on Spur slotted metal uprights with adjustable brackets 

available for various widths, and coloured grey or white. 

Wider shelving, 450-600 mm (18-24 in) is best erected by using 

vertical blockboards supported by a frame-work on a wall, or free 

standing framework. 12.5 mm (-i in) square section battens screwed 

horizontally at about 75 mm (3 in) intervals up the blockboards can 

hold a series of blockboard shelves or better still trays e.g. 750 mm 

X 450 mm X 50 mm (30 in X 18 in X 2 in). This provides a very 

versatile system especially as the tray size quoted exactly fits a type 

of2.4m(6 ft) tall trolley. 

Similar narrow or wide shelving may be constructed with Dexion 

slotted angle metal 37.5 mm X 37.5 mm (1 ~ in X 1~ in) size, or 

with Dexion Speedframe 75 mm (3 in) square section. This latter 

material is neat but costly. Dexion also supply metal shelves in 

various sizes for all metal shelving systems. 

Trays of the large wooden size 750 mm X 450 mm X 50 mm 

(30 in X 18 in X 2 in) are most useful in static frameworks and on 

trolleys for distribution and collection of equipment. There is an 

equal necessity for using smaller plastic trays which may be obtained 

in two sizes 400 mm X 300 mm X 7S mm (16 in X 12 in X 3 in) 

and 400 mm X 300 mm X 150 mm (16 in X 12 in X 6 in). These can 

be accommodated on 12.5 mm (~ in) square section wooden battens 

on vertical blockboards as recommended for shelving. If the battens 

are set 82 mm (3* in) apart then any selection of the 75 mm (3 in) or 

150 mm (6 in) deep plastic trays may be inserted into the framework 

This virtually makes an arrangement of trays that can be used as 

drawers in situ or removed for transport. 

Any vertical set of trays housed on battens in this manner may be 

secured by fitting a vertical hinged flap about 75 mm (3 in) wide 

covering all the trays to the top where a lock is fitted. These plastic 

trays are also self-stacking, and two may be placed on the larger 

750 mm X 450 mm X 50 mm (30 in X 18 in X 2 in) wooden trays 

if necessary. 

In general, these trays are highly recommended for storage and 

distribution, and have been found very durable over a period of 

years in use at colleges and schools. 

Chemical reagents should be stored in a separate locked room 

which need only be 1.5 m (5 ft) wide and at least 3 m (10 ft) long. 

313

314 

Spur adjustable shelving 150 mm (6 in) wide along the length of 

both walls provides considerable storage for bottles in line and makes 

for easy identification of them. Shelves wider than this are not 

recommended as they lead to the inadvisable practice of storing 

reagents one behind the other; a situation which makes for difficulty 

in stocking and which can lead to hazards in handling. Large 2 500 ern" 

bottles (Winchester quarts) can be stored at floor level in the 

blue safety containers as supplied by BDH. 

Continuous 24 hour low speed fan ventilation should be provided 

in all chemical storerooms to avoid the accumulation of toxic or 

inflammable vapours. 

Large quantities of hazardous chemicals which are not required 

for daily use should be stored in a specially constructed outside 

building. 

Half or full height office-style metal cabinets are better than the 

traditional poisons storage which has tended to be a small wooden 

cupboard with a poor lock. These metal cabinets have relatively 

secure locks and extra metal shelves may be purchased. Similar 

cabinets are useful for storing valuable equipment and may be arranged 

back to back at right angles to a wall in order to accommodate 

a large number of cabinet units per square metre of available wall 

space. 

Steel or plastic drawer units produced for industrial storage may 

be obtained in a variety of sizes holding numbers of similar or 

different size drawers according to the height of unit ordered. The 

drawers are removable like trays and may be fitted with slot-in metal 

dividers. They are invaluable for storing collections of small items 

such as bungs, screws, filmstrips, filter papers etc. 

Posters and charts are best hung vertically and not stored flat in 

sets of chart or plan drawers. The latter always results in damage to 

charts as they are not readily extracted or put away in these drawers. 

One system for vertical hanging uses large clips like trouser hangers. 

Other systems are available from architectural and engineering 

drawing suppliers. 

Film loops in their plastic cases can be arranged on narrow 

shelves or in bookcases with glass doors for additional security. 

Overhead projector transparencies accumulate increasingly from 

commercial and school resources, and need systematic storage for 

immediate access. The usual 250 mm X 250 mm (10 in X lOin) 

transparencies are conveniently stored in filing cabinets using the 

suspended system of filing, which can also house associated notes.

Slides 50 mm X 50 mm (2 in X 2 in) for projection may be stored 

in sets in slide magazines for immediate insertion into corresponding 

projectors. These magazines are relatively expensive, and so ordinary 

slotted slide boxes or even simple plastic boxes may be preferred. 

Transparent plastic wallets, with pockets for each of 24 slides, which 

can be hung on suspended filing rails in filing cabinets can be recommended 

for the economical storage of hundreds of slides in a small 

space, and for ease of viewing the slides by extracting individual 

wallets. 

It is fully appreciated that many of the items discussed in this 

short survey of planning possibilities may not be adopted or adapted 

for existing accommodation, and that departmental budgets are 

limited in making ideal provision for new teaching projects. At least 

it is hoped that in general terms some of the ideas may prove useful 

as a guide to needs, and perhaps in the planning of new buildings 

there may be the opportunity of designing better professional 

facilities for integrated science teaching. 

Addresses 

Dexion International Ltd., 

Dexion House, 

P.O. Box 7, 

Empire Way, 

Wembley, 

Middlesex 

Educational Supply Association 

Ltd., 

Esavian Works, 

Stevenage, 

Hertfordshire 

(For service bollards and laboratory 

furniture.) 

Gratnall's Ltd., 

31 Queen Anne's Gate, 

London, SWI 

(For plastic trays and storage 

racks.) 

Morgan and Grundy Ltd., 

High St., 

Cowley, 

Uxbridge, 

Middx. 

(For laboratory furniture.) 

N. C. Brown Storage Ltd., 

Cuba Works, 

Stubbins, 

Ramsbottom, 

Lancashire 

(F or cabinets of metal storage 

drawers.) 

Savage and Parsons Ltd., 

Watford, 

Hertfordshire 

(For Spur adjustable shelving 

systems.) 

315

316 

Griffin & George Ltd., (Now with 

A. Gallenkamp Ltd.) 

Alperton Road, 

Wembley, 

Middlesex 

(For useful trolleys and trays 

Ref. N19/950 and NI9/952.) 

Sintercel Ltd., 

53b High Road, 

Bushey Heath, 

Hertf ordshire 

(For laboratory furniture and 

overhead system of laboratory 

services which could be installed 

in existing accommoda tion to 

Home Fittings (Great Britain) Ltd., provide extra general purpose 

Woden Road South, facilities.) 

Wednesbury , 

Staffs. 

(For Acousti-seal partitions.) 

J. Hodsman & Son Ltd., 

82 Eldon Street, 

York 

(F or Planman chart storage 

systems.) 

Laboratory Investigation Unit, 

D.E.S., 

Elizabeth House, 

York Road, 

London SEI 7PH 

(For general advice on laboratory 

planning and publications.) 

References 

Thermo Plastics Ltd., 

Dunstable, 

Bedfordshire 

(For plastic storage trays.) 

Westland Engineering Ltd., 

Yeovil, 

Somerset 

(For chalkboards.) 

'Designing a laboratory, parts I and II, Education in chemistry, 

Vol. 9 No.4, Vol. 9 No.5, 1972. 

Guy, K. Laboratory organisation and administration, 2nd. edition, 

Butterworth, 1973. 

Myrick, R. 'Architecture-a dynamic factor in learning', Educational 

technology, 30 April 1968. (Discussion of social factors in planning.) 

Stepan, O.M. Storage of apparatus, John Murray for the Association 

for Science Education.

Appendix 6 A guide to the 

inform·ation given in the four 

Technicians' manuals 

This appendix is concerned with the various items of information 

given in the preparation guide and appendices 1-4 of the Technicians' 

manuals. It is not intended to be an exhaustive index to the Manuals 

but should enable the user to find information which may be of use 

in both Patterns and other schemes of work. 

Page numbers are not given in this guide but references are given 

in the following way. All references commence with the number of 

the Manual as a bold figure. This is followed by either A in the case 

of an appendix item and the number of the appendix, or by the 

investigation number. Discussions are shown by a D following the 

investigation number preceeding the discussion. Items contained 

within appendixes are in alphabetical order; those in the preparation 

guide are to be found in the 'Notes' column in investigation number 

order. Options and problems are not indicated. 

Cross references are not generally included in this guide, but 

short notes on items are given where necessary for their clarification. 

accumulators, care, maintenance and charging of lead/acid batteries 

and short note concerning NiFe batteries, 2A1, 3A1 

acetic acid, (ethanoic acid), concentrated (1.05 s.g.), 4A3; 

hazard, 4A4; dilute (1.0 M), 4A3 

acetic alcohol, preparation, 4A3 

aceto-carrnine; preparation, 4A3 

aceto-orcein ; preparation, 4A3 

adipyl chloride, 5% solution, preparation, 2A3; hazard, 4A4; 

agars and broths, notes on preparation of media, sterilising 

procedures, streak plating, preparation of blackened agar, 

glycerol nutrient agar, glycerol nutrient broth, nutrien t 

agar, nutrient broth, lA2; nutrient agar, 3A2; MacConkey agar, 

milk agar, minimal medium, 4A2 

Amoeba, culture method, Chalkley's medium, obtaining soil 

Amoebae, 1A2 

aluminium nitrate, 0.5 M solution, preparation, 2A3 

ammonia, turmeric test, 1 7.21 

317

318 

ammonium chloride, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 3A3 

ammonium hydroxide, concentrated (0.88 s.g.), 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 

hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; i-strength solution, lA3, 2A3, 

4A3; 5 M solution, 1A3, 2A3, 3A3; 2 M solution, 1A3, 2A3, 

4A3; 1 M solution, 2A3, 3A3; 0.1 M solution, 3A3 

ammonium iron(III) sulphate (ammonium iron alum), 0.8 M 

solution,4A3 

ammonium nitrate, 0.5 M solution, 2A3 

ammonium sulphate, 0.09 M solution, IA3 

anaesthetisation, using MS-222 Sandoz for tadpoles, trou t alevins, 

adult frogs and toads, 3A2; see also Drosophila 

aniline (phenyl amine ), hazard, 4A4 

aquarium pumps, aerators, notes on vibrator and piston types and 

on air lines, 3A1 

arm model, construction diagrams, 3A1 

arsenic, hazard, 2A4 

balloons, filling with gases, 1 6.1 D, see also Pumps 

barium chloride, 1.0 M solution, preparation, 2A3; 0.5 M solution, 

lA3; hazard, 1A4, 2A4 

barium hydroxide, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 4A3; hazard 4A4 

barley, containing albino form, 14.11 

Benedict's solution, preparation, lA3, 3A3, 4A3 

beryllium, hazard, 2A4 

bicarbonate indicator, - preparation, - 3A3 

biuret test, for proteins, 17.22 

blood, separation in centrifuge, 32.8b; citration and supply, 

3A2; circulation in capillaries of tadpoles, trout alevins, frog 

and toad web, fmger quick, 32.9 

breathing bag assembly, notes on manipulation of appara tus, 

measuring volumes of air, 3A1 

breathing models, intercostal muscles and ribs, iron lung, lungs/ 

thorax,3A1 

brilliant cresyl blue stain, 1% solution, 3A3 

bromine, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 4A4 

bromine diffusion experiment, not into vacuum, 1Al , 2A 1, 

21 OAD, 4AI, 47.15D; inclusive of diffusion into vacuum, 

4A1,47.16 

bromine water, preparation, 4A3; hazard, 4A4 

Brownian motion, using smoke cells, 16.4 

buffer solution, pH 9.5, preparation, 3A3

ungs, boring and insertion and removal of items, 1AI, 3Al 

burning characteristics, notes concerning the burning of a 

range of organic substances in air and in an atmosphere 

enriched with oxygen, 32.10,32.18, 3A1 

calcium, hazard, 2A4 

calcium nitrate, 0.5 M solution, preparation, 2A3 

Calliphora (blow fly), obtaining larvae, 3A2, 4A2 

capacitors, experiments, 35.1d; notes and code for identification, 

3A1 

capillary tube, with mercury index, 47.17 c 

carbon dioxide, dry ice, hazard, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; preparation, see 

gas cylinders; test for gas using lime water, 11.1, 18.7 

carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane), hazard lA4, 2A4, 4A4 

carcinogens, hazard notes, 2A4 

centrifuge, care, hazard, usage, 2A3, 3A4, 4A4 

cetrimide, 1% solution as antiseptic, 3A3 

chainwheel assembly, construction diagram, 3Al 

Chalkley's medium, for culture of Amoeba, see Amoeba 

chicken dissection, for muscle action especially in the leg, 3A2 

Chlorine, source, 214.11, 2A3. hazard, 2A4; test for chlorine/ 

chloride, 18.7, 18.19 

chloroform (trichloromethane), hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4 

choice chambers, construction from disposable Petri dishes for 

use with small organisms such as woodlice, 2Al 

chromatography solvent, preparation for 34.16, 3A3 

circular motion kit, diagrams and experiment, 47.19 

cleaning apparatus, barometer tubes, lA1; copper stains, lA1, 2Al; 

magnesium residues, 1AI; rub ber and organic material, 1AI, 2Al 

clones, of Coleus, dandelions, Zebrina, 14.9, lA2 

clover, acyanogenic and cyanogenic plants, supply and testing leaves 

for hydrocyanic acid, 4A2 

cobalt chloride paper, prepara tion, 1A3 

compact light source, care and maintenance, lA1, 3A1 

composition of air apparatus, wash bottle and gas syringe, 3Al; 

gas burette, 3Al; J-tube, 3A1, 4A1 

Congo red, 0.1 % solution, 4A3 

cooling of flasks, flasks covered with feathers etc, 14.6 

copper(II) chloride, 0.5 M solution, IA3 

copper(II) chromate, preparation for electrolysis, 1A3 

copper(II) nitrate, 0.5 M solution, 2A3 

319

320 

copper(II) sulphate, anhydrous, 1A3, 3A3; for drying, 210.1; 

saturated solution, 3A3; 1 M solution, 2A3; 0.5 M solution, 

lA3, 2A3, 3A3; 0.25 M solution, 1A3; 0.2 M solution, 3A3; 

0.1 M solution, 3A3; 0.05 M solution, lA3; 0.04 M 

solution, 1A3 

crystals, growth on rnicroslide, 18.17 

curren t balance, made from chemical balance, 211.11 

Daphnia, culture method, 2A2; see also water fleas; 

deflection tube, manipulation, 4A1 

dialysis, using cellulose tubing, diagram, 16.19 

1,6-diaminohexane, 5% solution, preparation, 2A3;hazard, 2A4 

diastase, 10- 3 - 10- 2 % solution, 3A3 

diffusion, bromine in air, 16.1; carbon dioxide and hydrogen, 

16.1, 16.3; ether/scent into air, 16.1 D; hydrogen chloride 

and ammonia, 16.1; iodine in tetrachloromethane, 16.10; 

see also bromine diffusion experiment 

diffusion tubes, construction diagram, and filing of chalk 

inserts, 16.3 

diode, demonstration and semiconductor, 48.2 

distillation, destructive distillation of coal, diagram, 34.1 

project 1; under reduced pressure, 32.23, 49.3a(ii); 

fractionation of alcohol and water, 49.3b(ii); 

fractionation of oil, 16.18, 34.1 project 2 

dogfish dissection, for gut parasites, 2A2 

double slits kit, description and use, 3A1 

Drosophila (fruit fly), culture medium, handling techniques, 

anaesthetisation using etherisers, carbon dioxide and 

refrigeration, sexing of flies, life history, 13.7,1 A2, 2A2, 

4A2 

dynamics trolleys, description, care and maintenance - 2A1, 

3A1,4A1 

electrical hazards; Van de Graaff generator, high tension supplies, 

lA4, 3A4, 4A4 

electrolysis, oflead bromide, 18.10; of dilute SUlphuric acid, 

33.4, 411.4 D; using alkaline sodium chloride electrolyte in 

experiment investigating deposition of Cu+ and Cu 2 + ions, 

33.18 ; errors in electrolysis experiments, amalgamated 

aluminium electrodes, 33.17 

electrolysis cells, construction of Nuffield style pupil voltameters, 

lA1,3Al

electromagnetic kit, description of contents, 2Al, 3Al 

electrostatics experiments; notes on successful accomplishment, 

18.1, 35·.1c 

eluent, for products of sugar hydrolysis, 4A3 

energy conversion kit, contents and care of model steam engine, 

3Al 

ethanol, method of drying using anhydrous copper(II) sulphate, 

210.1; 50% solution, 3A3; 70% solution, 4A3 

etherisers, see Drosophila 

ethoxyethane (ether, diethyl ether), hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 4A4; safe 

method of warming using water bath, 49.2 

faulting model, construction, 212.14c, 2A1 

Fehling B solution, preparation, 4A3 

fertiliser, effect of ammonium sulphate on grass, dosage, 18.20 

Feulgen's stain, Shiff's reagent, preparation, 4A3 

fine beam tube, manipulation, 4Al 

flame test wires, and inoculating loops, methods of construction, 

1AI, see also inoculating loops 

fluorescein, 0.2% solution for model eye, 3A3 

food calorimeter, construction and use, 3A1 

forces, methods for study of forces in equilibrium, 411.2 

formaldehyde (methanal), hazard, 2A4 

fossils from coal, preparation of fossil pollen grains, 34.18 

fractionation, of oil, 16.18,34.1 project 2; of alcohol/water, 

49.3b(ii) 

fuels, see burning characteristics 

gas from a water plant, experimental details, 411.10 

gas cylinders, carbon dioxide, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; dry ice, 

2A4, 3A4, 4A4; hydrogen, lA4, 2A4, 3A4; nitrogen, lA4, 

2A4, 3A4; oxygen, 1A4, 2A4, 3A4; sulphur dioxide, 2A4 

gas syringes, care and maintenance, 2Al, 3Al 

gear system, construction diagram, 3A1 

gelatine, 20% gel, 2A3; for variable focus eye, 3A3; with potassium 

nitrate,4A3 

glass jet, preparation, 3A1 ; 

glass rod, with solid point, 3Al; breaking of rod and tube, safety 

precautions, 15.4 

glucose, 20% solution, 4A3; 5% solution, 3A3; 1% solution, 4A3 

glucose-I-phosphate, 1% solution, 3A3 

GM tube, thin window, characteristics and use, 48.6, 4Al 

321

322 

groundsel; rayed and unrayed forms, 46.7b 

hand stroboscope, construction, 3A1 

hard water, preparation of synthetic hard water, 2A3 

hay infusion, preparation, 1A2, 2A2 

hot filament diode tube, manipulation, 4Al 

hot filament triode tube, manipulation, 4A1 

hot wire glass cutting technique, lA1, 3A1 

Hydra, method of culture, 2A2 

hydrochloric acid, concentrated (1.18 s.g.), 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; hazard, 

lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; 5 M solution, lA3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 2 M 

solution, lA3, 2A3, 3A3; 1 M solution, lA3, 2A3, 3A3. 4A3; 

0.5 M solution, 2A3; 0.1 M solution, 4A3; 0.001 M solution, 

4A3 

hydrocyanic acid, test for, see clover 

hydrogen, burning in air, 16.26; 'pop' test for, 16.25 

hydrogen peroxide, 20 vol solution, lA3, 2A3 

immersion heater, radio resistor type, wound from resistance wire, 

33.11 

inertia balance kit, construction diagram, 4Al 

infusorian culture, method of culture, 3A2 

inoculating loops, construction methods, 3A1, 4Al; see also flame 

test wires 

intemallight beam galvanometer, 'spot' galvanometer, care of, 

lA1,3A1 

iodine, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; obtained from seaweed, 12.11 

iodine in potassium iodide, (3% 12 /KI solution), lA3, 3A3 

ions in candle flame, experimental details, 18.6 

iron(Il) sulphate, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 3A3, 4A3; 

0.0089 M solution, 4A3 

iron(III) sulphate, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 4A3 

iron, Fe 2 + and Fe 3 + ions, tests for, 411.8 

Janus green B (diazine green), 3A3 

jets, making glass jets, 1Al 

lead(II) acetate (lead(II) ethanoate), 0.1-0.5 M, 1A3 

lead(II) bromide, hazard, 1A4 

lead(H) nitrate, 0.1 M solution, 3A3;hazard, 3A4 

lead salts, hazard, 3A4 

Lemna (duckweed), culture, 2A2; growth, 18.19

lenses, finding focal length, focal1engthjdioptres table, 3Al 

lime water, preparation, lA3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3 

lithium, hazard, 2A4 

litmus indicator, 0.1 % solution, preparation from azolitmin, 

lA3,4A3 

locating agent, for sugars separated by chromatography, 4A3 

locust testes, obtaining from fifth instar, staining squashes to 

show meiosis, 4A2 

lungs, supply of specimens, 32.25 

Lycopodium, hazard, 1A4 

macro-Millikan apparatus, notes on construction and use 4A1 

magnesium, hazard, 1A4, 2A4 

magnesium sulphate, 0.1 M solution, 3A3 

magnets, care and cleaning, 2A1, 4A1 

magnetic effect, of current in a liquid, 211.10 

Maltese cross tube, manipulation, 48.3a 

maltose, 1% solution, 4A3 

mats, hardboard mats for use as bench protectors, 1Al 

mercury, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4 

mercury(II) iodide, preparation of paper, 3A3; hazard, 3A4 

mercury salts, hazard, 3A4 

mercury(II) sulphate, hazard, lA4 

methyl orange, preparation of indicator, 3A3, 4A3 

4-methylphenylamine (p-toluidine), hazard, 4A4 

methylene blue, 1% solution, lA3, 3A3 

mice, breeding, handling, marking killing and preserving, 1A2, 4A2 

Micraster fossils, note concerning need for clear marking, 46.1 

microwave equipment, contents of kit, 3A1 

Millon's reagent, preparation, lA3, 3A3; hazard, lA4, 3A4 

model eye, goldfish bowl eye, 31.25; kit, contents and use, 3A1 

model food chain, construction and manipulation, 35.12 

model stream, construction and manipulation, 2A1 

Moire patterns, description and diagram, 3A1 

mole kit, contents, 1Al 

molecular models, models made with polystyrene spheres, body 

centred cubic lattice, diamond structure (and kit), graphite 

structure, hexagonal close packed lattice, simple cubic lattice, 

Ss sulphur, l Al ; butoxybutane, ethanol, ethoxyethane, fumaric 

acid, a-glucose, maleic acid, maltose, methanol, methoxymethane, 

propan-l-ol, propoxypropane, 4A1 

323

324 

MS-222 Sandoz anaesthetic, notes on use, 3A2; hazard, 3A4 

multiflash photography, stroboscopic photography using motorised 

strobe disc and xenon flasher, development of film in cassette, 

2Al,4Al 

nickel(II) sulphate, 0.1 M solution, 3A3 

nitric acid, concentrated (1.42 s.g.), 4A3, hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 3A4, 

4A4; 60% solution, 1A3, 2A3; 5 M solution, lA3; 1.0 M solution, 

4A3 

4nitrotoluene, hazard 4A4 

nutrient agar, preparation, 3A2; see also agars and broths 

nuts on a string, distances between nuts, 47.11 

oil film kit, contents and use, lA1 

onion, for plasmolysis experiment, also rhubarb tissue, 1A2 

oscilloscope, operating instructions for demonstration and pupil 

models, 2A1, 3AI, 4A1 

osmosis, membrane attachment to thistle funnel, 16.11 

oxygen, chemical source of oxygen, 210.15; concentration in water, 

4A1; removal from water, 32.23; test for, 16.25, 18.7,32.23 

Paramecium, culture method, lA2, 2A2 

parasites, parasitised caterpillars, 29.1 0; sources, killing and mounting, 

roundworms, Protozoa, Fungi, plant galls, dodder, disposal; 2A2; 

hazards, 2A4 

particle model of refraction kit, construction, 3A1 

PEEL models, contents of kit and example of use, 4Al 

personal weighing machine, conversion of bathroom scales, 1Al 

phenolphthalein, 0.05% indicator solution, 3A3, 4A3 

phenosafranine, 1% solution, 4A3 

phosphorus, hazard, 2A4 

picric acid (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol), hazard, 4A4 

pinhole camera kit, contents, 3Al 

pooter, see Tribolium 

potassium, hazard, 2A4 

potassium carbonate, 1 M solution, 4A3 

potassium chromate, 0.1 M solution, 4A3 

potassium dichromate, 0.1 M solution, 4A3 

potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) (potassium ferricyanide), 0.1 M 

solution, 3A3, 4A3 

potassium hydrogen carbonate, saturated solution, 3A3

potassium hydroxide, hazard, lA4, 3A4, 4A4; 25% solution, 3A3, 

4A3; 5 M solution, 3A3; 2 M solution, 3A3; 1.0 M solution, 

lA3,4A3 

potassium iodide, 1 M solution, 4A3 

potassium nitrate, saturated solution, 3A3; 0.5 M solution, 3A3 

potassium pyrogallate, preparation, 3A3, 4A3 

potassium thiocyanate; 0.5 M solution, 4A3 

'power line terminal rods, construction, 3Al 

propagator, construction, use of artificial lighting, 1Al 

protein, biuret test for, 17.22 

phenylthiourea (PTU), phenylthiocarbamide (PTe), hazard; 14.9 

pumps and associated apparatus, vacuum/compression pump, care of, 

lAl, 4Al; used for filling balloons with gas, 16.1D 

push-pull forcemeter, construction of simple model, 1Al ; forcemeter 

converter,3Al 

pyridine, hazard, 4A4 

pyrogallol (pyrogallic acid) preparation, 3A3; for storage see 

composition of air apparatus 

radioactive materials, precautions and hazards, 4A4 

rat dissection, to show alimentary canal, 1A2 

ray optics equipment, contents of kit and hints on use, 3Al 

reactions, the following reactions all have notes concerning the 

hazards associated with them or concerning the method of 

carrying them out: 

baking powder and water, 11.3; 

bismuth{lII) chloride and water, 411.7 

copper oxides and magnesium, 12.4 

copper oxides and coal gas or hydrogen, 17.19, 214.15a 

hydrogen and oxygen, explosion, 411.4D 

iron and acid, 43.2 

iron filings and copper(JI) sulphate solution, 210.9 

iron wool and bromine, 214.11 

iron wool and chlorine, 214.11 

iron wool and iodine, 214.12 

magnesium and hydrochloric acid, 210.9, 210.1 Oc 

marble chips and acids, 11.4 

metal oxides and acid, 43.2 

234 protactinium decay, 48.10 

silver chloride and light, 31.1 

sodium carbonate and barium chloride solution, 210.9, 210.1 Oa 

325

326 

sodium carb onate and hydrochloric acid, 210.I Oc(ii) 

sulphur trioxide (sulphuric acid) preparation, 210.12 

thionine and light, 34.15 

zinc and sulphuric acid, 18.16c 

resistors, insulation when used as heaters, 33.11; notes and codes, 

3Al,4Al 

resonance, using piano, 31.13d 

respirometers and differential air thermometers, simple version, 

32.22; Dixon-Barcroft, MacFadyen's, thermistor, 3Al 

Ringer's solution, preparation, 4A3 

ripple tank, accessories required and hints on use, 3A1 

rockets, balloon, carbon dioxide capsule, water, 4A1 

sampling plants, quadrat sampling, 13.5 

Savart's toothed wheels, construction, 3Al 

sawdust, method of damping sawdust for fly maggots, 42.1 

scaler, use of the scaler, stop/start mechanisms using photocells, 

aluminium tapes, 2A1, 4A1 

screw gear, worm drive, construction, 3A1 

sediment holder, construction, 2A1 

selenium, hazard, 2A4 

Serratia marcescens, culture, 14.10, lA2 

Shirlastain E, preparation of solution, 2A3 

silver nitrate, 0.5 M solution, lA3; 0.1 M solution, lA3, 3A3, 4A3 

silver 'tree', method, 33.19 

soap solution, preparation, lA3; for hardness of water, 2A3 

sodium, hazard, 2A4, 4A4 

sodium carbonate, 1.0 M solution, 2A3 

sodium chloride, saturated solution, 4A3; 25% solution, 2A3, 3A3; 

0.5 M solution, lA3, 3A3; 0.1 M solution, lA3 

sodium chloride alkaline electrolyte, preparation, 3A3 

sodium hydroxide, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; 5 M solution, IA3, 

2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 2 M solution, 4A3; 1 M solution, I A3, 2A3, 

3A3, 4A3; 0.1 M solution, 3A3, 4A3; 0.05 M solution, 2A3, 3A3; 

0.001 M solution, 4A3; 0.000 1 M solution, 4A3 

sodium picrate, hazard, 4A4 'Picric acid', preparation of papers, 4A3 

sodium silicate, 2 M solution, lA3 

sodium sulphate, saturated solution, 3A3 

sodium thiosulphate, 0.16 M solution, 2A3, 3A3 

soil sterilisation, 2A2

sound tape recording, details of the recording required for the work 

on noise and sound, 3Al 

spark counter, notes on use, 48.5c 

spectroscope handling, notes concerning ease of handling and long 

lasting flame production, 1Al 

spectrum, production using high dispersion prism, 31.28; absorption 

spectrum of chlorophyll, 34.17 

speed of an airgun pellet, details of experiment, 4AI; see also scaler, 

4AI 

speed of sound, experimental details, 2AI 

standard wire gauge, conversion table, I AI, 3AI, 4 Al 

starch, 1% solu tion, I A3, 4 A3 ; synthesis from glucose-l-phosphate, 

34.12; testing in leaves, 34.12,34.15 

sterilisation of grass clippings, 34.9; see also soil sterilisation and 

agars for other methods of sterilisation 

sticklebacks, handling details, 3A2 

stream table, construction, 2Al 

strontium, hazard, 2A4 

succession, on cellulose film, 410.3 

sucrose, 75% solution, IA3; 50% solution, IA3; 5% solution, IA3, 

2A3,3A3 

Sudan IV, 0.5% in ethanol, in paraffin, 3A3 

sulphate, test for, 18.19 

sulphur crystals, 16.24 

sulphur dioxide, hazard, 2A4; use, see gas cylinders 

sulphuric acid, concentrated (1.84 s.g.), 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; hazard, 

lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; 5.6 M (accumulator acid) solution, 2A3, 3A3; 

2.5 M solution, IA3, 2A3, 3A3; 2.0 M solution, 4A3; 1 M 

solution, IA3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 0.5 M solution, 4A3; 0.3 M 

solution, 3A3, 4A3; 0.1 M solution, 2A3 

tests, ammonia, 17.21; carbon dioxide, ILl, 18.7; chloride/ 

chlorine, 18.7, 18.19; hydrocyanic acid, see clover; hydrogen, 

16.25; iron?" and irorr" ions, 411.8; oxygen, 16.25, 18.7,32.23; 

protein, 17.22; starch in leaves, 34.12,34.15; sulphate, 18.19 

tetrachloromethane, hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 4A4 

thermocouple, construction, 3Al 

thionine, 0.1 % solution, 3A3 

three dimensional kinetic model kit, diagram, 16.8 

titration, notes on the procedure, 4Al 

tobacco, with albino characteristic, 14.11 

p-toluidine, hazard, 4A4 

327

328 

toluidine blue-O stain, I % solution, 4A3 

tourniquet, limitation on use, 32.24a(ii) 

Tradescantia, buds for meiosis, 4A2 

Tribolium, culture and handling techniques, experimental details, 

pooters, 13.8, lA2, 2A2, 4A2 

trichloromethane, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4 

2,4, 6-trinitrophenol (picric acid), hazard, 4A4 

trypsin, 4% solution, 4A3 

two-dimensional kinetic model kit, contents of kit, lAI 

two-dimensional motion apparatus, notes on types, 2AI, 

3AI,4AI 

Universal (Yamada's) indicator, preparation, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3 

variable focus eye, construction, 3AI 

Visking tubing, method of use, 16.20, 16.19 

water culture solution, 1A3 

water, deionised etc, 1A3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3 

water fleas, source, 3A2 

water troughs, setting up, 13.4 

weed killers, hazards and notes, 2A4 

wheel and axle, construction of pupils' model, 3 Al 

xenon strobe, hazard, 2A4, 4A4 

yeast, culture method, 1A2, 2A2, 3A2 

zinc nitrate, 0.5 M solution, 2A3 

zinc sulphate, saturated solution, 3A3; 0.1 M solution, 3A3

Schoo s Cou ci 

Integrated Science Project (SCISP) 

Patte pro ide a tru tured cour e 

in integrated science for pupils in 

the 13-16 age range, aimed principally 

at a double O-le el. The scheme is 

outlined in the Teacher handbook and 

the material is organised in 

four sections: 

Patterns I Building blocks 

Patterns 2 Interactions and building blocks 

Patterns 3 Energy 

Patterns 4 Interaction and change 

Each section comprises a pupils' manual, 

a teachers' guide, a technicians' manual 

and a number of pupil ' topic books. 

Longman I SB 582 34008 X

Patterns: technicians' manual 4 - National STEM Centre

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