Patterns: technicians' manual 4 - National STEM Centre
Patterns: technicians' manual 4 - National STEM Centre
Patterns: technicians' manual 4 - National STEM Centre
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<strong>Patterns</strong><br />
Technicians' <strong>manual</strong> 4<br />
Illili~[IIlllrll~lll[~~1<br />
N22736
Schools Council Integrated Science Project<br />
The Schools Council Integrated Science Project was set up at<br />
Chelsea College, London, from 1969 to 1975. The project team<br />
have developed their materials in association with many teachers,<br />
and have tested them in a wide range of schools.<br />
Organisers<br />
W.C. Hall<br />
B.S. Mowl<br />
Team members<br />
J.1. Bausor<br />
Mrs. M.P. Jarman<br />
RC. Landbeck<br />
Miss B.A. Lawes<br />
M.R. Nice<br />
D. Wimpenny<br />
Northern Ireland coordinator<br />
S.J. McGuffin
<strong>Patterns</strong><br />
Technicians'<br />
<strong>manual</strong> 4<br />
Author<br />
Mike Nice<br />
Contributors<br />
David Crowhurst<br />
Malcolm Fraser<br />
William Lloyd<br />
Valerie Sheppard<br />
Published for<br />
the Schools Council<br />
by Longman
Longman Group Limited, London<br />
for the Schools Council<br />
© Schools Council Publications 1975<br />
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,<br />
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form<br />
or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying<br />
recording or otherwise - without the prior permission of the<br />
publisher.<br />
First published 1975<br />
ISBN 0 582 34008 X<br />
Typeset in Great Britain<br />
in 10/12 Press Roman IBM Composition<br />
By Reproduction Drawings limited.<br />
Printed in Great Britain by<br />
Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd, Aylesbury, Bucks<br />
. ;
Acknowledgements<br />
The authors and publishers are grateful to the following for permission<br />
to reproduce photographs: Dr C. Curds, pages 260 below<br />
and 261; Dr S. A. Henderson, page 260 above and Dr M. E. Wallace,<br />
page 264.
Preface<br />
The Technicians' <strong>manual</strong>s are primarily designed to enable school<br />
laboratory technicians to prepare the materials required for work<br />
described in the <strong>Patterns</strong> sample scheme. The four <strong>manual</strong>s are<br />
complementary to the Teachers' guides and Pupils' <strong>manual</strong>s; all of<br />
these publications are required to follow the sample scheme.<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> demands a considerable degree of preparation of<br />
materials, and by its very nature includes materials drawn from the<br />
various branches of science. Apart from apparatus required for class<br />
practical sessions and demonstration lessons the scheme also uses a<br />
variety of teaching aids. The Technicians' <strong>manual</strong>s are designed to<br />
answer three important questions:<br />
What equipment is needed for the sample scheme?<br />
Where is the equipment used in the scheme?<br />
How is the equipment used?<br />
The first of these questions is answered in the classified list of<br />
equipment; the second and third are answered by the preparation<br />
guide. Both of these parts of the <strong>manual</strong> are in tabulated form, and<br />
are supplemented by appendixes which give further information<br />
about individual investigations and separate items of equipment.<br />
Each of the <strong>manual</strong>s is self contained so that all the essential information<br />
needed by technicians concerning the work in each section<br />
of the sample scheme will be found in the relevant volume.
Contents<br />
Preface<br />
Classified list of equipment<br />
Introduction<br />
list of suppliers<br />
Apparatus<br />
Biological materials<br />
Chemicals<br />
Geological specimens<br />
Teaching aids<br />
Books for pupils and teachers<br />
Preparation guide<br />
Introduction<br />
Calendar<br />
Section 1<br />
6Section 2<br />
Section 3<br />
Section 4<br />
Section 5<br />
Section 6<br />
Section 7<br />
Section 8<br />
Section 9<br />
Section 10<br />
Section 11<br />
Section 12<br />
Section 13<br />
Appendix 1<br />
Appendix 2<br />
Appendix 3<br />
Appendix 4<br />
Appendix 5<br />
Appendix 6<br />
Recognising change<br />
Changes in behaviour<br />
Changes in acidity<br />
Changes in motion 1<br />
Changes in the Earth<br />
Changes in organisms<br />
Changes in motion 2<br />
Changes in atoms<br />
Changes in molecules<br />
Changes in populations and communities<br />
Stability<br />
Changes in the environment<br />
Changes in society<br />
Notes on apparatus<br />
Notes on biological materials<br />
Chemical preparations<br />
Hazards and precautions<br />
Accommodation for Integrated Science<br />
A guide to the information given in the four<br />
Technicians=<strong>manual</strong>s<br />
vi<br />
1<br />
3<br />
9<br />
31<br />
35<br />
52<br />
54<br />
57<br />
60<br />
61<br />
68<br />
70<br />
76<br />
86<br />
96<br />
102<br />
114<br />
142<br />
164<br />
178<br />
182<br />
194<br />
196<br />
200<br />
245<br />
274<br />
291<br />
304<br />
317
Classified list of equipment<br />
Introduction<br />
This is a complete list of equipment required for the sample scheme<br />
in <strong>Patterns</strong> 4, Interactions and change.<br />
The list is divided into seven sections. The items which are<br />
arranged alphabetically within each list are classified as follows:<br />
No stars Essential items<br />
One star *Essential for optional/alternative work<br />
Two stars **Non-essential (or alternative) items<br />
Quantities in each case are prefixed by the letters P or T.<br />
P denotes that the quantity specified is for ten pupils; and T<br />
that the quantity is independent of pupil numbers (i.e. demonstration<br />
items).<br />
The aim of the list is to ensure that schools have as little difficulty<br />
as possible in obtaining items. The suppliers quoted are not exclusive,<br />
and their occurrence in the lists in no way implies that they are to be<br />
preferred to other sources. Suppliers are generally coded with obvious<br />
codes of two or more letters. The addresses of suppliers are to be<br />
found in the list of suppliers at the beginning of the list of equipment.<br />
Where no supplier is specified in the appropriate column of the lists,<br />
the items are generally available from scientific equipment supply<br />
companies.<br />
The code LS means local source. This term is used to show that<br />
items can be obtained in local shops, or from the environment, or are<br />
usually available within schools.<br />
Integrated Science does not use a system of item numbers. Where<br />
appropriate, Nuffield numbers are included to aid identification of<br />
particular items.<br />
It is not intended that schools should feel obliged to purchase all<br />
the items in the lists (not even the 'essential' ones). Most schools<br />
will already contain apparatus which, if not exactly that specified in<br />
these lists, will suffice. Several items have been difficult to specify<br />
exactly, in particular low tension electrical supplies. While it may
2<br />
be desirable for each working group to have its own supply unit,<br />
this system may be too expensive to buy or some other system may<br />
already be in use. Providing the experiments can be accomplished it<br />
matters not whether the supply is in the form of individual packs,<br />
accumulators, or even a common Lt. a.c./d.c. system.<br />
The technician is assumed to have appropriate tools of the trade<br />
and these are not included in the apparatus list unless they are<br />
specifically required for a particular piece of work, e.g. a pair of<br />
pliers for crushing bromine capsules in the bromine diffusion<br />
experiments.
list of suppliers<br />
The list is divided into two sections. In the first part are the suppliers<br />
of apparatus, chemicals, biological and geological materials. In the<br />
second part are the suppliers of teaching aids and associated materials.<br />
The suppliers are listed alphabetically, with codes taking precedence<br />
over names. In general the addresses of publishing houses are not<br />
included in the list.<br />
The following codes have been used in the Manual, bu t the<br />
addresses are not included in the list of suppliers:<br />
ABB - The Associated Examining Board<br />
IS - Schools Council Integrated Science, Longman/Penguin<br />
LPT - Longman Physics Topic, Longman<br />
LS - Local source<br />
NAC - Nuffield Advanced Science Chemistry, Penguin Education<br />
NB - Nuffield a-level Biology, Longman<br />
NC - Nuffield a-level Chemistry, Longman<br />
NP - Nuffield a-level Physics, Longman<br />
NSS - Nuffield Secondary Science, Longman<br />
SCPT - Schools Council Project Technology, Heinemann<br />
Part 1<br />
Code Supplier<br />
Products supplied<br />
BDH The British Drug Houses Ltd, Chemicals, first aid<br />
BDH Laboratory Chemicals Division, chart<br />
Poole, Dorset<br />
BF<br />
BOC<br />
CEP<br />
Belgrave (Mercury) Ltd,<br />
5 Belgrave Gardens, St John's Wood,<br />
London NW8<br />
British Steel Federation<br />
Training Dept,<br />
Steel House, Tothill Street,<br />
London SWI<br />
The British Oxygen Co. Ltd,<br />
(Head Office), Hammersmith House,<br />
London W6<br />
C.E. Payne Ltd,<br />
6 Ively Road, Clapham,<br />
London SW4 DHS<br />
Mercury cleaning,<br />
mercury supply<br />
Tillich blocks (wood<br />
cubes 10 mm X 10 mm<br />
X 10 mm)<br />
Gas cylinders and<br />
booklet<br />
Disposable Petri dishes<br />
and other apparatus<br />
3
4<br />
Code Supplier Products supplied<br />
EA E.J. Arnold & Son Ltd, Tillich blocks (wood<br />
Butterley Street, cubes 10 mm X 10 mm<br />
Leeds 10 X 10 mm)<br />
Ealing Scien tific Ltd, Air table, other<br />
Greycaine Road, apparatus and film<br />
Watford, WD2 4PW loops<br />
ED E. Dixon & Sons Ltd, Mouse diet FM<br />
Agricultural Merchants, Ware,<br />
Hertf ordshire<br />
Fisons Scientific Apparatus, Mercury cleaning and<br />
Bishop Meadow Road, Loughborough, other apparatus<br />
Leicestershire, LEI 1 ORG<br />
GG Griffin & George Ltd, General scientific<br />
Ealing Road, Alperton, Wernbley, equipment, PEEL<br />
Middlesex models and film strips<br />
GG Griffin & George Ltd, Biological materials<br />
(formerly P.K. Dutt & Co. Ltd),<br />
Lavender Hill, Tonbridge, Kent<br />
GH Gerrard & Haig Ltd, Biological materials<br />
Gerrard House, Worthing Road,<br />
East Preston, Sussex<br />
HW Hopkin & Williams Ltd, Chemicals<br />
Freshwater Road, Chadwell Heath,<br />
Essex, P.O. Box 1, Romford<br />
Essex RM I 1HA<br />
JL Jencons Ltd, Glassware and other<br />
Mark Road, Hemel Hempstead, apparatus, Anchor<br />
Hertf ordshire 5-in-1 rubber bungs<br />
Leybold Heraeus Ltd, Fine beam tube and<br />
Blackwall Lane, stand<br />
London SEI0<br />
MB May & Baker Ltd, Chemicals<br />
Dagenham, Essex RM 10 7XS<br />
MLI Morris Laboratory Instruments Ltd, Air table and other<br />
96-98 High Street, Putney, physical science<br />
London SW15 1RD equipment
Code Supplier Products supplied<br />
Oxoid Ltd, Microbio logical<br />
Southwark Bridge Road, supplies and Mouse<br />
London SEI diet 41 B<br />
Panax Equipment Ltd, Scaler, Wilson cloud<br />
Nucleonic Instrument Engineers, chamber<br />
Holmethorpe Industrial Estate,<br />
Redhill, Surrey<br />
PH Philip Harris Ltd, General scientific<br />
Ludgate Hill, Birmingham 3 equipment<br />
PH Philip Harris Ltd, Biological materials<br />
Harris Biological Supplies Ltd,<br />
Weston-Super-Mare, Somerset<br />
RP R.F.D. Parkinson & Co. Ltd, IS kits of rocks,<br />
Doulting, Shepton Mallet, geological specimens<br />
Somerset<br />
RS R.S. Components Ltd, Electrical components<br />
(Radiospares) P.O. Box 427,<br />
13-17 Epworth Street,<br />
London EC2<br />
SB S.A. Baldwin Ltd, Fossil casts<br />
Educational Palaeontological<br />
Reproductions, 32 Highfield Road,<br />
Purley, Surrey CR2 2JG<br />
SC The Ship Carbon Co. of Great Graphite electrodes<br />
Britain, Chadwell Works,<br />
Grove Road,<br />
Chadwell Heath, Essex<br />
SF Scientific Furnishings, Dry ice attachment<br />
Poynton, Cheshire<br />
ST Service Trading Ltd, Xenon flasher<br />
Department EES7, Bridgman Road,<br />
London W4 SBB<br />
Steralin Ltd, Disposable Petri<br />
12-14 Hill Rise, Richmond, Surrey dishes<br />
TL Teltron Ltd, Hot filament diode<br />
32-36 Telford Way, London W3 tube etc<br />
5
6<br />
Code Supplier Products supplied<br />
TQ Telequipment Ltd, Oscilloscopes<br />
313 Chase Road, Southgate,<br />
London N14<br />
UL UNILAB, Science Teaching Oscilloscopes, meters,<br />
Equipment, electrical apparatus<br />
Clarendon Road, Blackburn BBI 9T A<br />
Weir The Weir Electrical Instrument Electric meters<br />
Co. Ltd, Bradford on Avon,<br />
Wiltshire<br />
White White Electrical Instrument Co. Ltd, Electric meters<br />
Spring Lane North, Malvern Link,<br />
Worcestershire
Part 2<br />
Code Supplier Products supplied<br />
Banta Banta, Photographic trans-<br />
58 Hopton Road, parencies<br />
London S.W.I6<br />
BBC BBC Publications, Film loops<br />
35 Marylebone High Street,<br />
London WIM 4AA<br />
BFI British Film Institute, Film<br />
42 Lower Marsh, London SEl<br />
BMG British Museum Geology, Photographic trans-<br />
Exhibition Road, South Kensington, parencies of rocks<br />
London SW7<br />
BMNH British Museum Natural History, Photograph of<br />
Cromwell Road, London SW7 Archaeopteryx<br />
BP British Petroleum Co. Ltd, Film<br />
BP, Educational Services,<br />
Britannic House, Moor Lane,<br />
London EC2<br />
CC Cambrian Chemicals Ltd, Chart, Drugs of<br />
Beddington Farm Road, abuse<br />
Croydon, CRO-4XB<br />
EB Encyclopaedia Britannica Ltd, Film strip<br />
Dorland House, Instructional<br />
Material Division,<br />
18-20 Regent Street,<br />
London WI<br />
Esso Travelling Films Ltd, Films for teachers<br />
Stewart House, 23 Francis Road,<br />
Windsor, Berkshire<br />
Gateway Educational Films Ltd, Film loops<br />
470-72 Green Lanes, Palmers Green,<br />
London N13<br />
HMSO Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Books<br />
P.O. Box 569, London SEl (Mail<br />
order)<br />
7
8<br />
Code Supplier<br />
Products supplied<br />
IFB International Film Bureau,<br />
Distributed by Boulton/Hawker<br />
Films Ltd, Hadleigh,<br />
Ipswich, Suffolk<br />
Macmillan,<br />
Brunel Road, Basingstoke,<br />
Hampshire<br />
Film<br />
Film loops<br />
Mullard Educational Service, Film and film loops<br />
Torrington Place, London WC1E 7HD<br />
OECD Organisation for Economic Films<br />
Cooperation and Development,<br />
(see HMSO above)<br />
OS The Ordnance Survey, Maps<br />
Romsey Road, Maybush,<br />
Southampton Hampshire S09 4DH<br />
PFB Petroleum Film Bureau, Films<br />
4 Brook Street, London WI<br />
PSSC D.C. Heath & Co, Film<br />
Raytheon Education Co, Bexington,<br />
Massachusetts, U.S.A.<br />
SEA<br />
Rank Film Library,<br />
Rank Audio Visual Ltd,<br />
P.O. Box 70, Great West Road,<br />
Brentford, Middlesex TW8 9HR<br />
Scientific Ed ucational Aids,<br />
lO4 Hercies Road, Hillingdon,<br />
Uxbridge, Middlesex.<br />
Shell International Petroleum Co.Ltd, Films<br />
Shell <strong>Centre</strong>, London SE 1<br />
Shelter<br />
86 Strand, London WC2 OEQ<br />
UKAEA United Kingdom Atomic Energy<br />
Authority,<br />
11 Charles II Street,<br />
London SWI<br />
VP<br />
Visual Publications,<br />
197 Kensington High Street,<br />
London W8<br />
Films<br />
Film strip and notes,<br />
PEEL models<br />
Films and photographs,<br />
simulation game<br />
Films<br />
Film strip
Apparatus<br />
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Air-gun Mounted on board T 1 For A4.5. See also GG LS<br />
(NP item 159) Appendix 1 'Speed PH<br />
of an air gun pellet'.<br />
Pellets also required<br />
Alpha analogue P5 ForA8.l1 GG<br />
model<br />
Aluminium foil Cooking foil P 1 roll For 11.11 LS<br />
Ammeter **Pupil meters, P 5 For 3.3, alternative GGPH<br />
a.c. range 5 A to lamp UL Weir<br />
White<br />
Anvil and See Demonstration T 1 LS<br />
beam following A7.15<br />
Aquarium Plastic, 300 mm P 1-2 For AlL 10 and 12.1<br />
X 200 mm X Alternative: glass<br />
200mm aquaria<br />
Autoclave Must be able to T 1 For 11.11 and culture<br />
withstand pressure media. Alternative:<br />
of lOs N m-2 domestic pressure<br />
(15 Ib in- 2 ), cooker<br />
portable<br />
Awl Small bradawl P5 For preparing LS<br />
molecular models.<br />
Alternative: pair of<br />
compasses or similar<br />
pointed instrument<br />
Balance Chemical, e.g. T 1 Alternatives: any<br />
top pan, 3-4 place balances will suffice<br />
but more will be<br />
required if not<br />
quick weighing<br />
Domestic or lever T 1 For Discussion<br />
balance, range following A7.15<br />
5 kg<br />
Ball bearing 12.5 mm diameter T 1 For 4.1 GGPH<br />
*25 mm diameter T 1 ForA7.116b GG<br />
9
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Balloon 'Sausage' type T 2-4 For"'4.7 LS<br />
Bead E.g. poppet type, For "'6.11 and GHPH<br />
12 mm diameter "'6.20. Marbles of<br />
red P 200 two distinct colours<br />
yellow P 200 but same size could<br />
also be used<br />
Beaker Glass, squat Soda glass beakers<br />
form, 100 cm ' P 15 will suffice but<br />
250 crrr' P 25 hard glass (e.g.<br />
400 crn' P5 Pyrex, graduated)<br />
** 600 cm 3 T 1 gives better service<br />
1 000 cm 3 T 1<br />
** 1 000 cm ' P 5-10<br />
Bernouilli tube *NP item 143 T 1 For l'.A7.6b( vi) GGPH<br />
Blower *As used with T 1 For l'.A7.6<br />
linear air track<br />
Boiling beads Anti-bumping, T 50 g For "'9.3. Alterna- BDHGG<br />
glass tive: porous pot<br />
Bosshead P5 For use with retort<br />
stands and clamps<br />
Bottle **Orange juice T 10 For Drosophila LS<br />
(milk) bottles,<br />
1 1 . t<br />
3"-'2pm<br />
culture<br />
Polythene bottle, T 1 For Discussion<br />
500 em", with<br />
wide neck<br />
following 611.4<br />
*Polythene, 30 em" T 1 For l'.A8.10<br />
Bourdon gauge **NP item 67 T 1 For"'7.17b GGPH<br />
Boyle's Law Fitted with T 1 For"'7.17a GGPH<br />
apparatus Bourdon gauge,<br />
e.g. NP item 109<br />
Bromine NP item 8 T 1 For Discussion GG<br />
diffusion kit following A 7.15 PH<br />
and for'" 7.16.<br />
See Appendix 1<br />
10
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Brush *Soft hair: P2 For 6..6.6.13and 10.3<br />
diameter of mount<br />
approxima tely<br />
3mm<br />
Bucket Metal,S 000 cm3 Tl For Discussion<br />
(waste bin) following 6.11.4<br />
Plastic, 10 000 T 1 For Discussion followem<br />
3, approximately<br />
ing ••.. 7 .15 and for .•..7 .16<br />
Bung Cork, I hole, to P5 For 5.3a,6.b<br />
fit 16 mm tubes<br />
Rubber, 1 hole, P5 For ••..9.3 GGGH<br />
to fit 16 mm tubes JLPH<br />
**Rubber,1 hole, P2 For ••..9.3a<br />
to fit 25 mm tubes<br />
Rubber, 1 hole, P5 For ••..9.3b(i)<br />
to fit 100 cm 3<br />
conical flask<br />
**Rubber, 1 hole, T 1 For ••..7.17b<br />
to fit 250 cm 3<br />
round bottomed<br />
flask<br />
Rubber, 1 hole, T 1 For "'9.3 b(ii)<br />
to fit 500 cm 3<br />
round bottomed<br />
flask<br />
**Rubber,2 holes, P2 For "'9.3a(ii)<br />
to fit 500 cm 3<br />
Buchner flask<br />
**Rubber,2 holes, P2 For ••..9.3 a(ii)<br />
to fit 500 cm 3<br />
distillation flask<br />
Bunsen burner Macro P5<br />
Burette 50 crrr' P5 For "'3.9, "'3.1 a<br />
and 12.1<br />
T 1 For ••..3.7<br />
Buzzer *6-12 V a.c. or T 1 For 2.2 and A2.4.<br />
d.c. Alternative is taperecorder<br />
and prerecorded<br />
tape<br />
11
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Cage **Cambridge style T 6-12 For mice, see<br />
Appendix 2 'Mice'<br />
Camera Preferably single T 1 For multiflash LS<br />
lens reflex camera. photography in<br />
e.g. Type EXA 1A 4.2,"'4.12,64.13,<br />
top view, cassette and "'7.14d<br />
type<br />
Cardboard *Sides 20 mm, P 120 For"'2.8 LS<br />
equila teral blue, green, red of each<br />
triangles and yellow<br />
Cellulose **E.g. Cellophane P 1 packet For 10.3. LS<br />
film jam jar covers Visking tubing may<br />
be used<br />
Centrifuge * P 1 For.6A 1l.8<br />
Centrifuge tubes *To fit centrifuge P 1 set For.6A 1l.8<br />
Circuit board **Worcester type, P 2-5 For'" 8.2<br />
NP item 52, or<br />
equivalent<br />
Circuit breakers ** T2 For"'4.5 - see<br />
Appendix 1 'Speed<br />
of an air-gun pellet'<br />
Circular motion NP item 172 T 1 For"'7.19d(i) GGPH<br />
kit<br />
Clamp P5 For use with retort.<br />
stands and bossheads<br />
Clip **Bulldog P 8-12 For 10.3 GG LS<br />
**Screw type, e.g. P 1-2 For .•.9.3 a(ii)<br />
Hoffman<br />
Ooth Woollen (flannel) T I For"'8.56d, GGPH<br />
150 mm X 150 mm 61;.8.7 and 8.9<br />
approximately<br />
Cloud cham ber **Continuous (Taylorj P 2-5 For"'8.5a and GGPH<br />
61;. 8.7 MLI<br />
Expansion (Wilson) T 1 For"'8.5a and Panax<br />
61;. 8.7<br />
12
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Coins *E.g. two-pence P 20 For·7.146g LS<br />
piece or 25 mm<br />
washers T I For·7.19b LS<br />
Condenser Liebig, 250 mm T 1-2 For·9.3<br />
effective length<br />
Connecting leads Stranded PVC P 15 Made from wire<br />
insulated copper bought as a reel,<br />
wire to take 2-5 A, e.g. RS extra<br />
0.3-0.5 m long flexible wire<br />
As above but 1 m T 10<br />
long<br />
Constructional E.g. balsa wood, P Supply For·l1.3 LS<br />
materials drinking straws,<br />
wire etc.<br />
Cork mats ** Pl-2 For Drosophila<br />
See Appendix 2<br />
'Drosophila'<br />
Cotton wool Absorbent T 1 pack For ~6.l3, .9.2<br />
and .9.3<br />
Non-absorbent T 1 pack For 11.11<br />
Coverglass 16 mm diameter P 1 pack For use with<br />
( 100) microslides<br />
Crocodile clip To fit 4 mm plugs P 10 Mainly used with<br />
and circuit board connecting leads<br />
terminals<br />
Crystallising *70 mm diameter P 10 For 2.1<br />
dish X 50 mm depth<br />
Curtain wire 'Expanding'type PI m For.9.7. See LS<br />
taut, plastic Appendix 1<br />
coated or bare 'Molecular' models<br />
Deflection T 1 For.8.3b(i): stand TL<br />
tube also required.<br />
Alternative is fine<br />
beam tube<br />
Delivery tube Bent at 90° to P5 Home made from<br />
form length 5-6 mm soda glass<br />
175 mmX 50mm tubing<br />
13
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Delivery tube Bent at 90° to P2<br />
(continued) form length<br />
75 mm X 50 mm<br />
**Straight 100mm T I For.6.7.17b<br />
long<br />
Diode EA 50 and holder P 2-5 For.6.S.2 GG<br />
(or BR 92)<br />
Dowel 1 mX 6-S mm T 1 For.6.S.11 LS<br />
Drawing board P5 For 6.&.7.9and GG LS<br />
.6.11.2a,b<br />
Dropper bottle Glass, 100-250 P 50 For dispensing<br />
crrr' fitted with reagents, indicators,<br />
dropper pipettes etc<br />
Dropper (teat) Glass with rubber P 10 Can be home made<br />
pipette or plastic teat from S mm overall<br />
diameter soda glass<br />
tubing<br />
Dry cell **1.5 V (U2 type) P 10-30 For .6.S.2<br />
Dry ice **To fit siphon type T 1 For use with two PH SF<br />
attachment of carbon dioxide dimensional motion<br />
cylinder apparatus and Taylor<br />
cloud chambers. See<br />
Appendix 4 'Gas<br />
cylinders'<br />
Dynamics trolley NP item 106/1 P 5-20 See Appendix 1<br />
E.h.t. supply To give variable T I +** 1 For.6.S.3,.6.S.5, GGPH<br />
d.c. supply up to<br />
5 kV. NP item 14<br />
!::A.S.7and S.9<br />
Electrode Graphite, 200 mm T I pack For 3.3, 43.7 and GG SC<br />
X 5 mm of 50 63.12<br />
Electrophorus *150 mm diameter T2 For.6.S.56d and GGPH<br />
disc metal disc on bAS.7<br />
insulating handle<br />
NP item 65<br />
Electroscope *Gold leaf T 2-4 For4S.56d and GGPH<br />
electroscope<br />
bA8.7<br />
14
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Etheriser **With side arm PI-2 For Drosophila GHPH<br />
work in 6 ••.6.13.<br />
Alternative: made<br />
with specimen tube<br />
and filter funnel.<br />
See Appendix 2<br />
'Drosophila'<br />
Fine beam tube ** TI For.& 8.3 b(ii). Stand Leybold<br />
also required.<br />
Alternative to<br />
deflection tube<br />
Flask **Buchner, 500 cm' PI-2 For .&9.3a(ii)<br />
Conical, 100 em 3 P5 For .&3.10, .&9.3<br />
and 12.1<br />
Conical, 250 em 3 P5 For.&3.9 and 5.3<br />
Conical, 500 cm' P2 For 11.11<br />
wide necked<br />
(Erlenmeyer)<br />
**Distillation, Pl-2 For .&9.3a(ii)<br />
500 cm 3<br />
Round bottom, T 1 For.&7.17b and<br />
250 cm 3 .&9.3b(ii)<br />
**Volumetric, P5 For titrations in<br />
100 cm 3 .&3.9and .&3.10<br />
Flat truck O-gauge T 1 For use with air-gun<br />
in .&4.5. See also<br />
Appendix 1 'Speed<br />
of an air-gun pellet'<br />
Flow gradient *NP item 143 T 1 For6A7.6b(v) GGPH<br />
tube<br />
Forcerneter 0-10 N P 15 For6A7.9, GG<br />
.&7. 19d(ii) and<br />
Al1.2b. Also<br />
called dynamometer<br />
or spring balance<br />
Forceps Fine points, P5 For 6.14<br />
straight<br />
Fractional NP item 150 T 1 For.& 7.19d(ii). GGPH<br />
horsepower Gear box also<br />
motor required<br />
15
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Fractionating T I For .9.3 b(ii)<br />
column<br />
Fume cupboard T 1 For Discussion following.7.15<br />
and for<br />
·7.16<br />
Funnel **Glass, dropping T 3-4 For 6A8.10<br />
50-100 crrr'<br />
Glass, filter, P 5<br />
75 mm diameter<br />
Glass, filter, P 5 For. 11.10. Buy<br />
I 00 mm diameter long stem funnel<br />
with short stem and cut to size<br />
if necessary<br />
**Plastic, filter, P 10 For. 10.6<br />
200 mm diameter<br />
**Polypropylene, P 1-2 For etheriser<br />
filter, 75 mm construction. See<br />
diameter Appendix 2<br />
'Drosophila'<br />
Galvanometer 3.5-0-3.5<br />
IOn<br />
mA, P 5 For·8.2b(i)<br />
2.5-0-2.5 rnA, T I For.8.2b(ii),<br />
demonstration<br />
model<br />
6.bfiii)<br />
Gas jar 250 mm tall, P 5 For·9.3a(iii)<br />
with cover<br />
Gauze Iron, with P 5 Used with tripods<br />
asbestos centre,<br />
100-150 mm<br />
square<br />
G-c1amp P 5 + *5<br />
Glass tube **Thick walled P 5 For·7.17c.<br />
capillary, 180 mm Requires mercury<br />
long X 1 mm bore index<br />
GM tube *Thin window) T 1 For 6A8.6, ~ 8.7 GG<br />
MX 168/01<br />
and 6A 8.10. Holder<br />
also required<br />
16
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Gramophone T 1 Suggested for LS<br />
turntable<br />
·7.19b<br />
Guinea and NP item 110 T 1 For 7.7b. Used GG PH<br />
feather tube with vacuum<br />
pump<br />
Hammer * T 1 For opening LS<br />
carbon dioxide<br />
capsules in .It.4.7<br />
Hand lens X 8 or x: 0, P 5 For.lt. 5.1<br />
folding<br />
Hardboard disc 0.5 m diameter P 5 For. lI.2c. Wire LS<br />
clips also required<br />
Hot filament T 1 For • 8.2a(ii),b(ii). TL<br />
diode tube Stand also required<br />
Hot filament * T 1 For. 8.26 b(iii). TL<br />
triode tube Stand also required<br />
Housebrick *! - brick P 2-5 For 6.lt.4.4 LS<br />
2<br />
H.L supply Variable d.c. T 1 For A 8.2 and GG PH<br />
supply to give A8.3<br />
at least 300 V<br />
at 60 rnA, e.g.<br />
NP item 15<br />
Hypodermic **Glass or plastic, P 5 Alternative to<br />
syringe 1 em", with fine 1 crrr' pipette for<br />
needle<br />
A3.8<br />
Incubator *Oven type with T 1 For 6.lt.6.13<br />
fine thermostatic<br />
control<br />
Inertia *NP item 146 P 5 For 6 Discussion LS<br />
balance kit following 6.lt.4.4<br />
See Appendix 1 for<br />
construction details<br />
Ink T 1 For·7.19 LS<br />
bottle<br />
Inoculating *N ichrome wire, P 10 For 66.19. See GG<br />
loop 24 s.W.g. in holder Appendix 1<br />
17
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Jar *Kilner type, T 10-20 For use as killing<br />
500 g capacity jars and for culture<br />
of Tribolium. See<br />
Appendix 2<br />
Jet Glass fine P5 For"'9.3 GGPH<br />
*Glass straight T 1 For 6A7.6b(iv).<br />
These jets may be<br />
made from glass<br />
tubing<br />
f-tube Capillary U-tube P 10 For "'11.10. See<br />
with unequal limbs, Appendix 1<br />
fitted with metal 'Composition of<br />
collar and screw air apparatus'<br />
Lamp MES bulb and T2 For'" 7.2 and LS<br />
holder, 2.5 V, "'7. 14b,c. Used<br />
prefocussed with photocells<br />
and scaler<br />
MES bulb and P5 For 3.3 and A3.7 LS<br />
holder, 12 V<br />
Lamp with holder T I LS<br />
and shade, 240 V,<br />
60W<br />
Lath *Wooden, 0.5 m long P 5 ForA7.146g LS<br />
with hole at one<br />
end for pivot<br />
Lead block E.g. from NP item 1 T 2-4 For 6A8.6 and GG LS<br />
Materials kit M8.7 PH<br />
Linear air **Gliders and blower T 1 For 4.2,64.13 and GGMLI<br />
track also required "'7.14d. The blower<br />
is also required for<br />
!:i.. 7.6<br />
Load 1 kg masses for P 2-3 of For"'4.3<br />
dynamics trolleys each<br />
e.g. aluminium,<br />
iron, sand and<br />
water<br />
18
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
L.t. supply Variable supply, P5 NP item 59 is<br />
0-12 Va.c./d.c. recommended but<br />
a built in Lt. supply<br />
or tapped accumulators<br />
may be used<br />
Lubricant Silicone grease T 1 tube For lubricating the GGPH<br />
screw on f-tubes<br />
Macro-Millikan NP item 142 T 1 For 8.9. See GGPH<br />
apparatus Appendix 1<br />
Magnet Bar, ticona1, T3 For "8.11 - e.g. GGPH<br />
NP item 92A from electrostatics<br />
kit<br />
Cylindrical, P 4-10 For"7.15 and"8.1lGGPH<br />
alnico, NP item<br />
50/1<br />
Demonstration, Tl For 4.1, 6A8.6 and<br />
e.g, Eclipse 6A8.7<br />
major<br />
**Magnadur, NP item T2 For" 8.3 b(fi) GGPH<br />
92B<br />
Maltese Cross T1 For" 8.3a. Stand TL<br />
tube also required<br />
Manometer **Mercury, 150 mm Pl-2 For "9.3a(ii), made LS<br />
from 'standard'<br />
glass tubing<br />
Marbles Approximately T 200+ For Discussion<br />
16 mm diameter following" 7.1 5 and<br />
for "8.11<br />
*Approximately T 1 For"7.116b<br />
25 mm diameter<br />
Mass Slotted masses on P 15 sets For"7.7 and<br />
hangers, 100 g X "11.2a<br />
10 g<br />
0.5 kg, e.g. P 2-5 For 7.7a,b<br />
wooden block<br />
1 kg, metal block T 1 For opening carbon<br />
dioxide capsule in<br />
"4.7<br />
19
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Mat A pproxima tely P 5 Used as bench LS<br />
0.3-0.5 m X protector<br />
0.3-0.5 m,<br />
hardboard<br />
E.g. doormat P 2-5 For 7.7a,b LS<br />
Materials Approximately P Selection For"'8.5c and<br />
150 mm square,<br />
lV!.. 8.7<br />
aluminium and<br />
other metal foils,<br />
glass, plastic, tinned<br />
plate, wood, etc<br />
McCartney *75mmX25mm P 10 For l':A6.9 CEPGG<br />
bottle GHPH<br />
Measuring Glass, 25 crrr' T I For"'3.7<br />
cylinder Glass, 100 cm " P 10 For"'3.5,"'3.6,<br />
"'3.7, "'3.8 and<br />
"'3.9<br />
Mechanics frame Frame made from P5 For"'11.2b, home LS<br />
25 mm square made<br />
batten with holes<br />
to take 6 mm<br />
dowel pegs at<br />
frequent intervals.<br />
Approximately<br />
0.5 m X 0.75 m<br />
Metal ring Eig. curtain or P 5 For6A.7.9 and LS<br />
key ring, 25 mm "'11.2c<br />
diameter<br />
Metre rule P 5<br />
Microscope * *Binocular (stereo) P 2-3 For sexing<br />
to magnify to X40 Tribolium or<br />
Drosophila<br />
Monocular, with P 5 For6.14,10.3<br />
low and high and 12.1<br />
power objectives<br />
Microscope lamp P5 For2.1,6.14,<br />
10.3 and 12.1<br />
20
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Microslide P 30+ Minimum number<br />
given, buy by the!<br />
gross pack<br />
Mortar and *100 mm external P5 For .6&6.9<br />
pestle diameter<br />
Moun ted needle P5 For 6.14<br />
Muslin *Butter muslin or TIm For making plugs LS<br />
stockinette etc. for Drosophila<br />
culture bottles,<br />
and covers for<br />
Tribo lium culture<br />
bottles<br />
Nail Steel, 50 mm long T I For opening carbon LS<br />
dioxide capsules in<br />
A4.7<br />
Nuts on string T I set ForA7.11a LS<br />
Optics pin P 20+ For use mainly GGPH<br />
with dynamics<br />
trolleys<br />
Oscilloscope Demonstration, T 1 For A8.2a(ii) GGPH<br />
e.g. Telequipment TQ<br />
S 51 E<br />
Pupil model, P 2-5 ForA8.2a(i) GGPH<br />
e.g. Telequipment TQ<br />
Serviscope Minor<br />
Oven Thermosta tic ally T 1 For A9.3 atiii),<br />
controlled, incubator type<br />
range 0-360°C +<br />
Paper *B1ack, 100 mm P 5 sheets For 2.1 LS<br />
X 100 mm<br />
*Co1oured, 10 mm P 15 of For .6&3.13 LS<br />
diameter discs of each<br />
three different<br />
colours<br />
Filter, grade 1 P 2 packs For 2.1, A9.3b(ii)<br />
disc, 110 mm andA9.7<br />
Filter, grade 1 P 10 For A9.3a(iii)<br />
250 mm square<br />
21
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Paper **Filter, grade 3 T 1 pack See Appendix 2<br />
(continued) disc, 125 mm 'Drosoph ila'<br />
Graph T 1 ream LS<br />
Towel or tissues T 1 roll For 6.14 LS<br />
*"White, 100 mm P 5 Alternative to LS<br />
square white tile for A3.9<br />
*White, 300 mm P 20+ For6.A7.6b(ii) and LS<br />
X 200 mm sheets !:-A 7.9<br />
White, 400 mm P 30+ For AIL 2a,b,c LS<br />
X 200 mm sheets<br />
Paper clip P 1 box For A9.3 a(iii) LS<br />
PEEL model kit GG No. S33- TI-2 For Section 9 GGSEA<br />
450/015<br />
Pendulum bob 12.5 mm, NP item T 1 ForA4.11 GGPH<br />
131D<br />
25mm P 2-5 ForA7.14b,c GGPH<br />
50 mm, NP item T 1 ForA4.11 GGPH<br />
131B<br />
*Bobs of different P 10-15 For 7.76d GGPH<br />
masses<br />
Petri dish Plastic disposable P 20+ For6.A3.13, CEPGG<br />
90 mm diameter 66.19,11.6 and PH<br />
12.1.<br />
Steralin require a Steralin<br />
minimum order<br />
of 500<br />
Photocell Photodiode or T2 For A7.14b,c GGPH<br />
phototransistor<br />
(OCP 71)<br />
Photographic Tri-X or Plus-X T 2+ For multiflash LS<br />
film 20 exposure photography<br />
cassette, Kodak<br />
Photographic E.g., Mono bath, T 150 crrr' See Appendix 1 LS<br />
processing Kodak 'Multiflash'<br />
equipment photography<br />
Pipe cleaner ** P 1 roll Alternative to GGLS<br />
toothpicks for<br />
model making.<br />
Packets may be<br />
purchased locally<br />
22
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Pipette Glass, 1 cm' P5 For.&.3.8<br />
Glass, 25 ern" P 5 For.&.3.9 and&3.10<br />
Pipette filler P 5 For use with GG<br />
pipettes at all<br />
times<br />
Plant pot *100 mm diameter, P 20-30 For.&.6.76c LS<br />
clay<br />
**180 mm diameter, P 10-30 For 6.6.6.9 and LS<br />
clay 10.3<br />
Plastic bag *Polythene, to P 30-60 For 6.6.6.9 and LS<br />
contain plants in 10.3<br />
pots<br />
Plastic foam ** Supply See Appendix 2<br />
stoppers 'Drosophila'<br />
Plasticine P 1 kg<br />
Pliers T I pair For crushing bromine<br />
capsules in Discussion<br />
following eLl S and<br />
for.&.7.l6 LS<br />
Polystyrene **Approximately P5 For.&.3.5 and LS<br />
beaker or cup 250 cm 3 .&.3.6.From local<br />
wholesaler and<br />
other shops<br />
Polystyrene 12.5 mm, made up T8 For models used in GGPH<br />
sphere **12.5 mm, made up T 100 Section 9 GGPH<br />
**38 mm, loose P 5 Alternative to table GGPH<br />
tennis ball<br />
38 mm, made up T8 For models used in GGPH<br />
**38 mm, made up T 24 Section 9 GGPH<br />
45 mm, made up T8 25 mm spheres are GGPH<br />
alternative to<br />
**45 mm, made up T 44 45 mm spheres GGPH<br />
Polythene strip * T I For electrostatics GGPH<br />
in .&.8.56d and<br />
~8.7<br />
Polythene tile Approxima tely T 1 For 8.9. Alternative LS<br />
0.5 m square is polystyrene ceiling<br />
tile<br />
23
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Pooter * P5 See Appendix 2<br />
'Tribolium'<br />
Proof plane T 1 For 8.9 GGPH<br />
Protractor P 5-10<br />
Pulley Single sheave, P 10 ForAI1.2a GGPH<br />
mounted on clamp<br />
NP item 40<br />
Pump **Filter type, water PI-2 ForA9.3a(ii)<br />
operated<br />
Foot pump and T I ForA4.7 and<br />
adaptor A7.17a<br />
Vacuum/ T I For 7.7b and<br />
compression A7.16<br />
Puzzle *Metallink type P5 For 2.5. Almost LS<br />
any simple puzzle<br />
will suffice<br />
Railway track O-gauge T5 ForA4.5. Used LS<br />
lengths with flat truck in<br />
speed of air-gun<br />
pellet experiment<br />
Resistor 1.5 kn, 0.5 W P 2-5 ForA8.2a RS<br />
Retort stand P5<br />
Rheostat 10-15 n P 5 For A8.2b(i) and<br />
A8.3b(ii)<br />
Rose **Water sprinkler P 10 ForA10.6 LS<br />
Rubber ball E.g. tennis ball P5 ForA7.19a LS<br />
Rubber band 6-12 mm wide and Supply For~7.9, A7.17c, LS<br />
assorted sizes 10.3, AI1.2c and<br />
11.11<br />
Rubber foam Foam blocks Supply For A7.15, used LS<br />
with dynamics<br />
trolleys<br />
Rubber glove Household or T 1-2 For Discussion GG LS<br />
surgical pairs afterA7.15 and<br />
forA7.16<br />
24
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Rubber tubing 'Standard' 6 mm T 15-20 m<br />
internal diameter<br />
Thick walled T 0.5 m ForA7.16 and<br />
pressure tubing A7.17b<br />
Rule **300 mm (1 ft) P5 ForA7.17c LS<br />
Runway *2.5 m long, T 1 ForA7.116b LS<br />
grooved along one<br />
edge, fitted with<br />
clips and gates<br />
for 25 mm sphere<br />
Safety goggles T 1 pair ForA4.7 GGPH<br />
Safety screen Perspex or safety T 1-2 For Discussion after GG PH<br />
glass, 750 mm X A7. 15, and A7. 16<br />
600 mm,<br />
approxima te1y<br />
Scaler Should include two T 1 GGPH<br />
Dekatron tubes and Panax<br />
mechanical register,<br />
with built in 1 000 Hz<br />
oscillator, and<br />
voltage supply for<br />
GM tube. NP item<br />
130/1<br />
Scalpel * P5 For 6.A6.9<br />
Scissors Dissection, fine, P 5 pairs For 6.14<br />
straight<br />
*Laboratory P 5 pairs For 2.1 GGPH<br />
sissors, 180 mm<br />
Section lifter * P5 For 6.A6.13. GGGH<br />
Alternative, PH<br />
spatula<br />
Seed label * P 30+ For A6. 7~c and LS<br />
~6.9<br />
Seed tray Plastic or wood, P 2-5 For 6.10 and<br />
360 mm X 220 mm AI0.6<br />
X 50 mm,<br />
approximately<br />
25
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Self-adhesive Transparent, P 2 rolls LS<br />
tape plastic, e.g.<br />
Sellotape<br />
Sieve *I mm aperture P 2-3 For sieving LS<br />
(mesh, BS 16) Tribolium cultures<br />
e.g. wire mesh in646.13<br />
tea strainers<br />
Slotted base NP item 30 P 10 ForA 11.2a GGPH<br />
Solid state **NP item 130/4 T 1 For 648.6 and GGPH<br />
detector and b.lt..8.7<br />
preamplifier<br />
Spark counter T 1 ForA8.5c and GGPH<br />
b.lt..8.7<br />
Spatula Nickel or P5<br />
stainless steel<br />
Specimen tube *75 mm X 25 mm P 60 For 646.9 and<br />
646.13<br />
* 150 mm X 25 mm P 60 For 646.13 and for<br />
etheriser construction<br />
Specimen tube *E.g. test tube P5 For6A6.13<br />
rack rack<br />
Sphere Table tennis ball T 1 For 8.11.<br />
with conducting Alternative<br />
surface on nylon metallised<br />
suspension polystyrene sphere.<br />
Use Aquadag not<br />
aluminium paint,<br />
if home made<br />
*Table tennis ball P5 For 647.6<br />
or polystyrene<br />
sphere<br />
*Wooden sphere, PlO For6A7.6b(i) GG<br />
32 mm diameter<br />
Spring Compression, P 1 For use with GGPH<br />
e.g. NP item 88 dynamics trolleys<br />
cut to 25 mm<br />
lengths<br />
26
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Stirring rod Glass P5 Home made from<br />
glass rod<br />
Stopclock Mechanical timer P5 Alternatives: stop<br />
watches, wrist watches<br />
with large seconds<br />
hand, or 1 large<br />
timer (e.g. sports<br />
training clock)<br />
String Fine (not P 1 ball For A7.19a and LS<br />
mechanics cord) A11.2a,b<br />
Stroboscope Motorised disc T 1 Used in multiflash GGPH<br />
or xenon flasher photography for ST<br />
4.2,A4.12, ,0.4.13,<br />
andA7.14d<br />
Test tube 100 mm X 16 mm P 30 It is suggested that<br />
all tubes should be<br />
hard glass (e.g.<br />
Pyrex) as they give<br />
better service than<br />
soda glass<br />
125 mm X 16 mm P 40<br />
125 mm X 16 mm P5 For A9.3<br />
with side arm<br />
150mmX16mm P 10 ForA9.7 GG<br />
graduated, 20 cm'<br />
X 0.1 crrr'<br />
150 mm X 25 mm P 20 For A9.3 a(i) and<br />
A11.7<br />
**150 mm X 25 mm P2 For A9.3a(ii)<br />
with side arm<br />
Test tube P5 For A3.2, 3.4<br />
holder and A9.2<br />
Test tube P5<br />
rack<br />
Thermometer 0-50°C P5 For A3.5 and A3.6<br />
-10to+110oC P5<br />
300 mm long<br />
27
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Thread Cotton P 1-2 LS<br />
reels<br />
Three dimensional NP item 11 T 1 For Discussion<br />
kinetic model kit following A7.15. A<br />
motor and cam are<br />
required if the model<br />
has not one built in<br />
Ticker tape Gummed Pl-2 For use in Sections<br />
reels 4 and 7. Buy the<br />
tape from the same<br />
supplier as the<br />
ticker timers<br />
Ticker timer 12 V, a.c. or d.c. P 2-5 For Sections 4 GGPH<br />
and 7. Low tension<br />
supply also required<br />
Tile Plain white P5 ForA3.9, A3.1 0<br />
and 11.6<br />
*White spotting P5 For 6.A11.8<br />
plastic or ceramic<br />
Tongs Crucible, T I pair For Discussion<br />
200 mm long part b following<br />
~11.4<br />
Toothpicks Wooden (cocktail T 1-2 For model making LS<br />
sticks) packs<br />
Translucent 1 m X 0.7 m T 1 For Discussion after<br />
screen approximately. A7.15, forA7.16,<br />
NP item 46/1<br />
A8.S~d and 6A.8.7<br />
Tray Approximately T I For second<br />
0.5 m square Discussion following<br />
with 50 mm deep A7.15. Make from<br />
sides wood battens with<br />
hardboard or plywood<br />
base<br />
Tripod P5<br />
Trolley For carbon T 1 ForA4.7 GGPH<br />
dioxide capsules<br />
28
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Trolley cord Used with dynamics P 30+ PH<br />
trolleys<br />
Trolley runway NP item 107 P 2-5<br />
Trough Plastic (lunch P 2-3 ForA4.3 LS<br />
box) 200 mm X<br />
100 mm X 75 mm<br />
approxima tely<br />
Truck attachment NP item 154/2 Tl For use with turn- GGPH<br />
table in A7.19d(ii)<br />
Turntable NP item 154/1 T 1 For A7.l9d(ii) GGPH<br />
Two dimensional Air table, blower T 1 For A4.12 and Ealing<br />
motion apparatus and pucks AS.11. Some form MLI<br />
of this eq uipment<br />
is required.<br />
Air pucks and T 1 set See Appendix 1 MLI<br />
glass plate 'Two dimensional<br />
motion apparatus'<br />
Self propelling T 1 set GG<br />
pucks and glass<br />
plate<br />
Solid C02 pucks T 1 set GGPH<br />
and glass plate<br />
U-tube *Approximately P 10 For 63.12<br />
10 crrr'<br />
Van de Graff NP item 60/1 T 1 ForA8.11<br />
generator<br />
Voltameter Gas voltameter T 1 For Discussion GGPH<br />
(Hoffmann) part c after 611.4<br />
Wash bottle Soft plastic P5 For 2.3, A2.4, A3.9,<br />
with plastic A3.10 and 10.3<br />
nozzle<br />
Watch glass 50 mm diameter P5 ForA9.2 and A9.7<br />
Water bath **1 000 crrr' Pl-2 For A9.3a(ii)<br />
approxima tely<br />
Water rocket Toy rocket or T 1 ForA4.7 LS<br />
plastic bottle<br />
fitted with<br />
bicycle inner<br />
tube valve<br />
29
Item Specification Quantity Notes Source<br />
Wax pencil "'e.g. Chinagraph P5 For66.19<br />
Wedge Wooden P 4-10 Used with trolley LS<br />
runways<br />
Weighing bottle ** E.g. 40 mm X P5 For titrations and<br />
20 mm diameter preparing standard<br />
solutions<br />
Winchester 2500 crrr' P 1 For A9.2 GGPH<br />
bottle **2 500 crrr' P 10 ForA 10.6 GGPH<br />
Wire Bare copper, TI-2 For 6Discussion<br />
24-26 s.W.g. reels after 6A4.4 and<br />
forAS.II<br />
Wooden block P Supply Used with trolley LS<br />
boards as trolley<br />
stops<br />
Wooden cube 10 mm X 10 mm P 200- For6AS.1O BF EA<br />
X 10 mm e.g. 1 000<br />
Tillich blocks<br />
30
Biological materials<br />
This list contains the biological materials which are suggested in<br />
the sample scheme. They are by no means exclusive and many<br />
alternatives exist which would be equally suitable for the work<br />
suggested. To this extent, then, all the materials in the list could<br />
be regarded as optional.<br />
Specimens are classified according to common names, but<br />
latinised names are also given. Where no common name exists only<br />
the latinised version is used.<br />
Item Quantity Notes Source<br />
Agar T 100-200 g *Powder for making culture media.<br />
Milk agar for 6A3.l3, Minimal<br />
medium for 66.19 and for<br />
Drosophila culture medium for<br />
6A6.13. Buy ready made tablets<br />
or powder for McConkey agar<br />
for 12.1. See Appendix 2 'Agar'<br />
Animals and plants Selection Living or preserved specimens<br />
or pictures of animals and<br />
plants for 6.6a, e.g, bird,<br />
preferably alive, such as a<br />
budgerigar or zebra finch;<br />
caterpillars, alive or colour<br />
photographs; fishes, alive,<br />
such as angel fishes, guppies,<br />
zebra fishes; frog or toad;<br />
Lithops, stone cactus, alive;<br />
mole, preserved or photograph;<br />
Sedum acre, wall<br />
pepper, preferably alive;<br />
stick insects, alive<br />
Blow-fly maggots P60 *For 2.1. Can be obtained GGGH<br />
(Calliphora sp.) from environment. See LS<br />
Appendix 2 'Calliphora'<br />
Bluebell bulb P Several **For 6.14, alternative to LS<br />
Locust for meiosis. Wild<br />
bluebells must be collected<br />
in February or March<br />
Bottle garden P Supply *Materials for making a bottle<br />
garden in 6A..II.12. For example,<br />
31
Item Quantity Notes Source<br />
Bottle garden large sweet jar; unsterilised<br />
(continued) compost and soil; various plants;<br />
and animals such as, snails,<br />
earthworms, beetles, woodlice<br />
Canadian pond weed<br />
(Elodea canadiensis)<br />
Supply For A 11.10. The gas produced<br />
by the plant is collected and<br />
analysed<br />
GH LS<br />
Gover, acyanogenic and P 5 of each *For .6&6.9, see Appendix 2 GG LS<br />
cyanogenic plants 'Clover'<br />
Compost, potting T 25 kg *For .6&6.9, e.g. John Innes no. 1 LS<br />
Compost, seed T 25 kg For 6.10, e.g. John Innes LS<br />
no 2. Also alternative to<br />
soil in A.6.7D.c<br />
Flour beetle, wild type T 1 culture *For .6&6.13. Alternatives are GGGH<br />
ebony variety (Tribolium of each Drosophila and mice. See PH<br />
castaneum) and red/brown variety Appendix 2 for culture details<br />
variety (T. castaneum)<br />
Fruit fly, long winged T 1 culture **For .6&6.13. Alternative to GGGH<br />
(++) and vestigial of each Tribolium. See Appendix 2 PH<br />
winged (vg vg) varieties variety for culture details<br />
(Drosophila melanogaster)<br />
Grass seed T 500 g **Used to grow patches of turf LS<br />
in seed boxes for 10.6<br />
Goundsel, rayed 1-2 *ForA6.7D.c PH<br />
(cultivated) and unrayed packets<br />
(wild) varieties of each<br />
(Senecio vulgaris) variety<br />
Hay Supply **For mouse culture in .6&6. 13 LS<br />
Herring roe, hard P 1-2 ForA6.4 LS<br />
Horse dung P 50g For 11.1 1 LS<br />
Locust,X instar, P5 For 6.14 GGGH<br />
male<br />
PH<br />
Milk powder, non fat T 1 tin *For .6&3.13. e.g. Cadbury's LS<br />
Marvel for making milk agar<br />
Mini-pond communities From <strong>Patterns</strong> 1, 3.4. For 12.1<br />
32
Item Quantity Notes Source<br />
Mouse T 2 pairs **For ~6.13. Breeding pairs GGGH<br />
with pure bred distinctive PH<br />
coat colours are required<br />
Mouse food Supply **Rat cake pellets from pet EDGG<br />
shops, or mouse diet FM GH LS<br />
from E. Dixon, or Oxoid<br />
41 B diet. Buy in bulk. E.<br />
Dixon supplies in 25 kg (~ cwt)<br />
sacks.<br />
Mud Supply **Mud or leaf mould from a LS<br />
stagnant pond for 12.1<br />
Oatmeal (breakfast oats) T 1 packet **For Drosophila culture medium LS<br />
Peat Supply **For mouse culture, buy in LS<br />
bulk<br />
Sawdust Supply *For 2.1 and alternative to LS<br />
peat for mouse culture<br />
Snail, common garden P 30 For~6.9 LS<br />
(Helix sp.)<br />
Snail shells P Supply For 6.6b. Colour photographs of LS<br />
(Cepea sp.) habitats in which individual shells<br />
were found are optional<br />
requirements. These photographs<br />
should be carefully matched<br />
with the appropriate shells.<br />
Snapdragon seeds P 5 fruits For &6.4 LS<br />
(Antirrhinum sp.)<br />
Soil Supply For&6.7.6.c and for'" 10.6 LS<br />
Sugar, soft brown T 50-100 g **For Drosophila culture medium LS<br />
Tomato seeds T 1 set For 6.10. This is PGL 2 GH<br />
stem colour<br />
Tradescantia sp. P 1-2 **For 6.14. Alternative to PH<br />
plants locust. T. paludosa is best<br />
Turf P Supply **ForAIO.6. Best to grow seed LS<br />
in trays<br />
Water louse tAseilus sp.} P Supply For 12.1 LS<br />
33
Item Quantity Notes Source<br />
Wholemeal flour T 500 g *For Tribolium culture medium LS<br />
Wood shavings Supply **Alternative to hay for mouse LS<br />
culture. Must not have been<br />
contaminated by wild mice.<br />
Yeast, dried TIX125g For "'9.3 b(i) and culture LS<br />
(4 oz) tin requirem ents<br />
Yeast, haploid (ad) strain T 1-2 *For 66.19 PH<br />
(Saccharomyces cultures<br />
cerevisiae)<br />
34
Chemicals<br />
The chemicals are listed according to their systematic names.<br />
However, since systematic nomenclature is not yet fully used, some<br />
items have been categorised according to semi-systematic or even<br />
common names. In all cases where other commonly used names<br />
exist, these are included in the 'other names' column of the table.<br />
Where italics occur in this column, they are systematic names.<br />
To help in ordering chemicals, the source refers to the minimum<br />
quantities supplied. Most chemicals are available from all suppliers.<br />
When chemicals are generally supplied in the minimum quantity stated,<br />
no supplier codes are included in the 'source' column. Should only a<br />
small quantity of a particular substance be required it may prove<br />
cheaper and more convenient to purchase analytical quality rather<br />
than general purpose reagents.<br />
Hazards are coded in the 'hazard' column. Where the code letter<br />
is in upper case (capital), a reference will be found in Appendix 4.<br />
The codes used are:<br />
aor A<br />
c orC<br />
for F<br />
gorG<br />
oorO<br />
p orP<br />
rorR<br />
allergy hazard/ carcin ogenic<br />
corrosive<br />
fire risk<br />
gas cylinder<br />
oxidising/reducing agent<br />
poison<br />
radioactive<br />
The absence of a code for any particular substance does not imply<br />
that there is no hazard associated with it, but that if handled properly<br />
any hazard is minimal.<br />
35
36<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Acetic acid CH3COOH Ethanoic acid C P 150 cm'<br />
Aceto-carmine P 50 cm'<br />
Aceto-orcein P 50 crrr'<br />
Americium 241Am R T I<br />
Ammonium NH40H Ammonia 0.880 CP T 700 crrr'<br />
hydroxide s.g.<br />
Ammonium iron (NH4hS04' Iron alum, P40g<br />
(III) sulphate Fe2(S04 h. ferric alum<br />
(VI) 24H2O<br />
Amyl acetate CH 3 COO. Pentyi ethanoate T 20 cm'<br />
CSHll<br />
Aniline C6HSNH2 Phenylamine P T I crrr'<br />
Azolitmin TIg<br />
Barium Ba(OHh·8H2O P T 3S g<br />
hydroxide<br />
Benedict's solution P 500 cm'<br />
Benzoic acid C6HS COOH P 50 g<br />
Bismuth (III) BiCI3 Bismuth c P5g<br />
chloride trichloride<br />
Bromine Br CF T 2 capsules<br />
P 1-2<br />
capsules<br />
4-Bromophenol Br.C6H4.OH P 50 g
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
Used as 1 M solution in &3.6 and 500 cm 3 MB<br />
for making acetic alcohol and<br />
aceto-carmine stain<br />
Stain in small dropper bottle for 25 ern" GH<br />
6.14. Buy ready made or make from<br />
ingredients. See Appendix 3<br />
**Alternative to aceto-carmine for 25 cm' GH<br />
6.14 - buy ready made or make from<br />
ingredients - see Appendix 3<br />
**Sealed a source forA8.5, 6A8.6 and GGPH<br />
6A8.7. Alternative to 239pU<br />
Used as {-- strength and 2 M 2250 cm' MB<br />
solution in Discussion after A7.15<br />
and in A7.16<br />
In small dropper bottle for 6.14 250 g. GHHW<br />
0.8 M. See Appendix 3<br />
**For 6A8.1 0 and for sticking 500 cm 3<br />
polystyrene spheres<br />
Used in locating agent for A9.3a(iii) 250 cm 3<br />
For making litmus indicator. See 1 g<br />
Appendix 3<br />
ForA3.7 100 g GH<br />
In dropper bottle for A9.3 a. Buy ready 500 ern"<br />
made or make from ingredients.<br />
See Appendix 3<br />
For 3.4 250 g BDH GG HW<br />
ForA 11.7 25 g HW<br />
For bromine diffusion experiments 12 X 1 ern" HW PH<br />
For making bromine water<br />
*For 5.36.b 25 g<br />
PH<br />
37
38<br />
Name Formulae Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Bromothymol T 250 mg<br />
blue<br />
Butan-l-ol CH3(CH2h. n-butyl alcohol f PlOD cm'<br />
OH<br />
Butoxybutane [CH3(CH2hh. Di-n-butyl ether f P 50 crrr'<br />
0<br />
Calcium CaC03 PIOg<br />
carbonate<br />
Calcium eaCh .6H2O Tig<br />
chloride<br />
Calcium Ca(OHh Slaked lime T 100 g<br />
hydroxide<br />
Carbon CO2 G T 1-4<br />
dioxide<br />
T I cylinder<br />
Carmine Tlg<br />
Charcoal C Carbon T2g<br />
Cobalt 6OCo R T 1<br />
Congo red<br />
T 0.1 g<br />
Copper (II) CuC03 Cupric carbonate PIOg<br />
carbonate<br />
Copper (II)<br />
oxide CuO Cupric oxide; black PIOg<br />
copper oxide<br />
Copper (II) CUS04. Cupric sulphate T40g<br />
sulphate (VI) 5HzO<br />
Diethyl ether (CH3CH2)20 Ethoxyethane; ether F P 175 cm'<br />
T 100 cm 3<br />
Di-iso-propyl [(CH 3 )2 CH] 2 .1-methylethoxy-1- f P 50 crrr'<br />
ether 0 methylethane<br />
1, 3- C6H4· m-dinitro benzene P 25-50 g<br />
Dinitrophenol (N02 )2
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
**For making Yamada's indicator 1 g GHHW<br />
For 5.3 and for locating agent in 500 cm 3<br />
••..9.3<br />
For ••..9.2 500 cm' BDHHW<br />
For "'3.2 500 g GH<br />
**For producing Ringer's solution. 500 g BDHGG<br />
See Appendix 3 HW<br />
For lime water production 500 g GH<br />
Capsules for "'4.7 LS<br />
**Siphon cylinder to produce dry ice 1 cylinder BDH BOC<br />
**For preparing aceto-carmine stain. 5g BDHGG<br />
See Appendix 3 HW<br />
**Decolourising charcoal for 500 g<br />
preparation of Feulgen's stain<br />
*Sealed'Y source for 6A.8.6 and 6A.8.7 GGPH<br />
*For"'2.7 5g MBPH<br />
For"'3.2<br />
100 g<br />
For"'3.2 25 g BDH<br />
**For making Benedict's solution 250 g<br />
For 3.4 and "'9.2 500 cm' HW<br />
For locating agent and etherisers<br />
For "'9.2 1 000 crrr' BDHHW<br />
*For 5.36.b 50 g PH<br />
39
40<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Eluent P 25-50 cm 3<br />
Ethanol CH3CH2OH Ethyl alcohol; f P 175 cm 3<br />
meths; methylated T 150 crn '<br />
spirit, IMS<br />
T 10 cm 3<br />
Ethyl CH 3 COO. Ethyl ethanoate T 80 crrr'<br />
acetate C2 HS T 10 cm 3<br />
Fehling B P 50 cm 3<br />
solution<br />
Feulgen's stain Schiff's reagent T 100 crn '<br />
Fly spray p T 1 spray<br />
Fuchsin Fuchsine T 0.5 g<br />
Gelatine P40g<br />
Glucose C6H1206 Dextrose; P 50 g<br />
p-glucose<br />
Hydrochloric HCI Spirits of salts C P 400 cm '<br />
acid T 50 cm '<br />
Iodine CP P5g<br />
Iron Fe PI0g<br />
Iron (II) FeS04. Ferrous sulphate P2g<br />
sulphate (VI) 7H2O Pig<br />
Iron (III) Fe2(S04 h Ferric sulphate P2g<br />
SUlphate (VI)<br />
Lead Pb T 1 kg<br />
Litmus P 1 bottle<br />
indicator<br />
Litmus P 1 book<br />
indicator paper of each<br />
type
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
For 69.3 at iii). See Appendix 3<br />
For 3.4 and 69.2<br />
For 70% alcohol and acetic alcohol.<br />
See Appendix 3<br />
**For68.5<br />
For eluent in 69.3a(iii). See Appendix 3<br />
**For 668.10, alternative to amyl acetate<br />
For 12.1. See Appendix 3<br />
For 6.14, alternative to acetocarmine.<br />
See Appendix 3<br />
**Used for dealing with escaped Drosophila<br />
**Basic fuchsin stain for making Feulgen's<br />
stain. See Appendix 3<br />
*For 63.12<br />
For69.3<br />
Various uses<br />
**For 668.10 and for Feulgeri's stain<br />
For 11.5<br />
Fine powder for 63.2<br />
0.0089 M solution for 12.1<br />
*Used as 0.1 M solution in 66 11.8<br />
*Used as 0.1 M solution in 66 11.8<br />
Lead shot for Discussion following<br />
67.15<br />
In dropper bottle for 63.10 and 11.6.<br />
Make from azolitmin or buy ready made<br />
For 11.11<br />
2 250 crrr' BDH GG<br />
500 cm 3 GG HWPH<br />
500 crrr' GG HWPH<br />
100 cm' GGGHHW<br />
1 can LS<br />
5g PH<br />
250 g GH<br />
500 g<br />
2500 crrr'<br />
25 g GH<br />
250 g HW MB PH<br />
500 g GG GH MB<br />
250 g HWPH<br />
500 g<br />
100 cm 3<br />
12 books<br />
41
42<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Locating agent f P supply<br />
Magnesium Mg f PIOg<br />
Magnesium MgC03 + PIOg<br />
carbonate H2O<br />
Magnesium MgO Magnesia PIOg<br />
oxide<br />
Maleic acid CH(COOH): cis-bu ten edioic P 50-75 g<br />
CH2COOH acid<br />
Maltose Cn H22 011• PIg<br />
H2O<br />
Mercury Hg Quicksilver P T 100 g<br />
Methanol CH30H Methyl alcohol f P 175 cm 3<br />
Methyl orange Tlg<br />
Methyl red T 62.5 rng<br />
Naphthalene CIOHS f P 25-50 g<br />
Nickel NiC03 PIOg<br />
carbonate<br />
Nipagin C6 H4 (OH). Methyl p-hydroxy p T 5 g<br />
COO.CH3 benzoate<br />
Nitric acid HN03 Nitric (V) acid CO P 50 crrr'<br />
4-nitrotoluene CH3.C6H4· Methyl-4- P P 25-50 g<br />
N02<br />
nitrobenzene;<br />
p-nitrotoluene<br />
Orcein T2g<br />
Paraffin Liquid paraffin T 50 crrr'<br />
Phenolphthalein P 500 mg<br />
Phenosafranine PIg<br />
T 500 mg
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
For A9.3a(iii). See Appendix 3<br />
Ribbon form 25 g<br />
ForA3.2 500 g<br />
ForA3.2 500 g<br />
ForA9.7 100 g MB<br />
Used as 1% solution in A9.3a(iii) 25 g HWMB PH<br />
**Used as index in capillary tubes in 100 g BDHGHHW<br />
A7.17c<br />
For 3.4 and A9.2 500 cm'<br />
For colouring sulphuric acid in 5g GH<br />
A11.10<br />
**For making Yamada's indicator 5g<br />
For 5.3a 250 g GG<br />
ForA3.2 100 g GHHWPH<br />
** For Drosophila culture medium, used 100 g BDH<br />
as fungicide<br />
For 1 M solution in A3.5 and 6A3.11 . 500 cm 3 BDHHW<br />
*For 5.36b 250 g GG<br />
**For making aceto-orcein 1 g HW<br />
For A 11.10. Approximately 0.88 s.g. 2 500 crrr'<br />
ForA2.7 andA3.7. Used as 0.05% 25 g BDH GG GH<br />
solution<br />
**For making Yamada's indicator<br />
Stain in dropper bottle, used as 5g BDH<br />
1% solution in 12.1<br />
43
44<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Phenyl C6H4(OH). Salol P 25-50 g<br />
salicylate COO.C6HS<br />
Phthalic acid C6H4• Benzene-I ,2-dicar- T 1.6 g<br />
(COOH)2 boxylic acid<br />
Platinum Pt T 100 mm<br />
Plutonium 239pu R T 1<br />
Potassium K2C03 P 30 g<br />
carbonate<br />
Potassium KCI Tig<br />
chloride<br />
Potassium K2Cr04 P2g<br />
chromate<br />
Potassium K2 Cr207 Potassium P5g<br />
dichromate bichromate<br />
Potassium K2S2o, Potassium T 1.5 g<br />
disulphate (VI) metabisulphite<br />
Potassium K3Fe(CN)6 Potassium T 35 g<br />
hexacyanof erra te ferricyanide<br />
(III)<br />
Potassium KHC03 Potassium bicarbonate; P 50g<br />
hydrogen potassium acid<br />
carbonate carbonate<br />
Potassium COOH.CHOH. T 175 g<br />
hydrogen CHOH.COOK<br />
tartrate<br />
Potassium KOH Caustic potash C P 150 g<br />
hydroxide<br />
Potassium KI P 20g<br />
iodide<br />
Potassium KN03 Saltpetre; nitre 0 Pig<br />
nitrate
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
*For 5.36b 100 g HW<br />
For locating agent 250 g BDH GGHW<br />
Wire for electrodes in electrolysis 25 mm HWPH<br />
of dilute sulphuric acid in<br />
Discussion part a following 611.4<br />
Sealed o-source for .&.8.5c,6d, GGPH<br />
6.&.8.6and 6.&.8.7.Alternative is<br />
241 Am<br />
Used as 1 M solution in 3.3 500 g BDHGGHW<br />
**For making Ringer's solution 250 g HW<br />
analytical quality<br />
Used as 0.1 M solution in 6.&.3.11and 11.6 100 g GH<br />
*Used as 0.1 M solution for 6.&.3.11 100 g GH<br />
**For making Feulgen's stain 500 g<br />
*Used as 0.1 M solution for 6.&.11.8 100 g<br />
For'&'11.10 500 g<br />
**For making Fehling B solution 250 g GG<br />
Mainly used as I M solution 500 g<br />
Used as 1 M solution in 11.5 100 g<br />
*Used with gelatine in 63.12 500 g<br />
45
46<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Potassium KSCN Potassium P 50 g<br />
thiocyanate sulphocyanide<br />
Propan-l-ol CH3(CH2h. n-propyl alcohol f P 50 cm 3<br />
OH<br />
Propan-2-o1 (CH3 h CHOH iso-propyl alcohol f T 60 cm 3<br />
Propanone (CH3hCO Acetone; dimethyl f T 10 cm 3<br />
ketone. DMK<br />
Pyridine CsHsN FP T 20 crrr'<br />
Pyrogallol C6H3(OHh Pyrogallic acid T 10-30 g<br />
Radium 226Ra R T I<br />
Ringer's solution T 1 tablet<br />
Silver nitrate AgN03 cp PIg<br />
Sodium Na F PSg<br />
Sodium Na2C03. Washing soda P 20 g<br />
carbonate 10H2O<br />
Sodium NaCI Common salt T40g<br />
chloride<br />
Sodium NaHC03 Sodium Tig<br />
hydrogen bicarbonate:<br />
carbonate bicarbonate of<br />
soda; acid sodium<br />
carbonate<br />
Sodium NaOH Caustic soda CP P 150 g<br />
hydroxide<br />
T 50-121 g<br />
Sodium picrate p P Supply<br />
paper<br />
Stains<br />
Supply
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
*Used as 0.5 M solution for f::;It.ll.8 100 g<br />
For "'9.2<br />
500 crrr'<br />
**Used as alternative eluent for ..•.9.3. 500 cm' GG<br />
See Appendix 3<br />
**Used as solvent for polystyrene spheres. 500 cm' GG MB PH<br />
See Appendix 1 'Molecular'models<br />
For eluent in ..•.9.3a(iii). See 100 cm' GGHW<br />
Appendix 3<br />
•<br />
For making potassium pyrogallate 25 g HW<br />
for "'11.10, resublimed<br />
*5 Me sealed source for ..•.8 .5c6d and GGPH<br />
f::;It.8.7<br />
For 6.14, make from ingredients. See 100 BDH GG PH<br />
Appendix 3 or buy tablets<br />
*Used as 0.1 Min 6A.I1.8 25 g<br />
For ..•.9.2 100 g GH<br />
For "'3.2 and ..•.9.7 1 kg<br />
Mainly used as saturated solution in ..•.11.10 I kg<br />
*For preparing Ringer's solution and 1 kg<br />
sodium picrate papers. See Appendix 3<br />
Several uses; buy technical grade<br />
pellets<br />
**For making Fehling B solution<br />
*For 6£6.9. See Appendix 3 for<br />
preparation.<br />
**Stains may be used for identifying mice.<br />
See Appendix 2 'Mice'<br />
500 g<br />
47
48<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Starch P2g<br />
Strontium 90Sr R T I<br />
Sugar Cl2 H22011 Cane sugar; T Supply<br />
sucrose<br />
Sulphuric H2SO4 Sulphuric (VI) COP P 120 cm'<br />
acid acid T 35 cnr'<br />
Tartaric acid (CHOH. 2, B-dihydro xy- T 95 g<br />
COOHh butanedioic acid<br />
Tetrachloro- CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride P P 125 em:'<br />
methane<br />
Thorium Th 4 + R Supply<br />
salts<br />
Thymol blue T25 mg<br />
Toluene C6HSCH3 Methylbenzene f P 10 cm 3<br />
p-toluidine CH3.C6H4• -t-methyl- P P 50 g<br />
NH2 phenylamine<br />
Toluidine blue-O Toluidine blue TIg<br />
Trichloro- CHCl3 Chloroform P P 50 crn,<br />
methane<br />
T 50 crrr'<br />
2, 4, 6-trinitro- (N0 2 )3· Picric acid PFA TIOg<br />
phenol C 6 H 2 OH<br />
Trisodium citrate N~3C6Hs07. T200 g<br />
2H 2O<br />
Trypsin Tig<br />
Universal P 100 cm '<br />
indicator<br />
Universal P 1 book<br />
indicator paper
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
Analytical grade, water soluble for A9.3 250 g BDHGHHW<br />
*Sealed source for L':lA8.6and ~8.7 1 GGPH<br />
For 12.1, household, could be brown LS<br />
sugar<br />
Several uses, mainly as 1 M solution 1 000 cm'<br />
Mainly as 0.3 M solution in A 11.10<br />
**Alternative to potassium hydrogen 250 g HW<br />
tartrate for Fehling B solution<br />
For 3.4 500 cm' GG HWPH<br />
*As available for 8.5L':.dand L':lA8.7 25 g BDHGGHW<br />
**For making Yamada's indicator 1 g HWMB<br />
*For~6.9 500 cm' GGPH<br />
*For 5.3L':.b 100 g BDH GG HW<br />
**Stain alternative to aceto-carmine 10 g BDHGGHW<br />
for 6.14<br />
For 11.5 250 cm 3 GH<br />
**For gluing polystyrene spheres and<br />
killing organisms<br />
*For making sodium picrate papers 100 g BDH GG HW<br />
for L':lA6.9.Do not allow to dry out<br />
as an explosion may occur<br />
**For making Benedict's solution 500 g BDH GGHW<br />
*Used as 4% solution in ~3.13 25 g<br />
Alternative is Yamada's indicator 25 crrr' BDH<br />
pH range 1-14 12 books BDH<br />
49
50<br />
Name Formula Other names Hazard Quantity<br />
required<br />
Uranium salts R Supply<br />
Uranyl nitrate U02(N03h. Uranyl (VI) R T I g<br />
6H2O nitrate (V)<br />
Wood splints P I pack<br />
Zinc Zn PIOg<br />
Zinc ZnC03 PIOg<br />
carbonate<br />
Zinc oxide ZnO PIOg
Notes Minimum Source<br />
quantity<br />
supplied<br />
*As available for 4.8.5 6d and 64.8.7<br />
**For 6&8.1 0 25 g PH<br />
GG<br />
Granulated, technical grade for4.3.2 250 g GH<br />
For 4.3.2 100 g GH<br />
For 4.3.2 500 g<br />
51
Geological specimens<br />
Item Quantity Notes Source<br />
Basalt P2 For S.2 and S.3c. From Rock GGPH<br />
set 1, <strong>Patterns</strong> 1 RP SB<br />
Fossils T 1 ** Archaeopteryx cast for A6.2 SB<br />
T 1-2 **Gryphaea, set of 4 casts showing SB<br />
sets evolution for A6.1 alternative to<br />
Micraster<br />
T 1 set Limbs of fossil horses, Nuffield SB<br />
part of set of 14 casts showing<br />
evolution of feet, for A6.1<br />
P 2 sets Micraster casts, set of 6 from one SB<br />
population of same species<br />
showing growth forA6.2<br />
P 2 sets Micraster casts, set of 6 SB<br />
showing evolution for A6.1<br />
Granite P2 For 5.3c. From Rock set 1 GGPH<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 1 RP SB<br />
Limestone, P2 ForA5.1. From Rock set 3 GGPH<br />
fossiliferous RP SB<br />
Marble P2 For A5.1. From Rock set 1, GGPH<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 1 RP SB<br />
Rock set 3 P 2 sets ForA5.6 GGPH<br />
Contents of set: RP SB<br />
Part a, from Man O'War Bay,<br />
labelled A, C, D, F<br />
A limestone containing marine<br />
fossils, Portland stone<br />
C coarse sand containing lignite,<br />
Wealden<br />
D dark grey, silty mud containing<br />
marine fossels, Gault clay<br />
F chalk<br />
52<br />
Part b , from Upper Swaledale, of<br />
carboniferous era, labelled X, Y, Z<br />
X light grey limestone containing<br />
marine fossils<br />
Y shale containing marine fossils<br />
Z coarse sandstone<br />
GG supply all three rock sets in<br />
one package
Item Quantity Notes Source<br />
Sandstone, P2 For"'S.1, e.g. fragments as in GGPH<br />
cemented (compacted) <strong>Patterns</strong> 2 RP SB<br />
Sandstone, porous P2 For "'5.1, e.g. fragments as in GGPH<br />
(loose) <strong>Patterns</strong> 2 RP SB<br />
Shale P2 For"'S.l. From Rock set 2, GGPH<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 2 RP SB<br />
Tuff P2 For 5.2 GGPH<br />
RP SB<br />
53
Teaching aids<br />
Item Description Source<br />
Advertisement *A selection of advertisements is required for 2.12.<br />
Pupils are asked to collect their own examples<br />
Chart *Drugs of abuse for 2.13<br />
600 million years of Earth history for Section 5<br />
Duplication<br />
Film<br />
54<br />
*Instruction sheets for A2.7<br />
**An approach to kinetic theory, for teachers for<br />
Discussion following A7.15<br />
**An approach to the electron, for teachers<br />
for A8.2<br />
Are there electrons, for 8.9<br />
**A roof over your heads; part 1, the tenants,<br />
for 13.1<br />
**A roof over your heads; part 2, the landlords,<br />
for 13.1<br />
**A roof over your heads; part 3, the law,<br />
forAl3.2<br />
**A roof over your heads; part 4, try buying it,<br />
for A13.2<br />
**Cathy come home, for 13.1<br />
**Conquest of the atom, for A8.11<br />
**Conservation and the balance of nature,<br />
for Discussion following 11.11<br />
**Drive again tomorrow, for 6A.7.21<br />
Experiments in force and motion, for teachers<br />
for Section 7<br />
**Fuel for the future, for 8.15<br />
**Further experiments in radioactivity, for teachers<br />
for use before AS.5<br />
**Introduction to radioactivity, for teachers for use<br />
before A8.5<br />
**Iso topes, forAS.12<br />
Momentum and collision processes, for teachers<br />
for Section 4<br />
**Mo toring practice, for6A7.21<br />
Rocks which originate underground, for 5.3d<br />
**Rutherford atom, for A8.11<br />
**Shelter youth education programme, for 13.1<br />
**Slum housing, for 13.1<br />
**Succession from sand-dune to forest, for 10.3<br />
LS<br />
CC<br />
Esso<br />
LS<br />
Esso<br />
Esso<br />
Rank<br />
Shelter<br />
Shelter<br />
Shelter<br />
Shelter<br />
Shelter<br />
Mullard<br />
IFB<br />
Shell & BP<br />
Esso<br />
Mullard<br />
Esso<br />
Esso<br />
UKAEA<br />
Esso<br />
Shell & BP<br />
Rank<br />
PSSC<br />
Shelter<br />
Shelter<br />
Rank
Item Description Source<br />
Film **The discovery of radioactivity, for 6.6.8.8 OECD<br />
(continued) ** The electron's tale, for A8.11 Mullard<br />
**The Forth Road Bridge, for Al1.3 Shell<br />
**The plow that broke the plain, for AI0.6 BFI<br />
The river must live, for 12.1 Shell/PFB<br />
**The Shelter story, for 13.1 Shelter<br />
** Winter driving, for 6.6.7.21 Shell & BP<br />
Film loop **Alpha particles, for 6.6.8.8 Macmillan<br />
8-mm cassette Are there electrons?, for 8.9 Rank<br />
type Aston's mass spectrograph, for A8.12 Mullard<br />
**Collision between golf club and ball, for A4.8 BBC<br />
**Collisions in a straight line, for Section 4 BBC<br />
**Falling bodies, for 6A.7.6 BBC/Gateway<br />
**Liquid/vapour equilibrium, NC 2-5, for 11.5 NC<br />
Meiosis, NBP-50, for 6.14 NB<br />
**Movement of the Earth's crust, for 6.6.5.7 NSS<br />
**Problems in the use of detergents, for A9.4 NAC<br />
Selection by predation, NBP-54, for A6. 7 NB<br />
**Solid/liquid equilibrium, NC 2-6, for 11.5 NC<br />
**Switching off gravity, for 6A.7.6 BBC<br />
**The breeding of roses, for 6.5 NSS<br />
The conservation of topsoil, for Al 0.6 NB<br />
**Trajectories and Newton's thought experiment, BBC<br />
for 6A.7.6<br />
**Transfer of momentum in collision with ground, BBC<br />
for 6A.4.1°<br />
** Volcanoes, for 5.2 NSS<br />
Film loop This is an 8-mm cassette film loop projector. LS<br />
projector Care must be taken that Super-8 loops are<br />
not shown on a Standard-8 projector, and<br />
vice versa<br />
Film projector A 16-mm projector is required LS<br />
Film strip **Background environments, for Section 13 VP<br />
**Garden environments, for Section 13 VP<br />
Inheritance and selection, for A6. 7b and NSS<br />
6A.6.16<br />
The architecture and properties of matter, SEA<br />
parts 1 & 2, for introductory discussions<br />
in Section 9 (also from GG under the title<br />
Fundamental chemistry)<br />
** Volcanic rocks, for 5.2 EB<br />
55
Item Description Source<br />
Film strip<br />
projector<br />
Photograph **Archaeopteryx for .6.2, T 1-2 BMNH<br />
For 6.14. Photographs showing meiotic NB<br />
stages, P 2- 5 sets<br />
Photographic **Before you get the bird get the cage, Shelter<br />
transparencies for "'13.2<br />
For 6.14. Photographic transparencies showing GGGH<br />
meiotic stages. A film strip is available from GG PH<br />
Thin sections of rocks: BMG<br />
For 5.1; desert sandstone, slide CT 91;<br />
foraminiferal limestone, slide CT 96;<br />
For S.3c; muscovite-biotite-granite, slide<br />
CT 102; olivine-basalt, slide CT 114<br />
Thin sections of rocks: Banta<br />
For 5.1; calcite mudstone, slide 39 CN;<br />
compacted and silicified sandstone, slide 36 CN;<br />
spotted slate with biotite, sericite, andalusite and<br />
quartz, slide 21 PPL;<br />
**For S.3c; olivine-basalt, slide 15 PPL, alternative to BMG<br />
specimen<br />
Volcanic activity for 5.2, sets T 90 and 90/A/l BMG<br />
Project brief Water rockets, for "'4.7 SCPT<br />
Record Dust bowl ballads, Woody Guthrie, LS<br />
Transatlantic 2011, for"'l 0.6<br />
**The bricklayer, Gerard Hoffnung, EP PFE 682 LS<br />
for Discussion following 7.7<br />
Record For Discussion following 7.7 and "'10.6 LS<br />
player<br />
Simulation **Tenement for 13.1 Shelter<br />
Game<br />
Slide For "'5.1,5.2, S.3c, 6.14 etc. LS<br />
projector<br />
Tape *Tape also required for 2.2 and as alternative LS<br />
recorder to buzzer for'" 2.4<br />
56
Books for pupils and teachers<br />
Background books for pupils, class sets required<br />
**Catalysis, NC, 1966 for .6.9.4<br />
Darwin and evolution, IS, for .6.6.7, 6.6.6.9 and .6.6.20<br />
**Earth patterns, IS, for 6A.5.7<br />
Fertilisers and farm chemicals, NC, 1966 for Discussion after 11.11<br />
*Human behaviour, IS for 2.1<br />
Human groups, IS, for .6.13.6<br />
Inside the atom, NC, 1966 for .6.8.11 and 8.15<br />
Man and the urban environment, IS, for 612.3 and 13.1<br />
**<strong>Patterns</strong> of reproduction, development and growth, IS, for .6.6.11<br />
Population patterns, IS, for.6.10.1 and 13.1<br />
Radioactive chemicals, NC, 1966 for .6.8.5, .6.8.11 and .6.8.14<br />
Radioactivity, LPT, 1971 for .6.8.5, .6.8.11 and 8.15<br />
Rocks and minerals, IS, for 5.3c<br />
Science and decision making, IS, for Sections 1, 9, 12 and 13<br />
**Sulphuric acid, NC, 1966 for 63.14<br />
The diversity of life, IS, for .6.6.1<br />
The nitrogen problem, NC, 1966 for Discussion after 11.11<br />
*What is an acid?, NC, 1966 for 63.14<br />
Reference books suggested for class library. Several of each are<br />
required<br />
0**Arvill, R. Man and environment, Penguin, 1967, for 612.3<br />
**Holliman, J. Consumers guide to the protection of the<br />
environment, Pan/Ballantine, 1971 , for .6.11.13 and 612.3<br />
**lange, D. and Taylor, P. An American Exodus: a record of human<br />
erosion, New York 1939, New Haven and London 1969, for .6.10.6<br />
_ Man and towns, Cape Jackdaw, for 6.6.13.5<br />
**<strong>National</strong> Council on Alcoholism, selection of booklets for 9.6<br />
Periodicals, books, etc. containing information concerning<br />
radioactivity for 8.16<br />
Programmed texts, a selection is required for .6.2.8<br />
**Society in Britain, series of books by Methuen, 1974, for .6.13.6<br />
**Steinbeck, J. The grapes of wrath, Heinemann, for .6.10.6<br />
Volcanoes, Cape Jackdaw, for 5.3d<br />
**Ward, B. and Dubos, R Only one Earth, Penguin, 1972, for .6.11.13<br />
57
58<br />
Books of data<br />
* Atlas, or maps showing North Yorkshire coast (e.g. OS 86 and 93)<br />
for 6&6.3<br />
Books for teachers<br />
*AEB Examination information<br />
**Agricultural statistics, HMSO<br />
**A health service for Milton Keynes, Milton Keynes Medical Planning<br />
Group, December 1968<br />
**Arvill, IV Man and environment, Penguin, 1967<br />
**Ausubef,~.P. and Robinson, E.G. School learning, Holt, Rinehart<br />
and Winston, 1969<br />
Bradshaw,M.J.A new geology, EUP, 1973<br />
Brady, C. 'Cowpats as an ecological habitat', School Science Review,<br />
June 1965<br />
**British road statistics, British Road Federation<br />
**Bruner, J.S. The process of education, Vintage books, 1960<br />
**Cattell, R.B. The scientific analysis ofpersonality, Penguin 1965<br />
Chemistry in Britain, vol. 6, no. 5<br />
Chern Study, Laboratory <strong>manual</strong><br />
**Collinge , E.R. 'River pollution', School Science Review,<br />
December 1972<br />
**Dower,_M. The fourth wave, for the Civic Trust<br />
**Handbook of statistics, HMSO<br />
**Holliman, J. Consumers guide to the protection of the environment,<br />
Pan/Ballantyne, 1971<br />
**Howard, E. Garden cities of tomorrow, Faber paperback<br />
**Huxley, A. Brave new world<br />
**Jardine, J. Nat Phil 5, Heinemann, 1973<br />
Jardine, J. Physics is fun, Book 2, Heinemann, 1966<br />
Jardine, J. Physics is fun, Book 3, Heinemann, 1966<br />
**Kerkut, G.A. The implications of evolution, Pergamon, 1960<br />
**Meriin, P.New towns, Methuen<br />
NAC Students' book 1 and Teachers' guide 1<br />
*NAC Students' book 2<br />
**<strong>National</strong> Council on Alcoholism, selection of booklets<br />
**Needs of new communities, HMSO<br />
NB Text and Teachers' Guide III<br />
NB Text and Teachers' Guide IV<br />
NB Text and Teachers' Guide V<br />
**Nicholson, J.H. New communities in Britain, <strong>National</strong> Council of
Social Service<br />
NC Collected Experiments<br />
NC Sample scheme stage II<br />
NP Guide to experiments and Teachers' guide III·<br />
NP Guide to experiments and Teachers' guide IV<br />
NP Guide to experiments and Teachers'guide V<br />
NSS Theme 2 Continuity of life<br />
NSS Theme 6 Movement<br />
NSS Theme 8 The Earth and its place in the Universe<br />
Ogborn, J. 'Momentum first: an alternative approach to Newtonian<br />
Dynamics', School Science Review, November 1965<br />
**Ormerod, M.B. The architecture and properties of matter, Arnold<br />
**Orwell, G. Animal farm, Penguin<br />
**Orwell, G.1984, Penguin, 1972<br />
**Osborn & Whittick, The new towns - answer to Megalopolis,<br />
Leonard Hill, 1969<br />
**Packard, V. The hidden persuaders, Penguin, 1960<br />
**Palaeontology and geological time, Open University, 2nd level<br />
course unit, 1971<br />
**Pearsall, W.H. Mountains and moorlands, Collins<br />
Road research, Road Research Laboratory, HMSO<br />
**Romer, A. Man and the vertebrates, Penguin<br />
Royal commission on environmental pollution, first report,<br />
HMSO, 1971<br />
Ryder, J. and Silver, H. Modern English society, Methuen, 1970<br />
*School Science Review, June 1972<br />
**Selltiz, C. et al. Research methods in social relations, Methuen, 1966<br />
**Shaffer, F. The new town story, Macgibbon and Kee, 1970<br />
**Standard industrial classifications, HMSO<br />
The use of ionising radiations in schools etc., DES Administrative<br />
memorandum 1/65<br />
**Thomas, R. Aycliff to Cumbernauld, PEP<br />
**Thomas, R. London's new towns, PEP<br />
**Town and country planning, January 1972<br />
**Town and country planning, Special issue, New towns come of age,<br />
January 1968<br />
Tricker, R.A.R. and Tricker, B.J.K. The science of movement,<br />
Mills and Boon<br />
**Tucker, H. Understanding the mass media; a practical approach for<br />
teaching, CUP, 1966<br />
**Ward, B. and Dubos, R. Only one Earth, Penguin, 1972<br />
**Young, J.Z. The life of vertebrates, OUP<br />
59
60<br />
Preparation guide<br />
Introduction<br />
The guide presents in tabulated form the requirements for the work<br />
of Sections 1-13 of part 3 of the sample scheme. Short notes are<br />
included where there seems a need and longer or more general points<br />
are explained in the appendixes.<br />
If information is given in the appendixes concerning individual<br />
pieces of equipment listed in the column headed 'Item', then a<br />
figure code is placed directly opposite the items, in the column<br />
headed 'App. ref.' (appendix reference). The figures used relate<br />
directly to the four appendixes.<br />
Appendix 1<br />
Appendix 2<br />
Appendix 3<br />
Appendix 4<br />
'Notes on apparatus',<br />
'Notes on biological materials',<br />
'Chemical preparations',<br />
'Hazards and precautions'.<br />
The 'Reference' column lists all the pieces of work in the order in<br />
which they appear in the Teachers' guide and Pupils' <strong>manual</strong>,<br />
although, in many cases there is no equipment required.<br />
The column marked 'Group', describes the nature of the working<br />
group using a particular item of equipment. 'T' represents teacher<br />
(i.e. demonstration) requirements. 'P' represents pupil requirements.<br />
This letter is usually followed by figures showing the number of<br />
pupils expected to be in a single work group. The letter 'A' indicates<br />
that access is required by teacher or pupil to a limited number of<br />
items shared between all the groups working.<br />
Asterisks occur in the 'Item' column to show optional pieces of<br />
equipment.<br />
Advance preparations are noted in the guide at appropriate time<br />
intervals before the investigations to which they refer. The time has<br />
been estimated at seven periods (one fifth of the school week) per<br />
week. The warnings will be incorrectly placed if more or less time is<br />
given to the course, or if a modified scheme is followed.<br />
These advance warnings are printed in half-tone strips across the<br />
columns of the table.
calendar<br />
This calendar is designed to aid technicians to prepare work for<br />
which materials are required in advance. Generally such materials<br />
are biological.<br />
It is assumed that the time allowance for the course is one fifth<br />
of the timetable (seven or eight periods) and that a term consists<br />
of ten full weeks.<br />
Asterisks indicate optional organisms.<br />
Week Summer term<br />
9 Section 1 'Recognising change' (~ week)<br />
9} 6Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (l} weeks)<br />
Required specimens: *Calliphora or other fly maggots for 2.1<br />
Autumn term<br />
o 6Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (1 remaining week)<br />
Section 3 'Changes in acidity' (2~ weeks)<br />
3~ Section 4 'Changes in motion l' (2 weeks)<br />
S~ Section 5 'Changes in the Earth' (2 weeks)<br />
Required specimens: Selection of rocks for.S.l, 5.2,5.3<br />
~ Required specimens: Rock set 3 for .5.6<br />
7} Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (4~ weeks)<br />
Required specimens: Micraster fossils (evolutionary series),<br />
limbs of fossil horses, **Gryphea fossils<br />
(evolutionary series) for .6.1<br />
Micraster fossils (development series),<br />
**Archaeopteryx cast for .6.2<br />
8 Required specimens: fish roe or alternative for .6.4<br />
specimens of animals and plants, shells<br />
of Cepea for 6.6<br />
seeds of rayed and unrayed groundsel for<br />
·6.7<br />
9 Required specimens: *Clover plants and Helix for ~6.9<br />
Tomato seeds or seedlings for 6.10<br />
61
62<br />
Spring term<br />
o Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (2 remaining weeks)<br />
Required specimens: "Tribolium castaneum or **Drosophila or<br />
**mice for 6A.6.13<br />
Locust testes or alternatives for 6.14<br />
1 Required specimens: *Haploid (ad) strain yeast for 6.19<br />
2 Section 7 'Changes in motion 2' (3 weeks)<br />
5 Section 8 'Changes in atoms' (3 weeks)<br />
8 Section 9 'Changes in molecules' (2 weeks + ~ 1 week)<br />
Summer term<br />
o Section 10 'Changes in populations and communities' ( 1 week)<br />
Required specimens: **Turf for "'10.6<br />
Section 11 'Stability' (3 weeks)<br />
3 Required specimens: horse dung for 11.11<br />
4 Section 12 'Changes in the environmen t' (2} weeks)<br />
Required specimens: Asellus or alternative for 12.1 and<br />
miniponds from <strong>Patterns</strong> 1, Section 3<br />
~ Section 13 'Changes in society' (~ week)
Composite calendar for the whole of the sample scheme<br />
This calendar summarises the contents of the individual calendars<br />
found in all four Technicians' <strong>manual</strong>s 1-4. It should be of particular<br />
use in schools where three year-groups of pupils are following the<br />
scheme.<br />
Full details of advance preparations and required specimens are<br />
to be found in the Technicians'<strong>manual</strong> whose number is given against<br />
each entry in the calendar.<br />
Week Manual<br />
o 1<br />
I! 2<br />
2<br />
4<br />
2<br />
2<br />
4<br />
2 2<br />
3 1<br />
1<br />
3l 4<br />
2<br />
4 1<br />
1<br />
5 1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
2<br />
Summer term<br />
Autumn term<br />
Section 1 '<strong>Patterns</strong> and problems' (l} weeks)<br />
Section 13 'Motion' (1 remaining week)<br />
6 Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (1 remaining week)<br />
Section 14 'Classifying building blocks' (4 weeks)<br />
Required specimens: invertebrates for .14.1<br />
plants for .14.3<br />
Section 3 'Changes in acidity' (2}weeks)<br />
Section 2 'Galaxies, planets, and the Earth' (1} weeks)<br />
Required specimens: miniponds for .14.5<br />
Section 3 'Communities and populations' (2 weeks)<br />
Required specimens: set up miniponds in 3.4<br />
Section 4 'Changes in motion l' (2 weeks)<br />
Required specimens: Drosophila for .3.7b<br />
Tribolium for 3.8<br />
Section 4 'Looking at organisms' (2} weeks)<br />
Required specimens: Paramecium for 4.1<br />
*small animals for l2.A.4.5<br />
Section 15 'Distribution of building blocks' (1 week)<br />
63
64<br />
5l 4 Section 5 'Changes in the Earth' (2 weeks)<br />
2<br />
6 Required specimens: Drosophila and Coleus etc. for 4.9<br />
*Serratia marc escens for 1'A.l 0<br />
3 Section 1 'Transferring energy' (5~ weeks)<br />
7 Required specimens: barley or tomato seedlings for<br />
~4.11<br />
*mice for64.13<br />
7l Section 5 'Cells and more cells' (1 week)<br />
2<br />
Required specimens: Elodea for 5.1<br />
Amoeba for .5.2<br />
4 Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (4~ weeks)<br />
8 4 Required specimens: fish roe for .6.4<br />
4 animals and plants; Cepea for 6.6<br />
4 groundsel seeds for. 6.7<br />
& 1 Section 6 'Molecules' (34 weeks)<br />
2<br />
9 4 Required specimens: *clover and Helix for L'lA.6.9<br />
4 tomato seeds for 6.10<br />
10 1 Required specimens: rhubarb or onion for L'lA.6.12<br />
Spring term<br />
0 1 Section 6 'Molecules' (1 remaining week)<br />
3 Section 1 'Transferring energy' (1~ remaining weeks)<br />
3 Required specimens: *eyes for L'lA.1.24and L'lA.1.25<br />
4 Section 6 'Changes in organisms' (2 remaining weeks)<br />
4 Required specimens: *Tribolium or Drosophila or<br />
mice for L'lA.6.13<br />
4 locust testes for 6.14<br />
4 Required specimens: *Haploid (ad) yeast for 66.19<br />
Il 3 Section 2 'Energy and particle interactions' (64 weeks)<br />
2<br />
2 1 Section 7 'Atoms and giant structures' (3~ weeks)<br />
4 Section 7 'Changes in motion 2' (3 weeks)<br />
4 3 Required specimens: *chicken leg for 62.7<br />
3<br />
hearts for .2.8
5:!.<br />
2<br />
4 Section 8 'Changes in atoms' (3 weeks)<br />
1 Section 8 'The electron, ions and giant structures'<br />
(3 weeks)<br />
6 3 Required specimens: small organisms for A2.22<br />
7 3 Required specimens: lungs for A2.25<br />
8 1 Required specimens: Lemna for 8.19<br />
1 turf for L:,A8.20<br />
3 Section 3 'Energy and electricity' (4 weeks)<br />
4 Section 9 'Changes in molecules' (2 weeks + 6.1 week)<br />
~ 2 Section 9 'Competition and predation' (Ii weeks)<br />
2<br />
2 Required specimens: barley for 9.1<br />
2 *Drosophila, or alternatives<br />
for A9.26.b<br />
9 2 Required specimens: barley for A9.4<br />
2 Daphnia and Hydra for 9.7<br />
2 *parasites and **dogfish for 6.9.8<br />
2 *parasitised caterpillars for A9.1 0<br />
Summer term<br />
0 2 Section 10 'Particle interactions' (4 weeks)<br />
3 Section 3 'Energy and electricity' (2 remaining weeks)<br />
4 Section 10 'Changes in populations and communities'<br />
(1 week)<br />
4 Required specimens: **turf for A 10.6<br />
1 4 Section 11 'Stability' (3 weeks)<br />
3 3<br />
4<br />
4<br />
2<br />
Required specimens: miniponds for 4.8<br />
Required specimens: horse dung for 11.11<br />
Section 11 'Electrical interactions' (2i weeks)<br />
65
66<br />
3 Required specimens: plants for 4.12 to ~4.17<br />
3 coal residues for "'4.18<br />
4 Section 12 'Changes in the environment' (2~ weeks)<br />
4 Required specimens: Asellus and Miniponds for 12.1<br />
S 3 Section S 'Using energy efficiently' (4~ weeks)<br />
6!- 2 Section 12 'Earth, water and organism interactions'<br />
2<br />
(3 weeks)<br />
4 Section 13 'Changes in society' (~week)<br />
7 3 Required specimens: model food chain for "'S.12<br />
8 3 Required specimens: fly maggots for "'S.16e<br />
3 *kidneys for b,AS.20<br />
9 4 Section 1 'Recognising change' (~week)<br />
9! 2 Section 13 'Motion' (It weeks + 61} weeks)<br />
2<br />
4 6Section 2 'Changes in behaviour' (I~ weeks)<br />
4 Required specimens: *fly maggots for 2.1
68<br />
Section 1 Recognising change<br />
Time required iweek<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
1.1<br />
Looking for change<br />
Discussion<br />
Defining 'change'<br />
1.2<br />
Car travel<br />
1.3<br />
Sickness<br />
1.4 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book,<br />
Planning for change Science and decision<br />
making
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required for 1.2 or 1.3.<br />
Either 1.2 or 1.3 will be carried out.<br />
69
70<br />
6Section 2 Changes in behaviour<br />
Time required l~ weeks<br />
Required organisms:<br />
For Investigation 2.1, Calliphora (blow-fly) or other fly maggots.<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
2.1 P2 12 Calliphora (blow-fly) or 2<br />
Burrowing behaviour other fly maggots<br />
of Calliphora P2 2 Crystallising dishes<br />
maggots P2 2-3 Filter paper, 110 mm discs<br />
sheets<br />
P2 I Microscope lamp<br />
P2 1 sheet Paper, 100 mm X 100 mm,<br />
black.<br />
P2A Sawdust, wet and dry<br />
P2 I pair Scissors<br />
2.2 T Electric buzzer or tape<br />
Simple learned recording and tape<br />
behaviour recorder<br />
2.3 T Empty, dry, plastic wash<br />
A further bottle fitted with plastic<br />
experiment nozzle<br />
"'2.4 TA Apparatus as in 2.2<br />
Trying to forget and 2.3<br />
2.5 P2 Puzzle<br />
Trial and error P2 Stopwatch or stopc1ock<br />
or watch with seconds<br />
hand<br />
2.6<br />
Habits
Notes<br />
Other fly maggots are alternatives to Calliphora.<br />
100 crrr' squat form beakers are alternative to<br />
crystallising dishes.<br />
Blotting paper may be used instead of filter paper.<br />
The sawdust should be damp rather than with free<br />
water in it. It can be prepared suitably by wrapping<br />
in a cloth which is then immersed in water and then<br />
wrung out until 'dry'.<br />
A short sharp buzz is required. The experiment is probably<br />
best carried out by recording the passage given in the<br />
Teachers' guide on one track of a four track recorder and<br />
dubbing the buzzes onto the second track. These buzzes<br />
are inserted with the recorder set at slow speed so that when<br />
played at normal speed they are sharp and accurately placed.<br />
The passage can then be played to the class without buzzes<br />
(using one track) or with buzzes (using both tracks<br />
simultaneously).<br />
The wash bottle is used to blow puffs of air into a pupil's<br />
eye. This experiment must be carried out by the teacher.<br />
Any suitable puzzle may be employed including 'metal<br />
link' puzzles.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
71
72<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Discussion<br />
Good and bad habits<br />
£.2.7 PI Dropper (teat) pipette<br />
Learning by PIA 5 Duplicated instruction sheets<br />
discovery and PI Stopwatch or stopc1ock or<br />
reception learning watch with seconds hand<br />
PI 5 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
PI 1 Test tube rack<br />
PI Indicator in dropper bottle<br />
bottle<br />
PIA 5 Solutions of known pH in<br />
beakers labelled A, B, C, D, E<br />
PIA Solution X of unknown pH
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
Spotting tiles may be used instead of test tubes.<br />
The indicatoris prepared by mixing equal volumes of 0.1 %<br />
congo red (aqueous) and 0.05% phenolphthalein. See<br />
Appendix 3 for the preparation of the separate indicators.<br />
The solutions of known pH are hydrochloric acid 0.1 M<br />
(pH 1), hydrochloric acid 0.001 M (pH 3), sodium hydroxide<br />
0.001 M (pH 11) and sodium hydroxide 0.0001 M (pH '9').<br />
For the preparation of these solutions see Appendix 3.<br />
Distilled water gives pH 7, if fresh.<br />
These solutions give only approximate values of the pH. It<br />
is wise to test against the indicator before giving them for<br />
class use in order to ensure the 'correct' colour being<br />
produced for each solution.<br />
One half of the class has to derive the pattern of 'colour<br />
changes and use the pattern to find the pH of solution X<br />
(distilled water). The other half is given the pattern on a<br />
duplicated instruction sheet as illustrated below.<br />
The pattern is:<br />
colour blue orange magenta<br />
pH<br />
(acid number)<br />
7 11<br />
The pH values of the solutions are:<br />
Solution ABC D E<br />
pH 3 7 9 11<br />
Use the solu tions A to E to verify the pattern then find<br />
the pH of solution X.<br />
73
74<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Discussion<br />
The pros and cons<br />
of the two methods<br />
Discussion<br />
Different methods<br />
used by scientists<br />
Discussion<br />
Learning in <strong>Patterns</strong><br />
"'2.8 PI 12 of Cardboard equilateral<br />
A look at each triangles blue, green, red,<br />
programmed learning colour yellow, with sides<br />
approximately 20 mm<br />
PA Selection of programmed<br />
texts<br />
Discussion<br />
Motivation<br />
"'2.9<br />
Measuring learning<br />
2.10<br />
Attitudes<br />
62.11<br />
Personality<br />
2.12 PA Selection of advertisements<br />
Advertising and its<br />
influence<br />
2.13 T Chart, Drugs of abuse CC<br />
Drugs and their<br />
effects
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The pupils collect their own advertisements.<br />
75
76<br />
Section 3 Changes in acidity<br />
Time required 2} weeks<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
3.1 T Magazine, Chemistry in<br />
Acid in the Britain vol. 6, no. 5<br />
atmosphere<br />
A3.2 P2 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
Some reactions of P2 Spatula<br />
acids: changes in P2 1 Stirring rod<br />
acidity P2 8 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2 Test tube holder<br />
P2 1 Test tube rack<br />
P2 20 crrr' Calcium hydroxide, saturated, 3<br />
(lime water)<br />
P2 200 crrr' Hydrochloric acid, 1 M 3<br />
P2 10 cm ' Potassium hydroxide, 1 M 3<br />
P2 10 cm 3 Sodium hydroxide, 1 M 3<br />
P2 200 ern" Sulphuric acid, 1 M 3<br />
P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in dropper 3<br />
bottle<br />
P2 0.5-2 g Selection of metals, metal<br />
of each carbonates and metal oxides<br />
P2 1 book Universal indicator paper<br />
Discussion<br />
Ionic solutions:<br />
the part played<br />
by water<br />
3.3<br />
Are acids and<br />
alkalis ionic?<br />
P2A<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
1<br />
3<br />
2<br />
2<br />
1<br />
25 cm 3<br />
25 cm 3<br />
L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
Beaker, 100 em 3<br />
Connecting leads, 0.5 m<br />
Crocodile clips<br />
Electrodes, graphite<br />
MES bulb, 12 V, and holder<br />
Hydrochloric acid, 1 M 3<br />
Potassium carbonate, 1 M 3
Notes<br />
Suggested metals are: iron powder, magnesium ribbon,<br />
granulated, technical zinc.<br />
If iron powder is used there is less chance of the production<br />
of hydrogen sulphide from sulphide residues in the metal.<br />
Calcium may also be used but should be demonstrated.<br />
Suggested metal carbonates are: calcium carbonate, copper(II)<br />
carbonate, magnesium carbonate, nickel(II) carbonate, sodium<br />
carbonate, zinc carbonate.<br />
Suggested metal oxides are, copper(II) oxide, magnesium<br />
oxide, zinc oxide. Oxides of calcium, potassium and sodium<br />
should be avoided as they react vigorously with water and<br />
may react dangerously with acids.<br />
The Universal indicator paper is used where coloured salts<br />
are produced.<br />
Acid splashes should be neutralised with a strong solution<br />
of sodium hydrogen carbonate and then mopped up with a<br />
wet swab (duster).<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
A d.c. supply may be used in this experiment providing the continued<br />
77
78<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
3.3 continued P2 25 cm' Sodium hydroxide, 1 M 3<br />
P2 25.cm 3 Sulphuric acid, I M 3<br />
3.4 P2 Beaker, 400 cm'<br />
The case of P2 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
benzoic acid P2 Spatula<br />
P2 6 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2 Test tube holder<br />
P2 Test tube rack<br />
P2 1 Tripod, gauze<br />
P2 25 cm' Ethanol (IMS), ethoxyethane<br />
of each (diethylether), methanol,<br />
tetrachloromethane, water<br />
P2 109 Benzoic acid<br />
P2 1 book Universal indicator paper<br />
"'3.5 P2 Beaker, 250 cm' , or expanded<br />
Energy transfer in polystyrene cup<br />
some acid-alkali P2 2 Measuring cylinders, 100 ern"<br />
reactions P2 1 Thermometer, 0-50 °c<br />
P2 200 ern" Hydrochloric acid, 1.0 M 3<br />
P2 200 crrr' Nitric acid, 1.0 M 3<br />
P2 300 crrr' Potassium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3<br />
P2 300 cm 3 Sodium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3<br />
P2 200 crrr' Sulphuric acid, 0.50 M 3<br />
"'3.6 P2 Beaker, 250 ern", or expanded<br />
Is the pattern true polystyrene cup<br />
for all acids and P2 2 Measuring cylinders, 100 crrr'<br />
alkalis? P2 1 Thermometer, 0-50 °c<br />
P2 200 cm' Acetic acid, 1.0 M 3<br />
P2 100 crrr' Potassium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3<br />
P2 100 crrr' Sodium hydroxide, 1.0 M 3<br />
Discussion<br />
Ionic equations
Notes<br />
current is only switched on briefly, otherwise electrolysis<br />
will occur. Some pupils may wish to use an ammeter rather<br />
than a lamp.<br />
If it is required to warm the solvents in order to dissolve the<br />
benzoic acid the beaker should be used as a water bath and<br />
the test tube containing the solvent should be placed in it.<br />
Heat the water bath to boiling and turn out the Bunsen<br />
flame particularly before using ethoxyethane.<br />
See Appendix 4 'Chemical hazards' for hazard notes<br />
concerning ethoxyethane and tetrachloromethane.<br />
Polystyrene cups are to be preferred for this experiment.<br />
The solutions of acids and alkalis used in this work should be<br />
prepared accurately and allowed to stand for some hours so<br />
that they are all at room temperature.<br />
Polystyrene cups are to be preferred for this experiment.<br />
The solutions of acids and alkalis used in this work should be<br />
accurately prepared and allowed to stand for some hours so<br />
that they are all at room temperature.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
79
80<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A3.7 T L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
A close look at an T 3 Connecting leads, 0.5 m<br />
acid/hydroxide T 2 Crocodile clips<br />
interaction T 2 Electrodes, graphite<br />
T 1 MES bulb, 12 V, and holder<br />
T 1 Beaker, 100 cm'<br />
T Burette, SO em", and stand<br />
T Filter funnel<br />
T Measuring cylinder, 25 cm '<br />
T Stirring rod<br />
T 1 Test tube, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
T SO ern" Barium hydroxide, 0.1 M 34<br />
T 1 bottle Phenolphthalein indicator in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
T SO cm 3 Sulphuric acid, 1 M 3<br />
A3.8 P2 Measuring cylinder, 100 em 3<br />
Diluting an acid P2 Pipette, 1 ern", or hypodermic<br />
solution syringe, 1 crrr'<br />
P2 3-6 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2 1 Test tube rack<br />
P2 SO cm 3 Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M 3<br />
P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in 3<br />
dropper bottle or universal<br />
indicator paper<br />
P2A Water, distilled 3<br />
P2 0.5 g Magnesium rib bon<br />
A3.9 P2 3 Beakers, 100 ern"<br />
Concentrations and P2 Burette, SO em", and stand<br />
volumes P2 Filter funnel<br />
P2 Flask, 250 crrr' , conical<br />
P2 Measuring cylinder, 100 crrr'<br />
P2 Pipette, 25 ern", and filler<br />
P2 Wash bottle<br />
P2 White tile, or sheet of white<br />
paper<br />
P2 SOern:' Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M 3<br />
P2 SOem" Sodium hydroxide, 0.1 M 3
Notes<br />
A d.c. supply may be used providing that the current is<br />
only switched on briefly after each addition from the<br />
burette.<br />
The pupils are asked to find the pH (degree of acidity) of<br />
0.1 M hydrochloric acid. They then dilute some of the acid<br />
to 0.001 M and test that, then they dilute the second<br />
solution to 0.0000 1 M. These dilutions require 0.5 cm' of<br />
the stronger solution to be diluted to 50 ern". It is essential<br />
that distilled water is used for the dilutions because salts<br />
dissolved in tap water, especially in hard water areas, will<br />
interfere by neutralising the acid. For the same reason it is<br />
best to use universal indicator paper rather than the solution.<br />
The excess 0.1 M hydrochloric acid can be used for<br />
Investigation e 3.9.<br />
The pupils are asked to predict and then test the prediction<br />
of the quantity of sodium hydroxide solution neutralised by<br />
three solutions of acid; 0.1 M, 0.01 M and 0.005 M. The<br />
0.1 M solution is supplied to the pupils who make up from<br />
it the other solutions by dilution.<br />
For the 0.0 1 M solution dilute 10 crrr' of 0.1 M acid to<br />
100 ern" with distilled water.<br />
For the 0.005 Msolution dilute 5 crrr' of 0.1 M acid to<br />
100 cm 3 with distilled water.<br />
continued<br />
81
82<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A3.9 continued P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
P2A Water, distilled or de-ionised 3<br />
A3.1O P2 1 Burette, 50 ern 3 , and stand<br />
An acid-alkali P2 1 Filter funnel<br />
titration P2 1 Flask, 100 crrr' , conical<br />
P2 1 Pipette, 25 em", and filler<br />
P2 1 Wash bottle<br />
P2 1 White tile<br />
P2 120 crrr' Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M 3<br />
P2 1 bottle Litmus indicator in dropper 3<br />
bottle<br />
P2 120 crrr' Sodium hydroxide, approx- 3<br />
imately 0.1 M<br />
AProblem<br />
Simple volumetric<br />
analysis questions<br />
l':A3.11 P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes<br />
The effect of P2 4 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
changing acidity on P2 1 Test tube rack<br />
the chromate ion - P2 10 cm' Hydrochloric acid, 1 M 3<br />
dichromate ion P2 10 cm' Nitric acid, 1 M 3<br />
equilibrium P2 5 crrr' Potassium chromate, 0.1 M 3<br />
P2 5 crrr' Potassium dichromate, 0.1 M 3<br />
P2 10 crn' Potassium hydroxide, 1 M 3<br />
P2 10 cm' Sodium hydroxide, 1 M 3<br />
P2 10 cm' Sulphuric acid, 1 M 3
Notes<br />
Notes on the care and use of burettes are given in<br />
Appendix 1 'Titration'.<br />
The concentration of hydrochloric acid needs to be known<br />
accurately in this experiment. Notes on the determination<br />
of the molarity of the acid and on the care and use of<br />
burettes are given in Appendix 1 'Titration'.<br />
If pipette fillers are available they should be used with<br />
the pipettes.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
83
84<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
~3.12 P2A L.t. supply, 4-6 V d.c.<br />
The mobility of H+ P2 2 Connecting leads, 0.5 m, fitted<br />
(aq) and OH- (aq) with crocodile clips<br />
ions in an electric P2 2 Electrodes, graphite<br />
field P2 2 U-tubes, 10 cm '<br />
P2 20 crn ' Gelatine containing potassium 3<br />
nitrate, 30%<br />
P2 10 cm ' Hydrochloric acid, I M 3<br />
P2 10 cm ' Sodium hydroxide, I M 3<br />
P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in dropper 3<br />
bottle<br />
~3.I3<br />
Enzymes and<br />
changes in<br />
acidity<br />
~3.I4<br />
pH and blood<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
PI<br />
PI<br />
I<br />
3<br />
Milk agar plate in Petri dish<br />
Paper discs<br />
**Topic book, Sulphuric acid, NC<br />
Topic book, What is an acid?, NC
Notes<br />
HCI ~;i .•••••••••••••••••<br />
NaOH HCI<br />
.•• ". .""" ge".tine. containing<br />
KN03 and universal<br />
indicator<br />
4-6.V<br />
Gelatine takes some time to set so the tubes should be<br />
prepared a day in advance. If left for more than a few days<br />
the gelatine will become denatured by bacterial action.<br />
The pupils place three paper discs on the specially prepared<br />
agar plate. One disc is soaked in trypsin solution, one disc<br />
in trypsin plus acid, and the third in distilled water. It is<br />
helpful for the discs to be of different colours.<br />
For information concerning the preparation of the agar<br />
plates and trypsin solution see Appendix 3 'Trypsin', and<br />
Appendix 2 'Agar'.<br />
85
86<br />
Section 4 Changes in motion 1<br />
Time required 2 weeks<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
T Film, Momentum and<br />
collision processes, Esso<br />
film for teachers<br />
T **Film loop, Collisions in a<br />
straight line, BBC<br />
T **Film loop projector<br />
T Film projector<br />
4.1 T Magnet, e.g. Eclipse major<br />
What causes motion T Steel bearing<br />
to change?<br />
Discussion<br />
What do we mean by<br />
a cause?<br />
4.2 P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
What pattern is or d.c.<br />
there in changes P2-4 2 Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
of motion? P2-4 3-4 Dynamics trolleys<br />
P2-4 1 Optics pin and Plasticine or<br />
a cork<br />
P2-4 Plough plate and trolley cord<br />
P2-4 1 roll Ticker tape, gummed<br />
P2-4 1 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
P2-4 1-2 Trolley runways<br />
P2-4 2 Wooden blocks to raise end<br />
of runway<br />
T **Camera, cassette type<br />
T **Lighting system suitable to<br />
photographic technique used<br />
T 1 **Linear air track and blower<br />
T 1-2 **Photographic films<br />
T **Photographic processing<br />
equipment suitable for<br />
technique used, e.g. Moriobath<br />
T **Strobe, motorised disc or 4<br />
xenon flasher
Notes<br />
The magnet is placed under a bench so that it is out of<br />
sight and the bearing is rolled across it so that its motion<br />
is changed or the direction of motion is changed.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
A series of experiments concerned with change in<br />
momentum on collision is carried out in this investigation.<br />
Elastic collisions are produced by using the plough plate<br />
mounted on one trolley so that it collides with a trolley<br />
cord mounted on another, or the built-in buffer rods can be<br />
used. Inelastic collisions are achieved by mounting the optics<br />
pin on one trolley so that it collides with a lump of Plasticine<br />
or a cork on the other trolley.<br />
It is possible to obtain good results using ticker timers and<br />
trolleys when both vehicles are in motion before the<br />
collision, providing care is taken with the techniques<br />
involved. The alternative demonstration using a linear air<br />
track and multiflash photography is recommended for this<br />
purpose.<br />
Notes on multiflash photography are given in Appendix 1.<br />
87
88<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
·4.3 P2-4A Apparatus as in 4.2<br />
Interactions P2-4A Several Loads of different substances<br />
between objects<br />
which are<br />
different<br />
Discussion<br />
Inertia and mass<br />
Discussion<br />
Momentum and<br />
its conservation<br />
6&4.4 P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
Finding the mass or d.c.<br />
of a brick using P2-4 2-4 Connecting leads, I m long<br />
dynamics P2-4 2 Dynamics trolleys<br />
P2-4 1 Half house brick<br />
P2-4 1 roll Ticker tape, gummed<br />
P2-4 1-2 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
P2-4 1-2 Trolley runways<br />
P2-4 2 Wooden blocks to act as<br />
trolley stops<br />
b.Discussion P2A 1 reel Copper wire, 24-26 s.w.g., bare<br />
Inertia measurement P2 2 G-clamps<br />
P2 Inertia balance kit
Notes<br />
Loads suggested are 1 kg masses of aluminium, iron, sand<br />
and water. the sand and water masses can easily be arranged<br />
by filling a suitable covered container (e.g. a plastic lunch<br />
box) with them.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The copper wire is allowed to tap against a finger while the<br />
apparatus is vibrating thus assisting in counting oscillations.<br />
An alternative assembly using a dynamics trolley is also<br />
described in Appendix 1 'Inertia balance kit'.<br />
89
90<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
"'4.5 T Air-rifle or air-pistol mounted<br />
The speed of an on board<br />
air-gun pellet T 2 **Circuit breakers<br />
T 4 **Connecting leads, 1.0 m long<br />
T I Flat truck<br />
T Metre rule<br />
T 1 packet Pellets to fit air-gun<br />
T 300 g Plasticine<br />
T 5 lengths Railway track, a-gauge<br />
T **Scaler<br />
T Stopwatch<br />
"'4.6<br />
Car collisions<br />
"'4.7 T 2-4 Balloons, 'sausage' type<br />
How does a rocket T 2 Glass tubes, 50 mm long<br />
work? T 2 Retort stands, bossheads<br />
T 1 reel Self adhesive tape<br />
T I reel Thread<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
1-4<br />
I<br />
I pair<br />
I<br />
Carbon dioxide capsules 4<br />
Hammer, wire nail, I kg mass<br />
Safety goggles<br />
Trolley to carry capsule
Notes<br />
;~Pla";dne _<br />
_~endstop.lS).<br />
_ ~"'--"~~~_T~~~~<br />
~ rule<br />
r£--<br />
I<br />
The scaler and circuit breakers provide an alternative method<br />
of carrying out the experiment. Full details concerning the<br />
experiment are given in Appendix 1 'Speed of an air-gun pellet'.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
balloon<br />
button thread<br />
It is important that the thread should be as taut as possible,<br />
otherwise the leading edges of the glass tubes tend to snag.<br />
For full details of the apparatus used in this investigation<br />
see Appendix 1 'Rockets'.<br />
The hammer and nail are used for opening the carbon<br />
dioxide capsules.<br />
The operator should wear goggles. Full details are given<br />
in Appendix 1 'Rockets'.<br />
stringor wire<br />
smallscreweyes<br />
wingnuts<br />
1.kg<br />
mass<br />
continued<br />
91
92<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
£4.7 continued<br />
T Foot pump and adaptor<br />
T Water rocket<br />
T **Project brief, Water rockets<br />
£4.8 T **Film loop, Collision between<br />
Jet aircraft golf club and ball, BBC<br />
T **Film loop projector<br />
£4.9<br />
The golfer<br />
.664.10 T **Film loop, Transfer of<br />
Miscellaneous momentum in collision with<br />
problems involving ground, BBC<br />
momentum T **Film loop projector<br />
£4.11 T Pendulum bob, 12.5 mm dia,<br />
Interactions between steel (NP item l31D)<br />
objects of large T Pendulum bob, 50 mm dia,<br />
and small inertia steel (NP item l31B)<br />
T 1 reel Thread<br />
Discussion<br />
Two dimensional<br />
motion<br />
£4.12 T Camera, cassette type<br />
Changes of motion T Lighting system suitable for<br />
in two dimensions photographic technique used<br />
T 1-2 Photographic films<br />
T Photographic processing<br />
equipment suitable for<br />
technique used, e.g, Monobath<br />
T Stobe, motorised disc or<br />
xenon flasher 4<br />
TA Two-dimensional motion<br />
apparatus
Notes<br />
Details concerning water rockets are given in Appendix 1<br />
'Rockets'.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The bobs are hung on as long a thread as possible, e.g.<br />
from the ceiling, so that they just touch at their equators.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
Notes on multiflash photography are given in Appendix 1.<br />
If dry ice is required it may be produced from carbon dioxide<br />
cylinders, see Appendix 4 'Gas cylinders'.<br />
93
94<br />
Reference Group Reqd<br />
no./q.<br />
b.4.13 P2-4<br />
More than two<br />
objects P2-4 4-6<br />
P2-4 3<br />
P2-4 1<br />
4.14<br />
Certainty in<br />
science<br />
Discussion<br />
Models in science<br />
.&4.15<br />
Pro blem finding<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4 1 roll<br />
P2-4 2-3<br />
P2-4 1<br />
P2-4A Several<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T 1<br />
T 1-2<br />
T<br />
T<br />
Item App.<br />
ref.<br />
L.t. supply, 12 V a.c.<br />
or d.c.<br />
Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
Dynamics trolleys<br />
Optics pin and Plasticine or a<br />
cork<br />
Plough plate and trolley cord<br />
Ticker tape, gummed<br />
Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
Trolley runway<br />
Wooden blocks for weighting<br />
trolleys<br />
**Camera, cassette type<br />
**Lighting system suitable to<br />
photographic technique used<br />
**Linear air track and blower<br />
**Photographic films<br />
**Photographic processing equipment<br />
suitable for technique<br />
used. e.g. Monobath<br />
**Strobe, motorised disc or 4<br />
xenon flasher
Notes<br />
The linear air track may be used as alternative to trolleys<br />
for this work. Three or four gliders will be required. Notes<br />
on multiflash photography are given in Appendix 1.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
95
96<br />
Section S Changes in the Earth<br />
Time required 2 weeks<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
T **Book A new geology .<br />
Bradshaw, M.J.<br />
T Chart, 600 million years<br />
of Earth history, Esso<br />
AS.l PA Supply Rock specimens<br />
Changes in TPA 1 of Photo micro transparencies<br />
sedimentary each of thin sections of the<br />
rocks rocks, see Guide to equipment<br />
'Teaching aids'<br />
TPA Slide projector<br />
PI Hand lens, X8 or XI 0,<br />
folding<br />
PA 2-3 **Microscope, binocular<br />
(stereo) alternative to<br />
hand lens<br />
5.2 PA Supply Rock specimens<br />
Volcanic activity T 1 **Film loop, Volcanoes, NSS<br />
**Film loop projector<br />
T **Film strip, Volcanic rocks, EB<br />
T **Film strip projector<br />
T Several **Photographic transparencies,<br />
Volcanic activity<br />
T **Slide Projector<br />
5.3 aP2 1 Beaker, 250 cm'<br />
Crystallisation P2 1 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
from molten P2 1 Flask, 250 cm 3 , conical<br />
material P2 1 Stopclock<br />
P2 6 Test tubes, 100mm X 16mm<br />
P2 Thermometer, -10 to +110 °C,<br />
with single holed cork to fit<br />
test tube<br />
P2 Tripod and gauze<br />
P2 5-10 g Naphthalene
Notes<br />
These aids will be found useful throughout this section.<br />
Specimens suggested for this investigation are: fossiliferous,<br />
limestone, from Rock set 3; marble, from Rock set 1;<br />
cemented (compacted): sandstone, from fragments<br />
collection; porous (loose), sandstone from fragments<br />
collection; shale, from Rock set 2; slate, from Rock set 1.<br />
Specimens suggested are: basalt, from Rock set 1; tuff.<br />
A suggested demonstration is to shake a bottle of mineral<br />
water and to release the bung suddenly.<br />
Suggested transparencies are available from the Geology<br />
Museum. Sets T 90 and 90/A/I will be adequate for this<br />
work.<br />
The naphthalene is melted by heating in water bath<br />
(the beaker) and is cooled by standing in the conical<br />
flask. Different rates of cooling may be achieved by filling<br />
the flask with water at varying temperatures.<br />
continued<br />
97
98<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
5.3 continued t:.b P2A Apparatus as in part a<br />
b.&5.4<br />
Searching for<br />
metals and their<br />
ores<br />
P2 5-10 g 4-Bromophenol<br />
of each Butan-l-ol<br />
1,3-Dinitrobenzene<br />
4-Nitrotoluene<br />
Phenyl salicylate<br />
p-Toluidine<br />
cPA Supply Rock specimens<br />
T lof Photo micro transparencies of<br />
each thin sections of basalt and<br />
granite<br />
T Slide projector<br />
Pl <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Rocks<br />
and minerals<br />
d<br />
PA 2-3 Jackdaw, Volcanoes<br />
T 1 Film, Rocks which originate<br />
underground, Rank<br />
b.&5.5 PI 1 sheet Graph paper<br />
Changes in Scotland:<br />
dating Earth activity
Notes<br />
This is an optional repeat of part a but using different<br />
chemicals.<br />
Suggested specimens are basalt and granite from Rock set 1.<br />
No apparatus is required for part d.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
99
100<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q . ref.<br />
.65.6 aPA 4 Rock specimens labelled<br />
Changes in the Earth- A, C, D and F<br />
detailed case studies PA 1 bottle Hydrochloric acid, 2 M, in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
t:::Ji.5.7<br />
Earth patterns<br />
5.8<br />
Earth history and<br />
the economy of<br />
people<br />
bPA 3<br />
PA 1 bottle<br />
Rock specimens labelled X,<br />
Yand Z<br />
Hydrochloric acid, 2 M, in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
PI **<strong>Patterns</strong> topic book,<br />
Earth patterns
Notes<br />
a. The group of rock specimens is from Man O'War<br />
Bay, Dorset.<br />
Rock A is Portland stone, marine limestone containing<br />
fossils.<br />
Rock C is a coarse sand containing lignite.<br />
Rock D is Gault clay, a dark grey silty mud containing<br />
marine fossils.<br />
Rock F is chalk.<br />
b. This group of three rock specimens of carboniferous<br />
age is from Upper Swaledale (Yordale series).<br />
Rock X is a light grey limestone containing marine fossils.<br />
Rock Y is shale containing marine fossils.<br />
Rock Z is coarse sandstone.<br />
These two groups of rocks form Rock set 3.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
101
102<br />
Section 6 Changes in organisms<br />
Time required 4} weeks<br />
Required organisms:<br />
For Investigation "6.4, fish roe such as a hard herring roe or seeds in<br />
fruits, such as Antirrhinum.<br />
For Investigation 6.6a, a selection of living or preserved specimens or<br />
pictures of animals and plants.<br />
For Investigation 6.6b, a collection of shells of the snail Cepea.<br />
For Investigation "6.7 6.c, *Seeds of rayed and umayed groundsel<br />
(Senecio vulgaris).<br />
For Investigation b.&6.9, *Acyanogenic and cyanogenic clover plants<br />
and land snails (Helix sp.) See also Appendix 2 'Clover'.<br />
For Investigation 6.10, tomato seeds or seedlings with the genetic<br />
characteristic for purple stem colour.<br />
For Investigation b.&6.13, *cultures of Tribolium castaneum, ebony<br />
and red/brown varieties. Alternative organisms are Drosophila or mice.<br />
For Investigation "6.20, **the cultures of Tribolium from<br />
Investigation b.&6.13 may be required.<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
"6.1 P2A 1-2 sets Casts of Micraster fossils,<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong>- of life evolutionary series of 6<br />
in the past specimens<br />
P2A 1-2 sets Casts of limbs of fossil<br />
horses·<br />
P2A 1-2 sets **Casts of Gryphaea fossils,<br />
evolutionary series of 4<br />
specimens<br />
PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, The<br />
diversity of life
Notes<br />
Take care to keep the set of Micraster casts separate from<br />
the development series, used in Investigation &6.2 as the<br />
differences between the specimens are not immediately<br />
obvious and both sets contain specimens of differing sizes.<br />
The identification of the specimens depends upon a number<br />
of measurable criteria, see Teachers' Guide 4, and it may be<br />
worth making this identification as soon as the sets are taken<br />
into stock as a precaution against later confusion of the<br />
specimens. The casts may be clear varnished to aid their<br />
longevity.<br />
103
104<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
·6.2 P2A 1-2 sets Casts of Micraster fossils,<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> of change development series of 6<br />
in organisms: a specimens<br />
critical assess- P2A **Cast of Archaeopteryx<br />
ment of available P2A Several **Photographs of Archaeopteryx<br />
evidence specimens<br />
~6.3 P2 Atlas or map showing North<br />
Fossils and patterns Yorkshire coast (Staithes and<br />
in the Earth's crust Hawsker)<br />
·6.4 P2A Fish roe e.g, hard herring roe<br />
Population growth P2A Seeds collected from one plant<br />
patterns<br />
6.5<br />
Inherited variation<br />
and breeding<br />
6.6<br />
Organisms and<br />
their environment<br />
P2A<br />
T<br />
T<br />
Results of Investigation 64.13<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 1<br />
**Film loop, The breeding of<br />
roses, NSS<br />
**Film loop projector<br />
aPA Selection Living or preserved specimens<br />
or pictures of animals and<br />
plants<br />
b PA Collection of shells of<br />
Cepea nemoralis<br />
PA Selection **Colour photographs showing<br />
habitats in which Cepea is<br />
found
Notes<br />
See notes to Investigation £6.1 concerning the Micraster<br />
casts.<br />
Ordnance survey maps 86 and 93 (seventh series) will be<br />
satisfactory.<br />
This is a revision exercise designed to take only a short<br />
time. Pupils estimate the number of eggs produced by a<br />
fish and the number of seeds produced by a plant, and<br />
assuming 100% survival then estimate the growth of the<br />
population of the type of fish or plant.<br />
a The specimens are selected to show adaption, e.g,<br />
camouflage, to their environment. Suggested specimens<br />
are: bird, preferably live, e.g. a cage bird (budgerigar or<br />
zebra finch); caterpillars, live or colour photographs;<br />
fishes, live, e.g. angel fishes, guppies, zebra fishes; frog;<br />
Lithops (stone cactus), live; mole, preserved or photograph:<br />
Sedum acre (wall pepper), preferably live; stick insects,<br />
live.<br />
b The collection of snail shells should show variation in<br />
base colour and number of bands. The variations are related<br />
to the habitat as shown by the colour photographs, which<br />
need to be carefully matched with the specimens.<br />
105
106<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
1..6.7 a<br />
What is the<br />
significance<br />
of inherited<br />
variation?<br />
bT<br />
T<br />
T<br />
Film loop, Selection by<br />
predation, NB-54<br />
Film loop projector<br />
Film strip, Inheritance and<br />
selection, NSS<br />
T Film strip projector<br />
~~8<br />
Explaining<br />
evolutionary<br />
changes within a<br />
population of<br />
organisms<br />
b. c P2A Supply Seeds of unrayed (wild) groundsel<br />
P2A Supply Seeds of rayed (cultivated)<br />
groundsel<br />
P2 4-6 Plant pots, 100 mm diameter, clay<br />
P2 4-6 Seed labels<br />
P2A Supply Soil or John Innes no. 2 compost<br />
PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Darwin<br />
and evolution<br />
~6.9 P2 2 Clover plants in pots 2<br />
Snails and P2 6 Land snails, Helix sp.<br />
clover P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes<br />
P2 2 McCartney bottles or specimen<br />
tubes, 75mm X 25mm<br />
P2 1 Mortar and pestle<br />
P2 2 Plastic bags to enclose pots<br />
and plants<br />
P2 I Scalpel<br />
P2 2 Seed labels<br />
P2A I reel Self-adhesive tape<br />
P2 2cm 3 Toluene<br />
P2A Supply Sodium picrate papers 3<br />
PI I <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Darwin<br />
and evolution
Notes<br />
a No apparatus is required.<br />
b The section of the film strip dealing with Biston<br />
betularia (the peppered moth) is required for this<br />
investiga tion.<br />
c The plant pots are sown with equal quantities of seeds<br />
and the seeds are then germinated under different conditions<br />
of soil dampness. The unrayed, normal form, will be found<br />
to survive better in conditions of over watering or drought<br />
than the mutant rayed form. Seeds of wild groundsel can<br />
be collected in the summer and autumn for the following<br />
year.<br />
It is suggested that only one or two working groups will<br />
actually conduct the experiment.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
One pot should contain cyanogenic plants and the other pot<br />
acyanogenic plants. The mortar and pestle are used for<br />
crushing leaves in order to test for the type of plant, see<br />
Appendix 2 'clover'.<br />
107
108<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
6.10 P2A Tomato seeds or seedlings<br />
Looking for patterns planted 3-4 weeks previously<br />
in the inheritance P2A Supply Compost, e.g, John Innes no. 2<br />
of variation P2A 1 Seed tray<br />
·6.11 P2 12 Red beads<br />
Explaining the P2 12 Yellow beads<br />
pattern in the PI 1 **<strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, <strong>Patterns</strong><br />
inheritance of of reproduction, development<br />
variation and growth<br />
·6.12<br />
Explaining<br />
family trees<br />
6A6.13 PA Stock culture of Trib olium 2<br />
Predicting the castaneum, ebony variety<br />
variations of PA Stock culture of T. castaneum 2<br />
future red/brown variety (wild type)<br />
generations P2A 1 pack Cotton wool, absorbent<br />
P2A 1 Incubator set at 30°C<br />
P2A 2-4 Killing jars<br />
P2 1-2 Pooters<br />
P2 1 Section lifter or spatula<br />
P2 2 Sieves with 1 mm holes<br />
P2 1 Soft hair brush<br />
P2 12 Specimen tubes, 75 mm X<br />
25 mm filled to 50 mm with<br />
food medium<br />
P2 12 Specimen tubes, 150 mm X<br />
25 mm filled to 50 mm with<br />
food medium<br />
P2 Specimen tube rack
Notes<br />
These are special seeds carrying a gene for purple stem<br />
colour which is dominant over the normal green stem.<br />
Poppet beads are useful here but other beads, marbles or<br />
counters of different colour but of the same size will suffice.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The small specimen tubes are required on setting up the<br />
experiment. The large tubes will be required several weeks<br />
later. Full details concerning the method of culture and of<br />
this experiment are given in Appendix 2 'Trib olium '.<br />
Alternative organisms for this experiment are Drosophila or<br />
mice. If Drosophila is used a convenient characteristic to<br />
study is long wing (+) as opposed to vestigial wing (vg).<br />
Reciprocal starting crosses in separate culture bottles<br />
should be set up to avoid confusion with sex linked inheritance.<br />
Start cultures with ten virgin females and ten males and<br />
remove and mount adults as in the case of Tribolium. The<br />
first cultures should be vgvg females X ++ males in one jar<br />
and vgvg males X ++ females in the other jar.<br />
Coat colour is a convenient characteristic in mice but care<br />
must be exercised in the choice of starting colours as the<br />
inheritance patterns are somewhat complicated. Reciprocal<br />
crosses should be set up.<br />
Details of the culture of these organisms are given in<br />
Appendix 2.<br />
109
110<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
6.14 P2 Male locust or prepared<br />
The material of locust testis<br />
inheritance P2 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
P2 I pair Forceps<br />
P2 I Microscope and lamp<br />
P2 2-4 Microslides and coverglasses<br />
P2 I Mounted needle<br />
P2A I roll Paper towel<br />
P2 I pair Scissors<br />
P2 1 bottle Acetocarmine stain in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
P2 I bottle Ammonium iron(III) 3<br />
sulphate in dropper bottle<br />
T Film loop, Meiosis, NB-50<br />
T Film loop projector<br />
T I set Photographs of meiotic stages,<br />
NB<br />
T Photographic transparencies<br />
of meiotic stages<br />
T Slide Projector<br />
£6.15<br />
Chromosomes, genes<br />
and inheritance<br />
.66.6.16 T Film strip, Inheritance and<br />
The inheritance selection, NSS<br />
of sex T Film strip projector<br />
.66.6.17<br />
Crime and<br />
heredity<br />
.66.6.18<br />
Sex-linked<br />
inheritance
Notes<br />
For notes on the preparation and staining of locust testes<br />
see Appendix 2 'Locust'. Fifth instar or young adults are<br />
required.<br />
Alternatives to locust testes are anthers taken from the<br />
immature buds of flowers such as Tradescantia, or bulbs such<br />
as wild bluebell, which must be obtained in February or<br />
March. Details of the treatment of such plant material are<br />
given in Appendix 2 'Tradescantia'.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The film strip may be cut up and individual frames mounted<br />
as transparencies. The section of the strip showing human<br />
chromosomes is required for this investigation.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
111
112<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
66.19 P2A 1-2 Cultures of haploid (ad)<br />
How do new yeast strain<br />
variations P2 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
arise? P2 2 Inoculating loops<br />
P2 3 Petri dishes containing<br />
minimal medium<br />
P2A 1 reel Self adhesive tape<br />
P2 1 Wax pencil<br />
"'6.20 PA 200 Beads of one colour<br />
Predicting the PA 200 Beads of second colour<br />
characteristics PA 2 Beakers, 1 000 ern", to<br />
of a future contain beads<br />
generation PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Darwin<br />
and evolution<br />
"'6.21<br />
Blood cells and<br />
malaria<br />
66.22<br />
Is man<br />
evolving now?
Notes<br />
The red (ad) yeast strain readily mutates to a white strain.<br />
The minimal medium is described in Appendix 2 'Agar'.<br />
Tribolium cultures set up in .6.6.6.13 may be required in<br />
this investigation.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
113
114<br />
Section 7 Changes in motion 2<br />
Time required 3 weeks<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
67.1<br />
Measuring changes<br />
of motion<br />
Discussion<br />
Force and motion<br />
A7.2<br />
Forces and<br />
changes of motion<br />
6.7.3<br />
Units of force<br />
6Discussion<br />
Aircraft<br />
f).6. 7.4<br />
Improving the<br />
range and take-off<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
PA<br />
PI 1 sheet<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
2<br />
2-3<br />
I roll<br />
1<br />
3<br />
1<br />
2<br />
**Book, Nat Phil 5. Jardine, J.<br />
**Film, Experiments in force and<br />
motion, Esso film for teachers<br />
**Film projector<br />
Apparatus suitable for<br />
measuring variation in speed<br />
of an object; e.g. timing<br />
devices and measuring<br />
instruments<br />
Graph paper<br />
L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
or d.c.<br />
Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
Dynamics trolleys<br />
Ticker tape, gummed<br />
Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
Trolley cords<br />
Trolley runway<br />
Wedges to raise end of runway
Notes<br />
The pupils are asked to devise their own experiments in<br />
order to find out how the speed of an object varies.<br />
Objects suggested for investigation are, a car, a bicycle,<br />
a laboratory animal, or the pupil himself. The range of<br />
equipment can be quite extensive, from stopc1ocks to<br />
scalers, to stroboscopic photography; and from metre<br />
rules to measuring tapes, to car speedometers.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The apparatus suggested here should be sufficient to<br />
accomplish the work described in this investigation.<br />
The trolley cords will be found useful as 'identical' rubber<br />
bands for later parts of the investigation.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
115
116<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
7.5<br />
Comparing the<br />
performance of cars<br />
6.Discussion<br />
Cars<br />
~7.6<br />
Forces in fluids<br />
b(i) P2<br />
P2<br />
b(ii) P2<br />
bfiii) P2<br />
P2<br />
b(iv) T<br />
PI I sheet Graph paper<br />
T<br />
bey) T<br />
b(vi) T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
I<br />
2<br />
2 sheets<br />
Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
Wooden spheres suspended on<br />
thread<br />
Paper, e.g. A4 size<br />
Filter funnel, 75 mm dia<br />
Table tennis ball or polystyrene<br />
sphere, 37.5 mm dia<br />
Jet, fitted with rubber tubing<br />
to compressed air supply,<br />
e.g. air blower as used with<br />
linear air track<br />
Table tennis ball or polystyrene<br />
sphere, 37.5 mm dia<br />
Flow gradient tube, NP<br />
item 143<br />
Bemouilli tube, NP item 143<br />
**Film loop, Falling bodies,<br />
BBC/Gateway<br />
**Film loop, Switching off<br />
gravity, BBC<br />
**Film loop, Trajectories and<br />
Newton's thought experiment<br />
BBC
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
thread<br />
111 The funnel should be placed<br />
on a flat surface.<br />
table-tennis<br />
ball<br />
blOWhe,eD<br />
ii<br />
sheets of<br />
paper<br />
iv<br />
blow here<br />
Otable tennis bail0<br />
or expanded<br />
potvstvrene<br />
sphere<br />
jet (supplied with air from<br />
blower<br />
continued<br />
117
118<br />
Reference Group Reqd<br />
no./q.<br />
b.A.7.6 continued<br />
Item App.<br />
ref.<br />
7.7 a P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 V a.c.<br />
Gravity or d.c.<br />
P2-4 2 Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
P2-4 1 G-clamp<br />
P2-4 1 Mass, 0.5 kg, e.g, wooden block<br />
P2-4 1 Mat for mass to fall on<br />
P2-4 1 roll Self-adhesive tape<br />
P2-4 1 roll Ticker tape, gummed<br />
P2-4 1 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
b P2-4A Apparatus as in part a<br />
P2-4A Objects of different materials<br />
and masses<br />
T Guinea and feather tube<br />
T Vacuum pump<br />
c<br />
b.d P2 1 Metre rule<br />
P2 2-3 Pendulum bobs of different masses<br />
P2 1 Protractor<br />
P2 1 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
P2 1 Stopclock<br />
P2 1 reel Thread<br />
b.e PI 1 sheet Graph paper<br />
b.f PI 1 sheet Graph paper
Notes<br />
a<br />
No apparatus is required for<br />
part c.<br />
~d Pupils investigate the<br />
effect of different mass<br />
pendulum bobs on the<br />
period of oscillation.<br />
119
120<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
Discussion T **Record, The Bricklayer<br />
Gravitational field T **Record player<br />
·7.8 P2-4 L.t supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
The nature of force or d.c.<br />
P2-4 2 Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
P2-4 1 Dynamics trolley<br />
P2-4 1set Masses, slotted on hanger<br />
P2-4 1roll Ticker tape, gummed<br />
P2-4 1 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
P2-4 1 Trolley runway<br />
P2-4 2 Wedges to raise end of runway<br />
b.t..7.9 P2 1 Drawing board fitted with<br />
Combining forces<br />
screw<br />
P2 2 Forcemeters, ION<br />
P2 1 Metal ring<br />
P2 1 Protractor<br />
P2 Rubber band, 10 mm wide<br />
P2 2 sheets White paper<br />
·7.10<br />
Distance and time<br />
·7.11<br />
Checking the<br />
formula<br />
~bT<br />
aT 1 set Nuts on a string<br />
T<br />
T<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Marble, 25 mm diameter, or<br />
steel bearing<br />
Retort stands, bossheads<br />
Runway, 2.5 m long, grooved<br />
along one edge and fitted with<br />
clips and gates
Notes<br />
A loaded trolley of mass 1.10 kg is used for a repeat of<br />
the experiment.<br />
screw<br />
Other methods of accomplishing this work are described<br />
in Investigation .&11.2.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
Tie the end of the string to a heavy object then tie nuts on<br />
at 0.1 m, 0.4 m, 0.9 m and 1.6 m distances from the heavy<br />
object.<br />
continued<br />
121
122<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A7.11 continued P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 V a.c. or d.c.<br />
P2-4 2 Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
P2-4 1 Dynamics trolley<br />
P2-4 1 roll Ticker tape, gummed<br />
P2-4 1 Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
P2-4 1 Trolley runway<br />
P2-4 2 Wedges to raise end of runway<br />
A7.12<br />
Using the formula<br />
~7.13<br />
The long jumper<br />
Discussion<br />
Models<br />
c P2 Metre rule<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
**Book, Theme 6 Movement, NSS<br />
**Book, The science of movement<br />
**Film loop, Change of kinetic<br />
energy during magnetic<br />
collision, BBC
Notes<br />
The rule is dropped and caught as it drops. The reaction<br />
time is calculated from the distance dropped by the rule.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
continued<br />
123
124<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Discussion T **Film loop, Storing energy<br />
Models during springboard dive and<br />
continued pole vault, BBC<br />
T **Film loop projector<br />
·7.14 a<br />
Kinetic energy<br />
b P2-4 L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
or d.c.<br />
P2-4A Connecting leads<br />
P2-4 Metre rule<br />
P2-4 Pendulum bob, 25 mm dia<br />
P2-4 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
P2-4A I reel Thread or fine wire<br />
P2-4 I roll Ticker tape, gummed<br />
P2-4 I Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
T **Scaler, photodiodes and light<br />
sources I<br />
c P2-4A<br />
P2-4A<br />
d P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
P2-4<br />
2<br />
I<br />
1 roll<br />
1<br />
4<br />
I<br />
2<br />
Apparatus as in part b<br />
Additional bosshead and<br />
clamp<br />
L.t. supply, 12 Va.c.<br />
or d.c.<br />
Connecting leads, 1 m long<br />
Dynamics trolley<br />
Ticker tape, gummed<br />
Ticker timer, a.c. or d.c.<br />
Trolley cords<br />
Trolley runway<br />
Wood blocks to raise end of I<br />
runway
Notes<br />
a No apparatus is required.<br />
b c<br />
An alternative method of measuring the speed of the bob<br />
is to use a scaler and to measure directly the time taken for<br />
the bob to cross the beam of light.<br />
continued<br />
125
126<br />
Reference Group Reqd<br />
no./q.<br />
.7.14 continued T<br />
T<br />
·7.15<br />
Elastic collisions<br />
e and f<br />
T 1<br />
T 1-2<br />
T<br />
T<br />
~g P2 4<br />
P2<br />
h P2-4A<br />
i P2-4A<br />
P2-4 2<br />
P2-4A Supply<br />
Item App.<br />
ref.<br />
**Camera, cassette type<br />
**Lighting system suitable to<br />
photographic techniq ue used<br />
**Linear air track and blower<br />
**Photographic films<br />
**Photographic processing equipment<br />
suitable for technique<br />
used, e.g. Monobath<br />
**Strobe, motorised disc or<br />
xenon flasher 4<br />
Coins<br />
Lath or rule with hole for<br />
pivot<br />
Apparatus as in part d with<br />
addition of a second loaded<br />
trolley<br />
Apparatus as in part h with<br />
addition of one extra light<br />
and one extra loaded trolleys<br />
Dynamics trolleys<br />
Compression springs, corks<br />
and pins, foam rubber,<br />
magnets, Plasticine, trolley<br />
cords etc
Notes<br />
Notes on multiflash photography are given in Appendix 1.<br />
The linear air track and its associated equipment are<br />
alternatives to dynamics trolleys and runways.<br />
e and f No apparatus is required .<br />
.6.g<br />
coins at equal spacing<br />
~~recti 0n.(<br />
rotation ~-' __ ~~ __ ~L- __ ~~<br />
~------------------~ pivot<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
127
128<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Discussion T **Film, An approach to kinetic<br />
Elasticity theory, Esso film for teachers<br />
Discussion aT Three-dimensional kinetic<br />
Particles and theory kit<br />
molecules<br />
bT<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
cT<br />
T<br />
T<br />
I 000 g<br />
I<br />
I<br />
200+<br />
I<br />
Balance, domestic or lever<br />
Lead shot<br />
Screen for balance<br />
Tray<br />
Anvil and beam<br />
Marbles<br />
Screen and tray as for<br />
demonstration b
Notes<br />
This model consists of a transparent tube at the bottom of<br />
which is a vibrating diaphragm. Small spheres are placed in<br />
the tube and when in motion form a model of molecules<br />
moving in the tube. Various forms of the apparatus may be<br />
bought, anyone of which will be suitable for this<br />
demonstration.<br />
The lead shot is dropped onto the inverted scale pan.<br />
The screen is easily made by using a safety screen for the<br />
front and hardboard mats for the other three sides.<br />
Marbles are dropped onto the anvil causing the pointer of<br />
the beam to be deflected.<br />
pointer counterpoise<br />
perspex<br />
t-----~--glycerol<br />
-+--steel<br />
continued<br />
129
130<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Discussion dT Bromine diffusion kit<br />
Particles and TA Fume cupboard<br />
Molecules T I pair Pliers<br />
continued T I Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
T I pair Rubber gloves<br />
T I Translucent screen and<br />
60 W lamp<br />
T 2500 cm ' Ammonia, 2 M in plastic<br />
bucket 3<br />
T 500 crrr' Ammonia, i-strength in<br />
I 000 cm 3 beaker 3<br />
T Bromine capsule, I crrr' 4<br />
"7.16<br />
TA<br />
How fast do<br />
molecules move? T<br />
T<br />
"7.17<br />
Predicting the<br />
behaviour of<br />
gases<br />
aT<br />
T<br />
0.5 m<br />
I<br />
Apparatus as in part d of the<br />
discussion above.<br />
Pressure tubing<br />
Pump, vacuum/compression<br />
Boyles law apparatus<br />
Foot pump and adaptor
Notes<br />
Full details concerning the use of this equipment are to be<br />
found in Appendix 1. Before assembling the apparatus check<br />
that all rubber bungs and tubing are not hard or perished due<br />
to previous exposure to bromine. Replace them if necessary.<br />
The beaker of i strength ammonia is used to neutralise<br />
any accidental spillages of bromine.<br />
After the experiment open the tube under the 2 M ammonia<br />
in the bucket. Wear rubber gloves for the cleaning operation.<br />
If a fume cupboard is available it should be used while<br />
cleaning is carried out.<br />
See the notes above and Appendix 1 'Bromine diffusion<br />
experiment' for full details concerning this demonstration<br />
of the diffusion of bromine into a vacuum.<br />
continued<br />
131
132<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
.•.7. 17 Predicting bT **Beaker, 1 000 cm'<br />
the behaviour of T **Bourdon gauge<br />
gases continued T **Bunsen burner, mat<br />
T **Flask, 250 crrr' ,round<br />
bottomed, fitted with single<br />
hole bung and straight<br />
delivery tube 100 mm long.<br />
T 0.5 m **Pressure tubing<br />
T 1 **Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
T **Thermometer,-10 to + 100°C<br />
T **Tripod, gauze<br />
c P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
PI<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
1 sheet<br />
2<br />
1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
**Beaker, 600 cm '<br />
**Bunsen burner, mat<br />
**Capillary tube with mercury<br />
index (sealed at one end)<br />
Graph paper<br />
**Rubber bands<br />
**Rule, 300 mm<br />
**Thermometer, -10 to +100 °c<br />
**Tripod, gauze
Notes<br />
The flask should be tilted (or placed in a deep container)<br />
so that it is immersed to the top of the neck.<br />
The capillary tubes should be about 180 mm long, of 1 mm<br />
bore, closed at one end and open at the other. They should<br />
each have a mercury index in them, about 2.5 mm long and<br />
about 125 mm from the closed end.<br />
The capillary tubes and thermometers are fixed to the rules<br />
with rubber bands at each end. For convenience the end of<br />
the air column inside the tube should be made to coincide<br />
with the zero of the scale on the rule.<br />
The tubes are put into the beakers with the open end free<br />
to the air. The water is heated steadily and is kept well<br />
stirred so that its temperature is uniform. The length of the<br />
air column (which is proportional to the volume) is<br />
observed at different temperatures and the results are plotted<br />
on a graph.<br />
continued<br />
133
134<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
.7.17 Predicting<br />
the behaviour of<br />
gases continued<br />
L:\.A7.18<br />
Gas law<br />
problems<br />
·7.19<br />
Acceleration<br />
or not?<br />
a P2<br />
bT<br />
T<br />
c<br />
T 1 bottle<br />
Soft ball on length of string<br />
Coin, 2 p, or washer<br />
Gramophone turntable with<br />
smooth paper surface<br />
Ink
Notes<br />
In order to prepare the tubes they should be sealed and then<br />
heated in an oven to about 120°C. The open end of each<br />
tube is dipped into cold dry mercury in a fume cupboard so<br />
that an index is drawn in as it cools.<br />
6d No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
a The pupils whirl the balls around their heads and let<br />
go to determine the flight direction when released.<br />
b A coin is placed near the surface of the turntable and<br />
its motion is tracked by wetting its under-surface with ink.<br />
c No apparatus is required.<br />
continued<br />
135
136<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A7.19 continued d(i) P2 Circular motion kit<br />
P2 Stopc1ock
Notes<br />
d(i)<br />
I<br />
\<br />
I II<br />
. ))) »»~<br />
A piece of cord 1.5 m long is tied to the wire hook. The<br />
other end is passed through the square indicator, through<br />
the glass tube and then through one hole of the bung. The<br />
end is then passed back through the other hole of the bung<br />
and anchored by plugging the hole with the wooden rod.<br />
Finally the string is hitched round the wooden rod.<br />
Washers are slipped over the wire hook to provide the<br />
'inwards' (accelerating) force. The square indicator is<br />
adjusted so that it will be just below the glass tube when<br />
the bung is circling at the required radius.<br />
continued<br />
137
138<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
"'7.19 continued d(ii) T L.t. supply for motor<br />
TA Connecting leads<br />
T Forcemeter, 10 N<br />
T Fractional horse power motor<br />
and gear box<br />
T Turntable fitted with truck<br />
attachment<br />
Discussion<br />
Acceleration<br />
l:\A7.20<br />
Calculating<br />
circular<br />
acceleration<br />
l:\A7.21<br />
Using acceleration<br />
in a circle<br />
T **Film, Drive again tomorrow,<br />
Shell and BP<br />
T<br />
**Film, Motoring practice,<br />
Shell and BP<br />
T<br />
**Film, Winter driving, Shell<br />
and BP<br />
T<br />
**Film projector
Notes<br />
The turntable must be rotated steadily. This can be done<br />
by hand, but it is more convenient to drive it using the<br />
fractional horse power motor coupled with its gear box.<br />
The speed of rotation can be controlled by means of the<br />
variable Lt. supply.<br />
It may be necessary to increase the load on the truck by<br />
adding masses to it.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
139
140<br />
Reference Group Reqd<br />
no./q.<br />
6A7.22<br />
Reducing car<br />
accidents<br />
6A7.23<br />
Reducing accident<br />
injuries<br />
Discussion<br />
Safety and cars<br />
Item App.<br />
ref.
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
141
Section 8 Changes in atoms<br />
TIme required 3 weeks<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Charge from atoms<br />
Discussion<br />
Atoms and ions<br />
"'8.1<br />
Electrons in atoms<br />
T Book, The use of ionising<br />
radiations in schools etc<br />
"'8.2 T **Film, An approach to the<br />
Conduction in a electron Esso film for teachers<br />
vacuum T **Film projector<br />
142<br />
a(i) P2-4 L.t. supply, 0-12 Va.c.<br />
e.g. transformer<br />
P2-4 3 **Dry cells (U2), 1.5 V<br />
P2-4 1 **Circuit board<br />
P2-4 Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
P2-4 1 Diode EA50, and holder<br />
P2-4 1 Oscilloscope<br />
P2-4 1 Resistor, 1.5 kn
Notes<br />
Teachers and technicians should be familiar with the<br />
contents of this and any other regulation regarding the use<br />
of radioactive materials in schools.<br />
This section is divided into two parts. The second part<br />
starts at Investigation-s 8.5.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
There are two parts to this investigation. Part a(i) is the<br />
pupils' version of the demonstration a(ii) and part b(i)<br />
is the pupil version of the demonstration b(ii). Demonstration<br />
b(iii) is an optional demonstration using the demonstration<br />
hot filament triode tube.<br />
a(i) r~h~~~~~k-l0 8<br />
o.V<br />
6.Va.c.<br />
I I<br />
I I<br />
l .---.I.-;-~ c:J ()<br />
I 000<br />
I<br />
I<br />
1.5<br />
kn.<br />
continued<br />
143
144<br />
Reference Group Reqd<br />
no./q.<br />
6.8.2 continued<br />
Item App.<br />
ref.<br />
a(ii) T H.t. supply. 0-500 V 4<br />
T Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
T 1 Hot filament diode tube and<br />
stand<br />
T Oscilloscope<br />
T Resistor, 1.5kQ<br />
b(i) P2-4 L.t. supply, 0-12 V a.c..<br />
e.g. transformer<br />
P2-4 3 **Dry cells (U2), 1.5V<br />
P2-4 **Circuit board<br />
P2-4 Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
P2-4 1 Diode EA50,and holder<br />
P2-4 1 Galvanometer, 3.5-0-3.5 rnA<br />
P2-4 1 Rheostat, 10-15 Q<br />
b(ii) T H.t. supply, 0-500 V 4<br />
T Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
T 1 Galvanometer, 2.5-0-2.5 rnA,<br />
demonstration<br />
T Hot filament diode tube and<br />
stand
Notes<br />
The oscilloscope is set on time-base range 2, with the input<br />
switch to d.c. and the gain set between 0.1 and 0.5 div/volt,<br />
The internal resistance between the input terminals of the<br />
oscilloscope could be used for the load but it is probably<br />
better teaching to use the 1.5 kD., 0.5 W resistor as.<br />
illustrated. The input may be varied.<br />
If the diode is shorted out by connecting the anode to the<br />
cathode the effect of the diode as a rectifier is made clear.<br />
a(ii) A similar circuit to that used in a(i) is required for<br />
this demonstration. Notes concerning the use of the hot<br />
filament diode tube are to be found in Appendix 1.<br />
4.Va.c.<br />
galvanometer<br />
The diode must be under-run<br />
b(ii)
146<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
&8.2 continued b.b(iii) T ** Apparatus as in b(ii) but hot<br />
filament triode tube in place<br />
of the diode
Notes<br />
b(iii)<br />
See Appendix 1 for notes concerning the use of the hot<br />
filament triode tube.<br />
147
148<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
.&8.3 aT E.h.t. power supply, 5 kV 4<br />
Deflections in a T L.t. supply to give 6.3 V<br />
vacuum T Supply Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
T 1 Maltese cross tube and stand<br />
b(i)T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
Supply<br />
1<br />
E.h.t. power supply, 5 kV 4<br />
L.t. supply to give 6.3 V<br />
Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
Deflection tube and stand
Notes<br />
a<br />
.-"<br />
~ / perforated<br />
screen " ..... __ " anode filament<br />
Maltese cross<br />
6.3.V<br />
~ -o3.A<br />
It is not essential to connect the Maltese cross to anything<br />
and it may be most convincing if it is left disconnected.<br />
However, electrons hitting the cross will charge it negatively<br />
so that it repels electrons and this may even prevent the<br />
fluorescence at the end of the tube from being seen. Should<br />
this happen, connect the cross to the anode. With some tubes,<br />
electrons hitting the cross cause other electrons to be emitted<br />
from the cross. These secondary electrons travel to the anode<br />
and prevent the cross from becoming appreciably negative<br />
with respect to the anode and the tube fluoresces nearly<br />
normally.<br />
The arrangement with the cross connected to the anode may<br />
be preferred as the problems described above will not then<br />
be encountered.<br />
b(i)<br />
~-- first to e.h.t, +<br />
then to e.h.t. -<br />
For details of the operation of the deflection tube see<br />
Appendix 1.<br />
continued<br />
149
150<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A8.3 continued bell) T **H.t. supply 4<br />
0-500 V<br />
T **L.t. supply, 0-48 Vor<br />
tapped accumulators<br />
T Supply **Connecting leads, 0.3-0.5 m<br />
T 1 **Fine beam tube and stand<br />
T 2 **Magnets, magnadur<br />
T 1 **Rheostat, 10-15 n<br />
l:::.II..8.4<br />
Radius of path<br />
Discussion<br />
Current through<br />
a vacuum<br />
Radiations from<br />
atoms<br />
A8.5<br />
Evidence for<br />
radiations<br />
from atoms<br />
T **Film, Further experiments in<br />
radioactivity, Esso film for<br />
teachers<br />
T **Film, Introduction to radioactivity,<br />
Esso film for teachers<br />
T **Film projector<br />
PI Topic book, Radioactive<br />
chemicals, NC<br />
PI Topic book, Radioactivity,<br />
LPT<br />
aT<br />
**Cloud chamber, continuous<br />
(Taylor)<br />
T Cloud chamber, expansion<br />
(Wilson)<br />
T I **Dropper (teat) pipette<br />
T 10 cm ' **EthanolOMS)<br />
T I **Carbon dioxide, solid 4<br />
b
Notes<br />
b(ii) This is an alternative demonstration to b(i).<br />
Full details are given in Appendix 1 'Fine beam tube'.<br />
Do not operate the tube for longer than necessary.<br />
Do not raise the h.t. on the anode until the heater filament<br />
is glowing.<br />
Use blackout and operate the tube at its lowest operational<br />
voltage in order to extend its life, i.e. about 90 V with a<br />
new tube but higher voltage as the tube becomes older.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The second part of this section starts here.<br />
a Either type of cloud chamber will suffice for this work.<br />
Notes on the production of solid carbon dioxide are given<br />
in Appendix 4 'Gas cylinders'.<br />
b No apparatus is required.<br />
continued<br />
151
152<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
&8.5 continued cT E.h.t. power supply, ~ kV 4<br />
T a-source and holder e 39 pu<br />
or 241 Am), or a 5 pC radium<br />
source<br />
TA Supply Sheets of aluminium, paper,<br />
perspex, etc. as available<br />
T Spark counter<br />
4lT E.h.t. power supply,S kV 4<br />
T a-source and holder e 39 Pu<br />
or 241 Am), or a 5 pC radium<br />
source<br />
T 3 Connecting leads, 0.5 M<br />
T 2 Electrophorus discs, 150 mm<br />
diameter<br />
T 2-4 Electroscopes, and accessories<br />
T 1 Polythene strip or rod<br />
T 2 Retort stands, bossheads,<br />
clamps<br />
T Translucent screen and 60 W<br />
lamp<br />
T<br />
Woollen (flannel) cloth,<br />
150 mm X 150 mm minimum size<br />
TA Supply Compounds of uranium,<br />
thorium and others available
Notes<br />
c The high tension lead of the spark counter is connected<br />
to the positive terminal of the e.h.t. power supply. The other<br />
terminal of the counter is connected to the negative terminal<br />
of the supply, and this in turn is earthed. The voltage is<br />
increased until the counter is just below the point of<br />
spontaneous discharge.<br />
If a continuous spark is observed when a source is placed<br />
over the wire of the counter then the applied voltage is<br />
too high and the wire will become damaged. Keep the counter<br />
free of dust and change the wire if it becomes kinked or bent.<br />
d<br />
153
154<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
6A8.6 T a source e 39 pu or 241 Am)<br />
How many sorts? T ~ source (90 Sr)<br />
T 'Ysource (60 Co)<br />
T 1 GM tube (thin window)<br />
T 1-2 Lead blocks, e.g. from<br />
materials kit (NP item 1)<br />
T Magnet, e.g. Eclipse major<br />
T 50 g Plasticine<br />
T 1 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
T 1 Scaler 1<br />
T **Solid state detector and<br />
pre-amplifier<br />
Discussion<br />
Background<br />
radiation<br />
6A8.7<br />
Identifying the<br />
radiations<br />
6A8.8<br />
What are the<br />
T<br />
radiations? T<br />
TA ** Apparatus as described in<br />
A8.5 and 6A8.6<br />
T<br />
T<br />
**Film, The discovery of radioactivity,<br />
OECD<br />
**Film loop, A lpha particles<br />
Macmillan<br />
**Film loop projector<br />
**Film projector
Notes<br />
magnet<br />
Plasticine<br />
It is worthwhile finding out in advance the appropriate<br />
positions of the apparatus to give a large reading. Note<br />
that if no reading is obtained it is probably because the<br />
radiation is being deflected away from the GM tube. If<br />
the magnet is turned round the deflection will be towards<br />
the GM tube.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The optional practical work illustrates the criteria described<br />
in the table in <strong>Patterns</strong> 4.<br />
scaler<br />
ISS
156<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
8.9 T E.h.t. power supply,S kV 4<br />
Evidence for T Macro-Millikan apparatus<br />
chunks of charge T Polythene tile (or polystyrene<br />
ceiling tile)<br />
T Proof plane<br />
T Woollen (flannel) cloth,<br />
150 mm X 150 mm<br />
minimum size<br />
T Film, Are there electrons?,<br />
Rank<br />
T **Film, The electron'S tale,<br />
Mullard<br />
T Film loop, Are there<br />
electrons?<br />
Rank<br />
T Film loop projector<br />
T Film projector<br />
6&8.10 PA 200- Wooden cubes, 1 crrr'<br />
Random 1 000 (Tillich blocks or similar)<br />
radiations T **GM tube (thin window)<br />
T **Po1ythene bottle, 30 ern"<br />
T **Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
T **Scaler 1<br />
T **Stopclock<br />
T 10 em" ** Amyl acetate or ethyl acetate<br />
T 7 crrr' **Hydrochloric acid,<br />
concentrated<br />
3,4<br />
T 1 g **Uranyl nitrate
Notes<br />
The cubes are used as dice. Each die will need to have one<br />
marked face.<br />
Dissolve the uranyl nitrate in 3 crrr' of distilled water in the<br />
polythene bottle. Add 7 crrr' concentrated hydrochloric acid.<br />
Add 10 cm' amyl or ethyl acetate and shake vigorously.<br />
The GM tube is directed at the organic layer which separates<br />
out. This layer contains protactinium/P". The scaler registers<br />
the decay rate of the 234 Pa or if the GM tube is directed at<br />
the aqueous layer it will register the growth rate.<br />
ornanlc laver i.<br />
aqueous layer ••.<br />
r-----l r-==I<br />
~<br />
tube<br />
continued<br />
157
158<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
~..~8.1 0 continued T 3-4 **Dropping funnels or burettes<br />
T 1 **Retort stand<br />
4-5 **bossheads and clamps<br />
T 2X 1m **Rubber tubing<br />
T **Stopc1ock<br />
Discussion<br />
Randomness and<br />
change<br />
"'8.11<br />
Looking inside the<br />
atom<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
1<br />
3<br />
2<br />
2<br />
50mm<br />
I<br />
Dowel, 1 m X 6-8 mm<br />
diameter<br />
G-clamp<br />
Magnets, bar<br />
Magnets, cylindrical<br />
Retort stands, bossheads,<br />
clamps<br />
Rubber tubing<br />
wire loop<br />
TA **Two-dimensional motion<br />
apparatus
Notes<br />
~ '--_---. to sink<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
wire loop --.!!!!!!fl======1<br />
dowel<br />
cylindrical S N<br />
magnets S<br />
bar maonet'-i-11<br />
If dry ice is required it may be produced from carbon dioxide<br />
cylinders, see Appendix 4 'Gas cylinders'. Magnetic pucks are<br />
required for this model. continued<br />
159
160<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
8.11 continued T Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
T Sphere, conducting on nylon<br />
mono-filament suspension<br />
T Van de Graaff generator 4<br />
Discussion<br />
Nuclear structure<br />
·8.12<br />
The problem of<br />
certain atomic<br />
masses<br />
Discussion<br />
Isotopes<br />
68.13<br />
Atomic mass,<br />
atomic number<br />
and the periodic<br />
table<br />
P2 Alpha analogue model<br />
P2A Supply Marbles<br />
P2A Supply **Plasticine<br />
PI Topic book,Inside the atom,<br />
PI NC<br />
PI Topic book, Radioactive<br />
chemicals, NC<br />
PI Topic book, Radioactivity,<br />
LPT<br />
T **Film, Conquest of the atom,<br />
Mullard<br />
T **Film, Rutherford atom, PSSC<br />
T **Film projector<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
**Film, Isotopes, UKAEA<br />
Film loop, Aston's mass<br />
spectrograph, Mullard<br />
Film loop projector<br />
**Film projector
Notes<br />
A model can be<br />
constructed using<br />
an inverted saucer.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
Plasticine<br />
161
162<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
"'8.14 PI Topic book, Radioactive<br />
The philosopher's chemicals, NC<br />
stone<br />
8.1 5 PI Topic book, Inside the atom,<br />
Nuclear energy NC<br />
PI Topic book, Radioactivity,<br />
LPT<br />
T **Film, Fuel for the future,<br />
Mullard<br />
T **Film projector<br />
Discussion<br />
Uses of energy<br />
from nuclear reactions<br />
8.16 PIA Supply Periodicals, books and topic<br />
Using radioactivity books containing information<br />
concerning radioactivity and<br />
radioactive substances and<br />
their uses<br />
8.17<br />
Danger -<br />
radioactivity<br />
Discussion<br />
Restricting the use<br />
of radioactivity<br />
8.18<br />
The politics of<br />
the Bomb
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
163
164<br />
Section 9 Changes in molecules<br />
Time required 2 weeks + l:l.1week<br />
Reference Group Reqd<br />
no./q.<br />
l:l.Discussion T<br />
Molar ionisation<br />
energies of<br />
elements<br />
T<br />
Discussion T<br />
Ions and giant<br />
structures again<br />
T<br />
l:l.Discussion T<br />
Metals<br />
T<br />
l:l.Discussion T<br />
The covalent bond<br />
A<br />
Changes in positions<br />
of atoms<br />
9.1<br />
The case of C2 H60<br />
T<br />
T<br />
T<br />
Item App.<br />
ref.<br />
**Filmstrip, The architecture<br />
and properties of matter,<br />
part 1, frames 1,2,5,6,8,10,<br />
11<br />
**Filmstrip projector<br />
**Filmstrip, The architecture and<br />
properties of matter, part 1,<br />
frames 13, 14,15,16,17,18<br />
**Filmstrip projector<br />
**Filmstrip, The architecture<br />
and properties of matter, part<br />
1, frames 20, 21, 22,23,24,<br />
25,26<br />
**Filmstrip projector<br />
**Filmstrip, The architecture<br />
and properties of matter, part 1,<br />
frames 29, 30,31,32,33, 34,<br />
35 part 2, frames 32,33,34, 37,<br />
38,39<br />
**Filmstrip projector<br />
**Model of ethanol<br />
**Model of methoxyrnethane
Notes<br />
The Peel model kit may be useful in these discussions. See<br />
Appendix 1 'Peel models' for notes concerning their use.<br />
This section is divided into three parts, A, Band C.<br />
The first part starts here.<br />
For notes on the construction of the suggested models see<br />
Appendix 1"Molecular' models'.<br />
165
166<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A9.2 P2 Beaker, 250 cm '<br />
Comparing alcohols P2 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
and ethers P2A 1 pack Cotton wool, absorbent<br />
P2 6 Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2 1 Test tube holder<br />
P2 1 Test tube rack<br />
P2 1 Tripod, gauze<br />
T 6 Watch glasses, 50 mm hard<br />
glass<br />
TPA Winchester bottle,<br />
2 500 crn ' in fume cupboard<br />
P2 10 cm ' Butoxybutane (dibutyl ether)<br />
P2 10 cm ' Ethanol (IMS)<br />
P2 10 cm ' Ethoxyethane (diethyl ether) 4<br />
P2 10 cm ' Methanol<br />
P2 10 cm ' Propanol<br />
P2 10 cm ' Propoxypropane (dipropylether)<br />
P2 1 piece Sodium metal, the size of 4<br />
a rice grain<br />
TA **Models of the alcohols and<br />
ethers used in the experiment<br />
B<br />
Changing the size<br />
of molecules<br />
A9.3 a(i) P2<br />
Making ethanol from P2<br />
a larger molecule P2A<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2 2<br />
1 pack<br />
1<br />
2<br />
2-4<br />
Beaker, 400 cm '<br />
Bunsen burner, mat<br />
Cotton wool, non-absorbent<br />
Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
Rubber connecting tubing 0.5 m<br />
Test tubes, 125 mm X 16 mm<br />
Test tube, 125 mm X 16 mm<br />
with side arm, fitted with single<br />
hole bung and right angled<br />
delivery tube 175 mm X 50 mm<br />
Test tubes 150 mm X 25 mm
Notes<br />
Pupils should use the beaker as a water bath which is heated<br />
before they are given the ethers. Flames under the water<br />
baths are turned out before the experiments start and the<br />
hot water in the baths is used for warming the reaction<br />
mixture when esterification is attempted.<br />
The sodium should be cut in advance of the lesson and placed<br />
under naphtha or dry paraffin in a glass jar with a ground<br />
glass stopper until required. Excess sodium can be disposed<br />
of by dropping small pieces into a sink half full of water.<br />
Stand back as each piece reacts with the water as the bead of<br />
sodium oxide formed explodes when it dissolves.<br />
Keep the work area well ventilated during this work and<br />
dispose of excess solvents by placing in a Winchester bottle<br />
standing in a fume cupboard with the extractor fan running.<br />
Notes on the construction of models of the alcohols and<br />
ethers are given in Appendix 1 'Molecular models'.<br />
The second part of the section starts immediately before<br />
Investigation .9.3<br />
There are two parts to the experiment. In the first part a<br />
starch suspension is hydrolysed by acid hydrolysis and by<br />
enzyme action using saliva. The hydrolysate is examined<br />
using paper chromatography but in order to do this it will<br />
probably be necessary to concentrate the pupils' solutions<br />
by distilling under reduced pressure. The apparatus is listed<br />
in three parts; a(i) is the apparatus required for the hydrolysis,<br />
a(ii) is the apparatus required for concentration of the<br />
hydrolysate, and a(iii) is the apparatus required for<br />
chromatography.<br />
continued<br />
167
168<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
"'9.3 continued P2 Thermometer, -10 to +110 0 C<br />
P2 Tripod, gauze<br />
P2 1 bottle Benedict's solution in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
P2 2 cm ' Hydrochloric acid, I M 3<br />
P2 20 cm' Starch solution, 1% 3<br />
P2A Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Notes<br />
a(i) The two methods of hydrolysis to be used are acid<br />
hydrolysis using the cold finger apparatus illustrated, and<br />
enzyme hydrolysis using a water bath as illustrated in<br />
diagram b.<br />
a<br />
b<br />
heat<br />
t<br />
heat<br />
starch and 2 M<br />
hydrochloric acid<br />
starch and saliva<br />
The condenser<br />
should not be<br />
inserted until<br />
the liquid has<br />
boiled for 2-3<br />
minutes, and<br />
must not be<br />
secured with<br />
a tight fitting<br />
bung<br />
continued<br />
169
170<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
£9.3 continued al ii) P2A 1-2<br />
sets<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
3-6<br />
1-2<br />
Xlm<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
1-2<br />
**Apparatus for distillation<br />
under reduced pressure, see<br />
diagram, comprising;<br />
**Bunsen burner, mat<br />
**Condenser, Liebig, fitted with<br />
l-holed bung<br />
**Filter pump<br />
**Flask, 500 crrr' Buchner, fitted<br />
with 2-holed bung, and one<br />
short and one long delivery tube<br />
**Flask, 500 crrr' distillation,<br />
fitted with 2-holed bung, and<br />
one long delivery tube<br />
**Hoffman screw clip<br />
**Manometer, mercury<br />
**Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
**Rubber connecting tubing<br />
**Test tube, 1SO mm X 25 mm,<br />
with side arm, fitted with<br />
l-holed bung<br />
**Thermometer, -10 to + 110°C<br />
**Tripod, gauze<br />
**Water bath<br />
10-20 g **Boiling beads or porous pot
Nbtes<br />
a(ii) Apparatus for distillation under reduced pressure.<br />
Examine all glassware carefully for faults or cracks and use<br />
safety screens .<br />
.-------Hoffman screwclip<br />
to filter pump<br />
trap manometer<br />
continued<br />
171
172<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
.&.9.3 continued afiii) P2 1-2 Filter paper, approxima tely<br />
sheets 250 mm square<br />
P2 1 Gas jar and cover<br />
P2 1 Jet, glass, drawn to fine end<br />
P2A 1 Oven, set at 100°C<br />
P2 2-3 Paper clips<br />
P2A 2-3 Troughs for locating agent<br />
P2 5-10 cm' Eluent (chromatography<br />
solvent) 3<br />
P2 5 crrr' Glucose, 1% 3<br />
P2A Locating agent 3<br />
P2 5 cnr' Maltose, 1% 3<br />
T **Model of glucose<br />
T **Model of maltose<br />
b(i) P2 Flask, 100 crrr' conical,<br />
fitted with l-holed bung<br />
and short delivery tube<br />
P2 I Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
P2 1 Spatula<br />
P2 2 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2 50 cm' Glucose, 20% 3<br />
P2 10 cm ' Lime water 3<br />
P2 0.5 g Yeast<br />
b(ii) T Bunsen burner, mat<br />
T Condenser, Liebig<br />
T Filter funnel and pap er<br />
T Flask, 100 crrr' , conical, for<br />
use as receiver<br />
T Flask, 500 ern" , round bottom,<br />
fitted with I-holed bung<br />
T 1 Fractionating column<br />
T 3-4 Retort stands, bossheads,<br />
clamps
Notes<br />
a(iii) Ascending paper chromatography is suggested for<br />
this part of the experiment. The apparatus is assembled as<br />
shown in the diagrams.<br />
im of gasjar<br />
ct=b-+-+--paper clip<br />
--+-+---cylinder of filter paper<br />
The fine glass jet is used for spotting the test substances<br />
onto the chromatography paper.<br />
Information concerning the construction of appropriate<br />
models is given in Appendix 1 'Molecular models'.<br />
The second part of the investigation the pupils ferment<br />
glucose solution. Their products are collected together<br />
and filtered into distillation apparatus so that a few drops<br />
of ethanol can be distilled over and shown by burning to<br />
be alcohol. b(i) lists the pupils requirements and b(ii) the<br />
apparatus required for the distillation.<br />
b(ii) Fractional distillation of fermented glucose.<br />
continued<br />
173
174<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
"9.3 continued T 2 X 1m Rubber connecting tubing<br />
T Thermometer, -10 to<br />
+ 110°C<br />
T 10 g Boiling beads or porous pot<br />
"9.4 PI **Background book,<br />
Catalysis, NC<br />
Changes in the size T **Film loop, Problems in<br />
of alcohols and the use of detergents, NAC<br />
ethers T **Film loop projector<br />
"9.S PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Science<br />
A detergent story and decision making<br />
9.6 A Selection **Booklets from <strong>National</strong><br />
Alcohol and society Council on Alcoholism
Notes<br />
175
176<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
C<br />
Changes in<br />
molecular shape<br />
l!t.9.7 P2A Balance, reading to 0.00 I g<br />
The properties of P2 2 Beakers, 100 crrr'<br />
maleic and fumaric P2 1 Beaker, 250 cm'<br />
acids P2 Bunsen burner, mat<br />
P2 Filter funnel and paper<br />
P2 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
P2 Spatula<br />
P2 2 Test tubes, 150 mm X 16 mm,<br />
graduated<br />
P2 Tripod, gauze<br />
P2 Watch glass, 50 mm diameter<br />
P2 15 crrr' Hydrochloric acid, 34<br />
concentrated<br />
P2 1 bottle Universal indicator in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
P2A Water, distilled 3<br />
P2 0.2 g Magnesium ribbon<br />
P2 10-15 g Maleic acid<br />
P2 1-2 g Sodium carbonate<br />
T 1 Model of fumaric acid<br />
T Model of maleic acid<br />
l!t.9.8 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Science<br />
The PVC story<br />
and decision making
Notes<br />
The third part of the section starts here.<br />
Pupils are instructed to weigh accurately 0.06 mole of<br />
maleic acid, i.e. 6.96 g. It is suggested that the requisite<br />
quantity of maleic acid is weighed out by the technician<br />
before the lesson, as the weighings will take some time.<br />
The pupils can then be issued with the correct quantity<br />
of the acid at the commencement of the lesson.<br />
Notes concerning the construction of these models are to be<br />
found in Appendix 1 'Molecular models'.<br />
177
178<br />
Section 10 Changes in populations and communities<br />
Time required 1 week<br />
Required organisms:<br />
For Investigation "'10.6, **turfin seed trays may be required.<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
"'10.1 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book,<br />
Changes in Population patterns<br />
population size<br />
10.2<br />
Changes in communities:<br />
the seasonal pattern<br />
10.3 P2 1 **Microscope and lamp<br />
Long-term patterns P2A 4-6 **Microslides or coverglasses<br />
of change in with cellulose film attached<br />
communities P2A 2-6 **Plant pots (clay) 180 mm dia<br />
P2A 4-6 **Microslides or coverglasses<br />
with cellulose film attached<br />
P2A 2-6 **Plant pots (clay) 180 mm dia<br />
P2A 2-6 **Plastic bags or glass plates to<br />
cover the plant pots<br />
P2A 8-12 **Rubber bands<br />
P2 1 **Soft hair brush<br />
P2A 1 reel **Thread<br />
P2 1 **Wash bottle of water<br />
T 1 **Film, Succession from sanddune<br />
to forest, Rank<br />
T **Film projector<br />
10.4<br />
The causes of<br />
succession<br />
6A 10.5<br />
Do climax<br />
communities change?
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The optional apparatus is used for an alternative investigation<br />
in which cellulose film becomes colonised. Cellulose film -<br />
cellophane (jam jar covers) - will stick to coverglasses if it is<br />
moistened. The cellophane used here will not need to be<br />
boiled to remove sugars since such sugar traces are unlikely<br />
to affect the results. Long pieces of cellophane may be fixed<br />
to one microslide or be sandwiched between two microslides.<br />
In either case the film is kept in place by means of rubber<br />
bands or for long term work by means of bulldog clips. If<br />
the experiment is carried out using plant pots indoors then<br />
the slides or coverglasses should be arranged radially with<br />
the cellulose film facing the same way on each mount, and<br />
whether indoors or outside a thread attached to the mounts<br />
should emerge at the surface of the soil for easy retrieval.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
179
180<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
~10.6 P2A Supply **Grass seed or turf<br />
The destruction P2A Supply **Topsoil<br />
of climaxes P2 2 **Filter funnels, 200 mm dia<br />
plastic<br />
P2 2 **Roses (sprinklers)<br />
P2A Supply **Rubber tubing<br />
P2 2 **Seed trays<br />
P2 2 **Winchester bottles, 2 500 crrr'<br />
P2A 2-3 **Book, An A merican Exodus:<br />
a record of human erosion<br />
P2A 2-3 **Book, The grapes of wrath<br />
T I **Film, The plow that broke<br />
the plain, BFI<br />
T Film loop, The conservation<br />
of topsoil, NB<br />
T **Film projector<br />
T Film loop projector<br />
T Record, Dust bowl ballads<br />
T Record player
Notes<br />
Good results have been obtained using grass seed rather<br />
than turf. If grass seed is used it must be grown well in<br />
advance of this work.<br />
turf growing<br />
in shallow box<br />
or seed tray<br />
181
Section 11 Stability<br />
Time required 3 weeks.<br />
Required organisms:<br />
For Investigation A11.10. Elodea or some other submerged aquatic plant is required.<br />
For Investigation 6A 11.12. *A selection of plants for growing in a bottle garden is required.<br />
AdvancePfeparation: ....For Investigatioll12.1, **if miniponds are not used in this<br />
investigation ,fresh water aquaria should be set up now.<br />
A 11.1<br />
Changes up to a<br />
limit<br />
A 11.2<br />
Stability,<br />
equilibrium<br />
and forces<br />
182<br />
a P2 Drawing board<br />
P2 3 sets Masses, slotted on hangers<br />
P2 1-2 Protractors<br />
P2 2 Pulleys with clamps<br />
P2 2 Slotted bases<br />
P2A 1-2 String<br />
balls<br />
P2 2 sheets White paper<br />
b P2 Drawing board<br />
P2 3 Forcemeters, ION<br />
P2 Mechanics frame<br />
P2 1-2 Protractors<br />
P2A 1-2 String<br />
balls<br />
P2 2 sheets White paper
No apparatus is required.<br />
Three forms of apparatus are suggested for this work.<br />
The items are listed in three corresponding groups, a, b, and c.<br />
a<br />
holes drilled to take<br />
dowel pegs<br />
pulley<br />
drawing board<br />
frame made from<br />
25 mm square batten<br />
strengthening triangles<br />
on back of frame<br />
continued<br />
183
184<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
A 11.2 continued c P2 3 Clips<br />
P2 1 Disc, hardboard<br />
P2 1 Metal ring<br />
P2 1-2 Protractors<br />
P2A Supply Rubber bands of equal size<br />
P2 2 sheets White paper<br />
A11.3 PA<br />
Maintaining<br />
equilibrium<br />
611.4<br />
Stability of<br />
nuclei<br />
T<br />
T<br />
Discussion aT<br />
Discussion and<br />
demonstration T<br />
experiments on T<br />
stability in<br />
chemical systems T<br />
Supply Constructional materials for<br />
making bridges, e.g, balsa<br />
wood, drinking straws,<br />
string, wire, etc.<br />
**Film, The Forth Road Bridge<br />
Shell and BP<br />
**Film projector<br />
Bucket, 5 000 em"; metal,<br />
or metal waste bin<br />
Bunsen burner, mat<br />
Metre rule with wood splint<br />
attached to one end<br />
Polythene bottle with wide<br />
neck, fitted with solid bung<br />
and filled with 2: I mixture<br />
of hydrogen and oxygen
Notes<br />
c clip bent<br />
from thick<br />
wire<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
rubber<br />
bands<br />
The discussion centres on the stability of substances. In<br />
demonstration a, a bottle full of an explosive mixture of<br />
hydrogen and oxygen is ignited. The appropriate mixture<br />
of the gases is obtained in advance of the lesson by<br />
electrolysing water to which a small quantity of sulphuric<br />
acid has been added. The electrodes need to be lengths of<br />
platinum wire. The bottle is filled with water and inverted<br />
over both electrodes as shown in diagram a, in a trough<br />
such as a plastic aquarium.<br />
0.5 m diameter<br />
hardboard disc<br />
continued<br />
185
186<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
Discussion and<br />
demonstration<br />
experiments on<br />
stability in<br />
chemical systems<br />
bT<br />
T<br />
T<br />
1 pair<br />
0.2 g<br />
Bunsen burner, mat<br />
Tongs<br />
Magnesium rib bon<br />
continued cTA L.t. supply, 4-6 V d.c.<br />
T 1 Hoffman voltameter<br />
T 2-3cm3 Sulphuric acid,<br />
concentrated 34<br />
11.5 P2 I Dropper (teat) pipette<br />
The distribution of P2 I Spatula<br />
iodine between P2 2 Test tubes, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
potassium iodide P2 20 crn' Potassium iodide, 1 M 3<br />
solution and P2 10 cm' Trichloromethane 4<br />
chloroform: (chloroform)<br />
investigating an P2 0.5 g Iodine 4<br />
equilibrium T I **Film loop, Liquid/vapour<br />
equilibrium, NC<br />
T **Film loop, Solid/liquid<br />
equilibrium, NC<br />
T **Film loop projector
Notes<br />
4-6 V e_---'<br />
d.c.<br />
When the gas is to be ignited the bottle is placed inside a<br />
metal bucket (or waste bin). The bung is removed and a<br />
lighted splint attached to the end of a metre rule (diagram b)<br />
is applied to the bottle. The explosion is unlikely to break<br />
the bottle.<br />
In demonstration b magnesium ribbon is burned to produce<br />
its oxide.<br />
In c acidified water is electrolysed to give hydrogen and<br />
oxygen.<br />
187
188<br />
Reference Group. Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
11.6 P2 1 Beaker, 100 cm'<br />
A reversible P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes<br />
reaction P2 3 Petri dishes<br />
P2 1 White tile<br />
P2 10 cm ' Bromine water 34<br />
P2 1 bottle Litmus indicator in 3<br />
dropper bottle<br />
P2 5 crrr' Potassium chromate, 0.1 M 3<br />
P2 20 crn ' Sodium hydroxide, 2 M 3<br />
P2 20 cm ' Sulphuric acid, 2 M 3<br />
P2 10 cm ' Water, distilled and freshly 3<br />
boiled<br />
·1l.7 P2 2 Dropper (teat) pipettes<br />
Another reversible P2 1 Spatula<br />
reaction P2 1 Stirring rod<br />
P2 1 Test tube, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2 4 Test tubes, 150 mmX 25 mm<br />
P2 Test tube rack<br />
P2 5 cm 3 Hydrochloric acid, 34<br />
concentrated<br />
P2 0.5 g Bismuth(III) chloride<br />
.6& 11.8 P2A<br />
Investigating the P2<br />
Ag + (aq) and Fe 2 + (aq) P2<br />
interaction P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
P2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
5 ern"<br />
10 cm '<br />
1 bottle<br />
1 bottle<br />
Centrifuge and tubes 4<br />
Dropper (teat) pipettes<br />
Spotting tile<br />
Test tubes, 100 rnm X 16 mm<br />
Iron(Il) sulphate, 0.1 M 3<br />
Iron(IlI) sulphate, 0.1 M 3<br />
Potassium hexacyanoferrate<br />
(III), 0.1 M, freshly 3<br />
prepared, in dropper bottle<br />
Potassium thiocyanate, 3<br />
0.5 M, freshly prepared, in<br />
dropper bottle<br />
Silvernitrate, 0.1 M 3
Notes<br />
The pupils first try the effects of acid and alkali on<br />
bromine water which is placed in the beaker.<br />
The experiment is repeated using potassium chromate<br />
solution instead of bromine water.<br />
Finally approximately 10 crrr' of acid, alkali and distilled<br />
water are placed in separate Petri dishes. 1 cm' of<br />
indicator is placed in each of the dishes containing acid<br />
and alkali, and 2 em" of indicator are placed in the dish<br />
containing water. When the acid and alkali dishes are stacked<br />
on top of the white tile the colour of the solution appears<br />
the same as the neutral colour of the third dish containing<br />
water.<br />
The bismuth(III) chioride is dissolved in I cm' of<br />
concentrated hydrochloric acid.<br />
The four large test tubes are two-thirds filled with water<br />
and are then treated as follows: tube I, add 5 drops of<br />
concentrated hydrochloric acid; tube 2, add 10 drops,<br />
tube 3, 15 drops; tube 4, add no acid. Next add 5 drops<br />
of bismuth(III) chloride solution to each tube in turn.<br />
In this reaction the equilibrium between Fe 2 + and Fe 3 +<br />
ions is investigated. The presence of the ions is shown<br />
using an external indicator and dropping tile. A drop of<br />
reaction mixture is placed in a depression in the tile and<br />
potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) is added. A deep blue<br />
colour indicates the presence of Fe 2 + ions. A second drop<br />
is similarly tested with potassium thiocyanate and a red<br />
colour developes if Fe 3 '" ions are present. ,<br />
I<br />
189
190<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
.6.11.9<br />
Stability in the<br />
component<br />
building blocks<br />
of the atmosphere<br />
.6.11.10 P2A Supply Elodea or other submerged<br />
Predicting the water plant<br />
composition of P2A 1-2 Aquarium or beaker 1 000 crn'<br />
gas given off by P2A 3 Beakers, 100 cm 3 , containing<br />
a water plant reagents for gas analysis<br />
P2 Filter funnel, 100 mm dia<br />
short stemmed<br />
P2 2 J-tubes<br />
P2 2-3 g Plasticine<br />
P2 1 Retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
P2 1 Test tube, 100 mm X 16 mm<br />
P2A 100 cm' Sulphuric acid, 0.3 M, stained 3<br />
with methyl orange 3<br />
indicator
Notes<br />
No apparatus is required.<br />
The water plant should be set up as shown in the diagram<br />
some days before the analysis of gas given off is to be<br />
carried out. In dull weather it will be necessary to illuminate<br />
the plant artificially. Grolux fluorescent tubes are specially<br />
made for plant propagation and are recommended for use.<br />
(If a propagator, see Technician's Manual 1, Appendix 1, is<br />
in use it will provide a suitable source of lighting for this<br />
experiment).<br />
The filter funnel stem needs to be below the level of water<br />
in the aquarium (or beaker) and should be raised from the<br />
bottom with small lumps of Plasticine. An aquarium may<br />
contain several funnels so saving on the use of beakers.<br />
The water used may have one or two grammes of potassium<br />
hydrogen carbonate added per I 000 crrr' so as to provide<br />
a source of carbon dioxide for the water plants. The plants<br />
should be kept illuminated so that only oxygen is collected<br />
and not a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide.<br />
Full details concerning the use of .l-tubes are given in<br />
Appendix 1 'Composition of air apparatus'.<br />
191
192<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q. ref.<br />
11.11 P2A 2 Flasks, 500 crn", wide necked,<br />
Building blocks conical, containing horse dung<br />
beyond the P2A Supply Litmus paper, red and blue<br />
decomposer stage<br />
Discussion PI Background book, Fertilisers<br />
The 'nitrogen and farm chemicals, NC<br />
cycle' and PI Background book, The<br />
agricultural nitrogen problem, NC<br />
practice T **Film, Conservation and the<br />
balance of nature IFB<br />
T **Film projector<br />
6Al1.12 PA Supply Materials for making a bottle<br />
A bottle garden garden<br />
"'11.13<br />
The human demand<br />
PA 2-3 **Book, Consumers guide to the<br />
protection of the environment<br />
PA 2-3 **Book, Only one Earth
Notes<br />
The flasks need to be set up about one week in advance of<br />
this lesson. One flask and its contents is sterilized in an<br />
autoclave for 20 min at 10 5 N m -2 (IS lb in -2) and the<br />
other is left unsterilised. Both flasks should be plugged<br />
with sterile cotton wool over which is bound a sheet of<br />
aluminium foil, held in place with a rubber band. The<br />
rubber band should be fitted to the sterilised flask after<br />
the flask has cooled to room temperature, but stopper<br />
and cap need to be fitted and sterilised with the flask.<br />
\<br />
Suitable materials may include, a large sweet jar with<br />
screw cap, unsterilised potting compost and soil, and a<br />
selection of plants. Small animals such as snails,<br />
earthworms, woodlice and beetles will also be required.<br />
193
194<br />
Section 12 Changes in the environment<br />
Time required 2~ weeks<br />
Required organisms:<br />
For Investigation 12.1, Asellus or similar aquatic organisms, together with<br />
miniponds from <strong>Patterns</strong> 1 Section 3<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
12.1 P2A Supply Aquatic organisms e.g.<br />
Pollution by Asellus<br />
sewage P2A Supply **Leaf mould (mud) from<br />
e.g. stagnant pond<br />
P2A Supply McConkey agar 2<br />
P2A Minipond communities from<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 1 Section 3<br />
P2A 1-2 **Aquaria<br />
P2 1 Burette, 50 ern", and stand<br />
P2 Flask, 100 crrr' , conical<br />
P2 Microscope and lamp<br />
P2 2 Microslides and coverglasses<br />
P2 2-3 Petri dishes<br />
P2 10 cm 3 Fehling B solution 3<br />
P2 100 crrr' Iron(II) sulphate, 0.0089 M 3<br />
P2 1 bottle Phenosafranine in dropper 3<br />
bottle<br />
P2 5 crrr' Sodium hydroxide,S M<br />
P2A Supply Sugar<br />
T 1 Film, The river must live,<br />
Shell<br />
T Film projector<br />
12.2 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Science<br />
Controlling and decision making<br />
pollution<br />
[).12.3 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Man and<br />
Man and the the urban environment<br />
landscape: a project PI 2-3 Book, Consumer's guide to<br />
the protection of the<br />
environment<br />
PI 2-3 **Book, Man and environment
Notes<br />
This is a long term investigation taking approximately<br />
three weeks.<br />
Sugar may be used as an artificial pollutant rather than<br />
nitrogenous materials such as horse dung, which can lead<br />
to unpleasant smells. The concentration of sugar should<br />
not be allowed to rise above 0.1 M, i.e. 34 g to every<br />
1 000 cm' of aquarium water.<br />
The degree of pollution is indicated by the concentration<br />
of oxygen in the water and also the number of bacteria<br />
present. The procedure recommended is that using<br />
iron(II) sulphate and is described fully in Appendix 1<br />
'Oxygen concentration in water'.<br />
The method of bacterial counting is given in Appendix 2.<br />
If miniponds are not used for this investigation one or two<br />
aquaria should be set up about three weeks before this<br />
lesson.<br />
195
Section 13 Changes in society<br />
Time required ~ week<br />
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q.<br />
ref.<br />
T **Filmstrip, Background<br />
environments, VP<br />
T **Filmstrip, Garden environments, VP<br />
T **Filmstrip projector<br />
13.1 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Man and the<br />
The need to plan urban environment<br />
PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Population<br />
patterns<br />
PA **Simulation game, Tenement,<br />
shelter<br />
T **Film, A roof over your heads Part 1<br />
the tenants, Shelter<br />
T **Film, A roof over your heads Part 2<br />
the landlords, Shelter<br />
T **Film, Cathy come home, Shelter<br />
T **Film, Shelter youth education<br />
programme, Shelter<br />
T **Film, Slum housing, Shelter<br />
T **Film, The Shelter story, Shelter<br />
T **Film projector<br />
6.13.2 T I set **Transparencies, Before you get<br />
Can we plan to the bird get the cage, Shelter<br />
suit everyone? T **Film, A roof over your heads Part 3<br />
the law, Shelter<br />
T **Film, A roof over your heads Part 4<br />
try buying it, Shelter<br />
T **Film projector<br />
T **Slide projector<br />
6.13.3 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Science and<br />
The Gatwick airport decision making<br />
story<br />
196
Notes<br />
197
Reference Group Reqd Item App.<br />
no./q<br />
ref.<br />
&13.4 PI <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Science and<br />
The Park Hill story decision making<br />
l'IA 13.5 PI Jackdaw, Man and towns<br />
Town planning<br />
game<br />
&13.6 PI 1 <strong>Patterns</strong> topic book, Human groups<br />
How do we find out PIA 1-2 **Book, Society in Britain, Methuen<br />
what people want?<br />
198
Notes<br />
199
200<br />
Appendix I Notes on apparatus<br />
In addition to notes concerning the construction and use of<br />
apparatus, this appendix includes information about individual items<br />
and kits used in the <strong>Patterns</strong> scheme. It is not intended that the<br />
appendix should be a training <strong>manual</strong> for laboratory technicians, but<br />
it does include some elementary techniques which may be required<br />
by them.<br />
Bromine diffusion experiment<br />
This experiment is required for the discussion 'Particles and molecules'<br />
following Investigation .7.15 and for Investigation .7.16. The<br />
following notes refer to NP item 8, Bromine diffusion kit.<br />
Contents of the kit<br />
6 bungs, to fit stopcock and diffusion tube<br />
1 brush, for cleaning stopcock<br />
2 diffusion tubes, approximately 450 mm X 50 mm with 25 mm<br />
entry tube<br />
12 rubber tubing lengths to connect test tube to stopcock<br />
2 stopcocks,8 mm bore (Interkey) with bungs fitted<br />
6 test tubes, rimless, hard glass (e.g. Pyrex)<br />
12 bromine capsules, 1 ern" (NP item 8A)<br />
1 paraffin grease (Vaseline), small tin for lubricating stopcocks<br />
Other apparatus required<br />
1 beaker, 1 000 ern? containing 500 em" i-strength ammonium<br />
hydroxide, see Appendix 3.<br />
bucket containing 2500 ern" 2 M ammonium hydroxide, see<br />
Appendix 3<br />
pair pliers for crushing bromine capsules<br />
1 pump, motor driven, vacuum<br />
1 pair rubber gloves<br />
1 translucent screen and 60 W lamp
One kit and associated apparatus is required per school.<br />
Safety precautions<br />
Before and during the experiment a beaker of quarter strength (3.7 M)<br />
ammonium hydroxide should be at hand. Ammonia combines with<br />
bromine to form harmless ammonium bromide. If bromine splashes<br />
onto the bench or skin pour ammonia onto it at once. Ammonia<br />
must not be used near eyes. Wash out affected eyes with plenty of<br />
cold water and obtain medical attention, see Appendix 4.<br />
The apparatus<br />
The main diffusion tube is a hard glass tube approximately 450 rum<br />
long by 50 mm diameter, with only one opening to a side tube. A<br />
rubber bung fits into the side tube and carries the glass tube of the<br />
stopcock. This glass tube from the stopcock extends through the<br />
bung and ensures that only bromine vapour comes into contact with<br />
the bung. Bromine attacks rubber, and contact between liquid<br />
bromine and the bung could lead to a hazardous situation. The bung<br />
should be replaced with a new one as soon as bromine has hardened<br />
its face. The same bung can be used for several experiments, but if it<br />
is kept for a week or two after use, the rubber will harden and may<br />
crack. A new bung must then be used.<br />
The glass tube that continues out from the stopcock carries a<br />
short piece of thick walled rubber tubing which must be flexible and<br />
wide enough to admit the capsule or its snout. The other end of the<br />
rubber tubing is attached to a hard-glass, rimless test tube which is<br />
used to hold the bromine capsule until the experiment is performed.<br />
The stopcock should be of good quality, such as Interkey, with a<br />
bore of at least 8 mm. It is not necessary to use a special high vacuum<br />
quality stopcock but its tap must be spring-held for safety.<br />
201
202<br />
The rubber tubing must be sufficiently flexible for it to be<br />
squeezed with pliers to crush the bromine capsule, which slides into<br />
it from the test tube, and it must be long enough not to slip off the<br />
glass connections when squeezed.<br />
With this arrangement, the breaking of the capsule to release<br />
bromine is carried out before the stopcock is opened to admit<br />
bromine into the main tube. This enables the experimenter to<br />
concentrate on the crushing of the capsule first, and then to pay<br />
full attention to the main experiment.<br />
J------ diffusion tube<br />
stopcock<br />
bromine capsule<br />
Procedure for discussion following Investigation+ 7.15<br />
1. Check all rubber bungs and connections before assembling the<br />
apparatus, by squeezing them. If a cracking noise is heard or if<br />
cracks are seen the item must be replaced.<br />
2. Clamp the diffusion tube in a vertical position using a retort stand,<br />
2 bossheads and 2 clamps.<br />
3. Set up the translucent screen and 60 W lamp behind the diffusion<br />
tube so that the tube is silhouetted against a bright background.<br />
4. Fit the stopcock to the diffusion tube and make sure that it is closed.<br />
S. Fit the rubber tubing to the stopcock.<br />
6. Put the bromine capsule in the test tube and attach this to the rubber<br />
tubing.<br />
7. Tilt the test tube and tap it so that the capsule slides into the rubber<br />
tubing. Crush the capsule with the pliers to release the bromine.<br />
8. Open the stopcock to allow the bromine to enter the diffusion tube.
Procedure for Investigation I/;. 7.16<br />
1. Set up the diffusion tube as described in steps 1 to 4 above.<br />
2. Connect the outlet tube from the stopcock to the motor driven<br />
vacuum pump with a length of pressure tubing. An adaptor will be<br />
required because of the different diameters of tubing.<br />
3. Open the stopcock and evacuate the diffusion tube.<br />
4. Close the stopcock. Disconnect the pump and carry out the procedure<br />
described in steps 5 to 8 above.<br />
Cleaning the apparatus<br />
After the experiment the whole apparatus is put into a bucket, half<br />
filled with 2 M ammonia solution, see Appendix 3. The apparatus is<br />
taken to pieces under the solution in the bucket.<br />
The lower end of the apparatus is plunged in first. The bung is<br />
removed from the diffusion tube and the stopcock and other items<br />
are separated. The apparatus can later be washed, dried and reassembled.<br />
Paraffin grease (e.g. Vaseline) should be used to lubricate the<br />
stopcock. Do not use tap grease.<br />
It is sensible to wear rubber gloves for this cleaning process.<br />
Rubber gloves are not necessary during the main experiment as this<br />
would only invest the experiment with an air of danger which it does<br />
not deserve if carried out as suggested.<br />
If the apparatus has to be cleaned and dried quickly for use with<br />
another class, a hair dryer, with heater, provides much the easiest way<br />
of drying the main tube. On no account should the used tube be<br />
evacuated with the pump before the diffusion into a vacuum is<br />
attempted. A second tube should be used, or the first one should be<br />
washed and dried as described. Bromine will damage the pump and<br />
will be expelled from the pump into the atmosphere.<br />
Composition of air apparatus<br />
The Ltube method of analysing air samples is recommended for use<br />
in Investigation 1/;.11.10. The J-tube apparatus is illustrated in diagram a.<br />
The brass screw should be lubricated with silicone grease to ensure<br />
airtightness.<br />
a<br />
thick walled capillary tubing<br />
II PVC tubtnq<br />
l!- ~~~~~~~b"" screw<br />
brass collar 203
204<br />
Three solutions are required:<br />
potassium hydroxide, 25%,<br />
potassium pyrogallate,<br />
sodium chloride, saturated.<br />
Details of the preparation of these solutions are given in Appendix 3.<br />
The first two of these solutions need to be kept under a layer of liquid<br />
paraffin to prevent gas absorption from the atmosphere. This means<br />
that liquid paraffin could enter the capillary tubing of the f-tube and<br />
prevent gas absorption during the experiment. The apparatus<br />
illustrated in diagram b avoids this problem.<br />
The glass tube is placed in the reagent before the liquid paraffin is<br />
added. The J-tube can be inserted through the glass tube in order to<br />
avoid contamination by liquid paraffin.<br />
Approximately 0.3 M sulphuric acid stained with methyl orange<br />
indicator (see Appendix 3 for preparation of these reagents) should be<br />
available to pupils for rinsing the tubes between determinations to<br />
ensure that no residual alkali is carried over from one experiment to<br />
the next.<br />
In use, the length of an air bubble trapped in the long limb between<br />
seals of sodium chloride solution is measured and the outer seal is<br />
injected into the potassium hydroxide solution which is drawn in to<br />
absorb carbon dioxide. Absorption is aided by shunting the bubble<br />
back and forth by manipulation of the brass screw. After measuring<br />
the length of the bubble again, the J-tube is inserted into the potassium<br />
pyrogallate, the potassium hydroxide is forced out and replaced with<br />
this second reagent. After further shunting the length of the bubble is<br />
measured for the last time. Before each measurement the temperature<br />
of the tube and its contents should be standardised by, for instance,<br />
placing it in a cold water bath for about two minutes.
Cleaning J-tubes<br />
The simplest way to clean J-tubes is to separate the brass screw fitting<br />
from the glassware and to stand all the tubes in a fairly hot solution of<br />
one of the more vigorous surface active detergents. Any strong detergent<br />
will probably suffice. Squirt detergent through the capillary tube<br />
by putting a teat on one end and squeezing it a few times. Remove the<br />
teat, fasten the J-tube to a water tap with a piece of rubber tubing and<br />
run water through it for about half a minute. Remove the tube, dry the<br />
outside with a towel and then couple it to a filter pump. A minute's<br />
flow of air through the tube should dry it completely.<br />
Deflection tube<br />
The deflection tube is used in Investigation A8.3.<br />
It is set up with 6.3 Von the filament. The negative terminal of the<br />
e.h.t. power supply is connected to the filament and the positive<br />
terminal is connected to the anode. The anode should be earthed. The<br />
insulation between the filament supply and earth must withstand at<br />
least 6 kV. If a battery is used care must be taken to ensure good<br />
insulation, for example by standing it on polythene. Normal transformers<br />
will not stand this voltage, but the one in an e.h. t. supply<br />
unit will as it is specially insulated.<br />
With the e.h. t. supply turned off, the light from the filament<br />
produces a line on the inclined fluorescent screen where the light<br />
strikes it. As the voltage is increased to about 3 kV, a fluorescent line<br />
appears as the beam of electrons from the hot filament passes through<br />
the perforated anode and meets the inclined screen.<br />
'-----first to e.h.t, +<br />
then to e.h.t. -<br />
r-'----..--O 6.3. V<br />
'-T-------O 3.A<br />
205
206<br />
Electric deflection<br />
First both the deflecting plates should be connected to the anode. As<br />
the space between the plates is at a uniform potential the beam will not<br />
be deflected and the line on the screen will remain straight. One of the<br />
plates is now left connected to the anode while the other is connected<br />
to the negative terminal of the e.h.t. power supply. This produces a<br />
vertical field between the plates and the electron beam is deflected into<br />
a parabolic path. The light beam from the filament is unaffected by<br />
the field. An alternative arrangement uses a well insulated battery<br />
which is connected across the deflection plates.<br />
If two e.h.t. power supplies are available the following arrangement<br />
may be used to produce a variable deflection.<br />
/<br />
./<br />
,-1-- ---
Dynamics trolleys<br />
These trolleys are required throughout Sections 4 and 7.<br />
There are two types of trolley available which are suitable to the<br />
work in this course. One was devised by the Nuffield Physics O-level<br />
project and the other by Nuffield Secondary Science. The illustrations<br />
show both types of trolley arranged for use with ticker timers on the<br />
respective trolley runways. In any version it is important that the<br />
surface on which the wheels run is smooth, straight and rigid.<br />
The tape can be attached to a trolley quite firmly by using self<br />
adhesive tape (e.g. Sellotape) or, better still, plastic insulating tape.<br />
The timer could be clamped to the end of the runway by a G-clamp,<br />
or supported above the bench to ensure that the tape runs freely.<br />
Nuffield Physics style trolley runways may be made from blockboard<br />
or hardboard surfaced chipboard (either 2.4 m X 0.3 m or<br />
1.8 m X 0.3 m depending on space available) with sides of metal angle<br />
(e.g. Dexion or Handy Angle). The surface is improved by two coats of<br />
varnish, rubbed down between coats. The best finish is given by a<br />
plastic laminate (e.g. Formica).<br />
Nuffield Secondary Science runways and trolleys are constructed<br />
from Handy Angle, and have plastic runners. These are not recommended<br />
for accurate work.<br />
207
208<br />
It is necessary in both cases to keep the wheels of the trolley<br />
adjusted and lightly oiled, and the runners free from dust.<br />
Fine Beam Tube<br />
A fine beam tube is suggested for Investigation "'8.3.<br />
The following information refers to the Leybold tube and power<br />
supply.<br />
a<br />
connecting<br />
box<br />
Setting up the tube<br />
1. Rotate the tube so that the electron gun is pointing upwards.<br />
2. With the e.h.t. supply set at zero connect the anode to the positive<br />
(red) terminal and the cathode to the negative terminal.<br />
3. Connect the Wehnelt cylinder to the cathode. The cathode is connected<br />
to one heater terminal (H 2 ) inside the connecting box.<br />
4. Connect the heater terminals (HI and H2) to a 6.3 V supply.<br />
5. Connect one deflecting plate to the anode and to the Lt. negative<br />
(l-2 X 12 V accumulators or equivalent d.c. supply). Connect the<br />
other deflecting plate to a wander lead. With the 1.t. supply at zero<br />
connect this wander lead to the Lt. position.<br />
6. Switch on. The heater filament will begin to glow.
7. Raise the h.t. voltage applied to the anode until the beam is just<br />
visible (about 50 V). The brightness may gradually increase for a few<br />
minutes. Increasing the voltage will increase the brightness and the<br />
length of the beam. Use 90 V or as little above this as possible up to<br />
150 V, such as will give adequate brightness in a darkened room. The<br />
lower the operating voltage the longer will be the life of the tube.<br />
8. Reduce the anode voltage to zero when the beam is not actually being<br />
observed.<br />
a<br />
connections<br />
to cells<br />
connections to deflection plats<br />
+ 90-150.V 6.3.V<br />
9. If a diffuse beam results over all anode voltages apply a low positive<br />
voltage (up to 6 V) to the Wehnelt cylinder.<br />
Electric Deflections<br />
o o<br />
o I<br />
A C W<br />
1. Apply a d.c. voltage (e.g. 12 V) to the deflecting plates by moving the<br />
lead from the second deflecting plate. This will deflect the beam.<br />
2. Reverse the connections to the deflection plates. The beam is now<br />
deflected in the opposite direction.<br />
3. Use a higher voltage (e.g. 15 V) the deflection is greater.<br />
209
210<br />
Magnetic deflection<br />
1. Place a magnadur or other magnet on one side of the tube. A magnetic<br />
deflection is produced leading to a curved beam. Two magnets will<br />
give a more uniform field.<br />
o<br />
N S<br />
o<br />
N S<br />
c<br />
Plan view of tube<br />
2. Connect the pair of coils to 6 V through a rheostat as shown in the<br />
diagram below. This will give a result similar to that obtained using<br />
two magnets. Changing the current and reversing it will illustrate the<br />
effect of different magnetic fields. With a suitable value the beam can<br />
be bent into a complete circle.<br />
GM tube<br />
90.V 6.3.V<br />
The tube suggested for use is a thin window tube, type number<br />
MX 168/0l.<br />
It is necessary to be familiar with the characteristics of the tube<br />
in use. In order to plot these characteristics, a source is put at a<br />
fixed distance from the tube. The voltage is started well below the<br />
threshold and is turned up slowly from, say, 250 V in 25 V steps<br />
until counts start. The count rate is measured over a range of applied<br />
voltages and a plot of count rate against applied voltage is made.
plateau<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I working voltage<br />
I (approximately 350-400. V)<br />
I<br />
I<br />
starting voltage applied voltage<br />
The GM tube is normally operated at a voltage on the plateau<br />
(usually 50-100 V above the threshold voltage). If the voltage is turned<br />
up higher than this the count rate rises steeply and the tube is likely to<br />
be damaged. The tube should not be operated in this region. The mark<br />
of a good tube is a long plateau in its characteristic. The plateau in<br />
type MX 168/01 is at an operational voltage of approximately<br />
350-400 V.<br />
Hot-filament diode tube<br />
This tube is required for Investigation .8.2.<br />
a<br />
211
212<br />
0+ +<br />
A [L]<br />
0- ~ -<br />
h.t. supply<br />
The diode tube is set up in the stand and 6.3 V are applied to the<br />
filament.<br />
The plate in the tube is connected through the demonstration meter<br />
(2.5-0-2.5 rnA) to the h.t. power supply. The other terminal of the<br />
supply is earthed and connected to one of the filament terminals. The<br />
supply enables the plate to be at 400 V either positive or negative<br />
with respect to the filament.<br />
It will be found that no current flows, whatever the potential<br />
difference across the tube, as long as the filament is not glowing. When<br />
the filament is glowing, a current flows if the plate is positive. If,<br />
however, the plate is negative, no charge flows.<br />
Hot-filament triode tube<br />
This tube is suggested for Investigation "'8.2.
The basic connections to the hot filament triode tube are the same<br />
as for the hot filament diode. 6.3 V are applied to the filament and<br />
500 V are applied across the plate and the filament connections.<br />
The grid is connected to a 12 V d.c. supply as shown in the circuit<br />
diagram below. Voltmeters can be connected across the 12 Vand<br />
500 V supplies as shown. In some h.t. supplies an Lt. output is also<br />
available which can be used for the grid instead of a battery.<br />
If the current is due to negative charge flowing from the filament,<br />
the positively charged grid would cause an increase in the plate<br />
current. If, however, it is positive charge which flows, then a positively<br />
charged grid would cause a decrease in the current. The experiment is<br />
carried out so that a decision is made between these alternatives.<br />
With the applied voltage of 500 V the following currents are typical:<br />
Grid voltage/V + 12 0 - 12<br />
Applied current/rrrA 1.2 0.4 o<br />
6.3.V<br />
,.,..---- •....•• -,<br />
__________ J // -, \<br />
----------\ , '.•...<br />
213
214<br />
Inertia balance kit<br />
The inertia balance kit is suggested for the optional discussion 'Inertia<br />
measurement' following Investigation 6.6.4.4.<br />
Nuffield item 146 can be purchased or the apparatus may be<br />
constructed as shown below.<br />
hardboard<br />
or plywood<br />
base<br />
a<br />
hardwood block<br />
screws<br />
Masses may be made by cutting steel rod into suitable lengths. The<br />
apparatus is firmly fixed to the bench by means of G-clamps.<br />
Alternative method using a dynamics trolley<br />
b<br />
The ends must be rigidly fixed for the trolley to oscillate effectively.<br />
It may be easiest to attach the springs to G-clamps screwed to the<br />
bench.<br />
Inoculating loops<br />
Inoculating loops are required for Investigation 66.19. Ideally they<br />
are 60 mm lengths of platinum wire about 24 s.w.g. (see 'Standard<br />
wire gauge' below) with a terminal loop, which are mounted in some<br />
form of holder. Nichrome wire of similar thickness makes a good<br />
substitute for platinum wire and is much cheaper. The loop in the<br />
end of a 60 mm length of wire is made by wrapping it around a 5 mm<br />
diameter rod and twisting two or three times to secure the loop.
The easiest way of mounting the wire is to insert it into a needle<br />
holder. This is more expensive than other methods of mounting but<br />
it avoids the problems of cracking which arise if glass holders are<br />
accidentally heated.<br />
Macro-Millikan apparatus<br />
This is required for Investigation 8.9. The apparatus described is<br />
Nuffield physics item 142.<br />
Procedure<br />
The pair of metal plates are set up horizontally, 75-100 mm apart,<br />
one above the other. The lower plate is connected to the negative<br />
terminal of the e.h.t. power supply, which in turn is connected to the<br />
earth terminal, the upper plate is connected to the positive terminal.<br />
(If it is desired to reverse the field, the leads to the supply are changed,<br />
but in each case the lower plate should be earthed). Take care that the<br />
power supply is off when making connections and adjustments to<br />
the apparatus.<br />
Through the hole in the upper plate is lowered the small conducting<br />
sphere with its nylon suspension. The upper end of the nylon suspension<br />
is looped and connected to the glass (Pyrex) spring. This spring<br />
must be kept free from grease.<br />
The best arrangement for securing the upper end of the spring is to<br />
attach it to another loop in a nylon thread which is taken up over a<br />
pulley connected to the ceiling, and then to an eyelet on a block of<br />
wood. Alternatively, a support from a long retort stand rod can be<br />
used, see the diagram.<br />
Rub the polythene tile and put the proof plane on it. Touch the<br />
proof plane with a finger so that it becomes charged by induction.<br />
Without touching the plates, bring the proof plane up to the conducting<br />
sphere to charge it by contact. Adjust the suspension so that the<br />
sphere is almost exactly halfway between the two plates. This is most<br />
conveniently done, in the first arrangement described above, by moving<br />
the block of wood nearer to, or away from, the apparatus, the sphere<br />
will be lowered or raised.<br />
Switch on the e.h.t. supply with 2 000-4 000 V; the sphere will be<br />
seen to move as the extra force stretches the spring. The sphere can be<br />
brought back to the central position by moving the block of wood.<br />
The movement is particularly easy to see if a plane mirror is<br />
placed behind the suspension with a horizonta11ine ruled across it<br />
215
216<br />
insulating<br />
handle<br />
!J<br />
proof planes<br />
whilst a small cardboard disc is attached to the nylon suspension to<br />
act as a pointer. After the sphere has been positioned at the centre of<br />
the plate this pointer is aligned with the mark on the mirror by no<br />
parallax before the field is switched on. This special arrangement may<br />
divert attention from the general idea and need not be used in this<br />
qualitative demonstration.
There are no measurements to be made in this demonstration; it<br />
is a qualitative experiment to demonstrate this principle of a force on<br />
a charged body between two parallel plates. In any case, there is a<br />
tendency for the charge to leak away along the suspension and<br />
quantitative experiments do not lead to very satisfactory results unless<br />
considerable trouble is taken.<br />
If the sphere is near one plate, the charge on it induces an<br />
opposite charge on that plate, so there is attraction. It is undesirable<br />
that the effect of this attractive force should appear in the demonstration.<br />
Therefore, the sphere must be approximately half way between<br />
the two plates, so that these attractive forces cancel out.<br />
A realistic model of the Millikan experiment may be produced by<br />
placing a very small light metal sphere (or a piece of aluminium foil)<br />
in the field between the plates. The sphere becomes charged by contact<br />
with one of the plates which then repels it. As in the actual Millikan<br />
experiment the position of the sphere between the plates can be adjusted<br />
by varying the e.h.t. supply. The charge on this sphere needs to be<br />
made as small as possible and the potential of the plates as large as<br />
possible in order to overcome the problems mentioned above.<br />
Magnets<br />
Magnets are liable to become demagnetized if roughly treated, and if<br />
stored separately. Ceramic based magnets such as magnadur or alcomax,<br />
tend to hold their magnetism well but are brittle and will break easily<br />
if dropped onto a hard surface. It is advisable to keep magnets in pairs<br />
with opposite poles in contact, preferably with soft iron keepers, as<br />
shown in the diagram.<br />
217
218<br />
Care should be taken not to allow iron filings to adhere to the<br />
magnets as these will form centres for the start of corrosion. It is possibl<br />
to wrap magnets in thin polythene sheeting or polythene bags when<br />
using them with iron filings so that any filings can be removed by carefully<br />
unwrapping them and lifting them away from the clean side of<br />
the polythene. Soft Plasticine or putty can be used to remove iron<br />
filings adhering to magnets. The attraction between strong magnets<br />
and iron filings may be sufficient to prevent the Plasticine/putty<br />
cleaning technique being effective. The filings will then need to be<br />
carefully picked off.<br />
On no account should magnets be washed to remove iron filings,<br />
because washing will not remove them and the wetted filings will turn<br />
rusty.<br />
Molecular models<br />
Expanded polystyrene spheres are useful for making models of<br />
molecular structures. The information given is for the construction of<br />
simple tangential contact models. Instructions for more accurate models<br />
are given in the references.<br />
Nuffield Chemistry Handbook for Teachers. Longman, 1967<br />
Nuffield Chemistry Sample Scheme III: A Course of Options, Appendixe<br />
to Options 2 and 7. Longman, 1967<br />
Platts, C.V. Instructional Booklet. Griffin & George<br />
Sanderson, R.T. Teaching Chemistry with Models, Van Nostrand,<br />
1962<br />
Tetlow, K.S.L. Modelling of Chemical Structures with Expanded<br />
Polystyrene Spheres, Royal Institute of Chemistry Reprint, Education<br />
in Chemistry, vol. 1 no. 1, January 1964<br />
The polystyrene spheres can be fixed together by dab bing the<br />
point of contact with trichloromethane (chloroform), propanone<br />
(acetone), amyl acetate or a number of other organic solvents and then<br />
pressing together. A glue made of a polystyrene sphere dissolved in a<br />
minimum quantity of amyl acetate may be used. Use these organic<br />
solvents and glues sparingly as they tend to dissolve the spheres.<br />
Commercially produced expanded polystyrene adhesive (EPA),<br />
obtainable at home decorating shops, does not dissolve the spheres<br />
but takes 24 hours to dry. Alternatively the spheres may be wired<br />
together or joined by toothpicks (wooden cocktail sticks), pipe<br />
cleaners, etc. A combination of physical linkage and glue makes a<br />
very firm permanent structure.
Make the linkages by cutting approximately 15 mm of connecting<br />
material. Bore the points of contact using an awl or similar<br />
pointed instrument and force the linkage into one sphere before<br />
forcing the other sphere onto the free end of the linkage. A dab of<br />
glue or solvent applied before the spheres are finally pressed together<br />
then finishes the joint.<br />
If spheres of different colours are to be used in the model,<br />
prepare them by making any holes needed and then colour them<br />
before assembling the model. Probably the easiest method of colouring<br />
the spheres is to use plastic emulsion paints, or plastic emulsion<br />
white base and colourisers. If in doubt about any paint it is worth<br />
testing a sample on a spare piece of polystyrene to ensure that the<br />
paint does not contain a solvent which will dissolve the plastic.<br />
Spheres may be dyed. Details are given in the Nuffield references.<br />
Spheres required for the models<br />
All of the models required are of compounds containing carbon,<br />
hydrogen and oxygen. The spheres for carbon should be coloured<br />
black and be marked tetrahedrally at 109.5°. Hydrogen spheres<br />
should be white with one hole, and oxygen red with two holes at<br />
104.5°. The most accurate sizes of the spheres are; carbon, 45 mm<br />
(1 ~ in) diameter; hydrogen, 12.5 mm (~ in) diameter; oxygen, 38<br />
mm (I ~ in) diameter. However, in the interests of economy these<br />
sizes could be, respectively, 25 mm (I in), 12.5 mm (~in) and 18<br />
mm (* in).<br />
In order to mark the spheres at the appropriate angles two<br />
protractors are required. These can be made from carboard, and are<br />
illustrated in diagrams a and b.<br />
38.mm or<br />
18.mm<br />
diameter<br />
45.mm or<br />
25.mm<br />
diameter<br />
template for oxygen template for carbon<br />
Spheres to represent oxygen are placed in the semicircle cut out<br />
of the protractor and are marked in two positions 104.5° apart.<br />
Spheres to represent carbon need to be marked tetrahedrally with the<br />
219
220<br />
marks mutually at 109.5 0<br />
apart. Mark each sphere at 120 0<br />
intervals<br />
around the equator (the seam) and then make marks for the connectors<br />
at the pole and at 109.5 0<br />
from the pole on the longitudinal lines<br />
passing through the pole and the equatorial 120 0<br />
marks. Finally bore<br />
holes for the connectors at the appropriate marks and colour the<br />
spheres ready for assembly.<br />
Butoxybutane (di-n-butyl ether)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation .6.9.2.<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
8 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
18 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
1 red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigations 9.1 and .6.9.2.<br />
H H-O<br />
\ /<br />
c-c<br />
w"/ I I
Ethoxyethane (diethyl ether)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation "'9.2.<br />
:>SC:O):
222<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
6 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
12 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
6 red spheres, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
Maleic acid<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation ~9.7.<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
4 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
4 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
4 red spheres, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen<br />
2 35 mm lengths of curtain wire, representing the double bond.<br />
Maltose<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation ~9.3a. Essentially maltose<br />
consists of two a-glucose units linked via oxygen at the 1,4 positions.<br />
H<br />
H \ o_H H HI<br />
-C \ O-H<br />
H" 0 H H./<br />
\ "/.~ I I C", °<br />
/~~ ,H ~~C C -, /. H~ H<br />
H--O ~cVI ""'0/ ~~ o/~c~c/<br />
0 I \<br />
I<br />
H 'HI ) o. ""-H<br />
0<br />
""'H<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
12 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
22 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
11 red spheres, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
H
Methanol (methyl alcohol)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation &9.2.<br />
O __ H<br />
T<br />
C<br />
H/T"H<br />
H<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
black sphere, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
4 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
Methoxymethane (dimethyl ether)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation 9.1.<br />
H H<br />
H I I H<br />
'c c"""'"<br />
H/ '0/ ""-H<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
2 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
6 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
Propan-I-ol (n-propyl alcohol)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation &9.2.<br />
H<br />
\l<br />
H c O-H<br />
'c/ ~c/<br />
/\ /\<br />
H H H H<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
3 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
8 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
223
224<br />
~Propoxypropane [di-n-propyl ether)<br />
This model is suggested for Investigation &9.2.<br />
Requirements for the construction are:<br />
6 black spheres, 45 mm (or 25 mm) diameter, representing carbon<br />
14 white spheres, 12.5 mm diameter, representing hydrogen<br />
red sphere, 38 mm (or 18 mm) diameter, representing oxygen.<br />
Multiflash Photography<br />
In multiflash photography it is necessary to highlight the subject<br />
against a dark background to ensure good contrast in the picture. The<br />
successive photographs of the event, at regular time intervals on the<br />
same negative frame, are achieved either by using constant illumination<br />
and a motor driven stroboscope, or by using intermittent<br />
illumination with a xenon stroboscope. Notes on both methods are<br />
given below.<br />
Stroboscopic photography using a 35 mm camera and a synchronous<br />
strobe disc<br />
A camera focussing down to about 1.5 or 2 m is required. It must have<br />
a lens aperture of at least f/8, although f/6.3, f/4.5 or f/3.5 are preferred.<br />
A 35 mm camera is best because the technique of developing the<br />
film in the cassette is so convenient and simple to use. The shutter<br />
should be fitted with time (T) or brief (B) settings: in practice the<br />
brief setting is the more convenient. Unless the camera has a reflex<br />
viewfinder, it is as well to check the field of view by putting a strip of<br />
translucent material, such as greaseproof paper, in the position normally<br />
occupied by the film, opening the shutter and checking that all<br />
the motion to be photographed is observable through the camera.<br />
Set up the camera firmly about 1.5 m from the experiment to be<br />
recorded. Focus the lens for this distance. Fit the synchronous motor<br />
with the appropriate black slotted disc. A five-slit disc gives intervals<br />
of 1/25 s and a six-slit disc intervals of 1/30 s between shots, if the<br />
frequency of the motor is 5 Hz (300 r.p.m.). Place the disc about<br />
10 mm in front of the lens of the camera, so that the rotating slits<br />
will sweep across the lens.
The intervals between exposures can be varied by covering unwanted<br />
intermediate slits with black adhesive tape. This will enable a sufficient<br />
number of exposures to be chosen to appear in the final picture. The<br />
width of the slit controls the sharpness of the images obtained, and<br />
the narrowest slit which is consistent with adequate illumination is<br />
best.<br />
The scene can be illuminated with a slide projector, placed so that<br />
its beam lights the whole of the action without either illuminating the<br />
background or spilling light onto the camera.<br />
A dark background is required. A matt black cloth surface gives<br />
good contrast, but this is not essential. The method can be used in<br />
very subdued room lighting. Best results are obtained if total blackout<br />
can be achieved in the room.<br />
Using a xenon stroboscope and a 35 mm camera<br />
Theoretically, sharper pictures than those taken with the motor<br />
stroboscope are possible if a xenon stroboscope is used. In practice<br />
there is little to choose between the two techniques. The xenon flash<br />
replaces the slide projector and slotted disc used in the method<br />
described above. The procedure is basically the same as for motor<br />
driven stroboscope photographs. It is essential to have a first class<br />
blackout although with the high power xenon flasher (available from<br />
Service Trading Ltd.), which is bought in kit form, it is possible to<br />
gain satisfactory results under conditions of subdued room lighting.<br />
The beam from the xenon stroboscope must be directed on to the<br />
object" to be photographed, and should be kept off the background.<br />
It should not be used as a general floodlight since this will produce<br />
pictures lacking in contrast.<br />
Using a Polaroid camera<br />
The types of Polaroid camera which have only an automatic exposure<br />
time and no facility for holding the shutter open can usually be used<br />
for stroboscopic work, if the 'magic eye' is blacked out with insulating<br />
tape.<br />
The Polaroid camera combines the making of an exposure and the<br />
production of a print, which makes the whole process simpler and<br />
quicker, but it is more expensive than the 35 mm camera technique.<br />
The Polaroid film is faster (3000 ASA) than the 35 mm negative films,<br />
but this is balanced to a certain extent by the comparatively small<br />
(f/9) lens aperture of the Polaroid camera.<br />
225
226<br />
A typical exposure value for Polaroid film is EV13 (f/9), when<br />
used for stroboscopic photography.<br />
Developing 35 mm films in the cassette<br />
This technique employs a special Kodak Monobath, and it is best to<br />
use the recommended Kodak film, Plus-X, although Tri-X film is also<br />
suitable.<br />
The film used must not be longer than a 20-exposure length,<br />
otherwise the pumping action which should take place in the cassette<br />
during the developing procedure, will not take place. The Monobath<br />
solution is alkaline (caustic) and poisonous and can cause dermatitis,<br />
so rubber gloves should be worn.<br />
Make the first 2-4 exposures of the film as blanks and then take up<br />
to 16 exposures. Wind the film back into its cassette leaving about<br />
20 mm of film and the tongue protruding. Remove the cassette from<br />
the camera. Cut off the tongue and bend the last piece of film back<br />
over the cassette. Secure the film with a rubber band.<br />
Take a short slotted rod and fit the slot over the key in the end of<br />
the cassette. Wind the fum gently on its spool inside the cassette and<br />
lower the cassette into 40 ern" of the Monobath solution in a small<br />
container, until all but the top of the cassette is immersed. The<br />
container is a glass beaker or medicine glass of about 70 crrr' capacity.<br />
As the cassette is lowered into the Monobath solution, gently unwind<br />
the film by twirling the slotted rod. Air will bubble out as the film is<br />
moved. Carefully rewind the film so that the solution is pumped<br />
through the cassette, and repeat the winding process until liquid is<br />
forced out of the top of the cassette. Immerse the cassette fully in the<br />
Monobath solution. Wind and unwind the film through 1~ turns every<br />
2 seconds, so continuing the pumping action. Carry out this winding/<br />
rewinding operation continuously for 3~ -4 minutes for Plus-X film and<br />
for at least 5 minutes for Tri-X film,<br />
Push the end off the cassette or pull out the film under water and<br />
wash well with running water. Should the film appear cloudy, transfer<br />
it immediately to a bath of acid fixer containing a hardener. If on<br />
inspection the film has horizontal dark bands across it then the back<br />
and forth winding action has been carried out for too many turns each<br />
way. If there are longitudinal scratches then the winding has been<br />
carried out too vigorously.<br />
Re-fixing and further washing will improve the keeping qualities of<br />
the film but the method should not be expected to produce high<br />
quality negatives.
Drain the film, select a negative and mount.it for projection. It is<br />
often convenient to adjust the projector-screen distance so that the<br />
image is the same size as the object photographed.<br />
Oscilloscope<br />
Operating instructions for the demonstration oscilloscope<br />
The details and operating instructions given below refer to the<br />
Telequipment S 51 E cathode ray oscilloscope which was the instrument<br />
used in the Nuffield O-level physics trials. For other instruments<br />
these notes should be read in conjunction with the manufacturer's<br />
instructions.<br />
Procedure<br />
The controls are as shown in the diagram.<br />
Note that the V-shift and timebase variable controls are the red<br />
knobs on the front panel.<br />
To prepare the oscilloscope for use, plug into the mains supply and<br />
set the controls as follows:<br />
brightness to OFF<br />
focus to the mid-position<br />
X-gain fully anticlockwise<br />
X-shift to the mid-position<br />
trig control to +<br />
227
228<br />
timebase: time/em control to 1 ms<br />
timebase: variable control fully clockwise<br />
stability control fully clockwise<br />
trig level control fully clockwise<br />
amplifier: V/cm control to 0.5<br />
V-shift to the mid-position<br />
input switch to d.c.<br />
Switch on by means of the brightness control. After warming up<br />
for about one minute, turn brightness control clockwise until a trace<br />
appears and set the control so that the trace is clearly visible but not<br />
excessively bright. If no trace appears, leave the brightness control in<br />
the fully clockwise position and adjust the X-shift and V-shift until<br />
the trace appears. This is best done by rotating X-shift backwards and<br />
forwards while slowly advancing the V-shift from the fully anticlockwise<br />
position. Immediately the trace is found, reduce the brightness<br />
control to a convenient level.<br />
<strong>Centre</strong> the trace using the X-shift and V-shift controls, and adjust<br />
the focus control to give a sharp trace.<br />
Slowly turn the stability control anticlockwise until the trace just<br />
disappears and, finally, rotate the trig-level anticlockwise and switch<br />
it to the auto position. The trace (which reappears when the trig-level<br />
is rotated) may dim when this is done, but will brighten again when an<br />
input is applied.<br />
The oscilloscope is now ready for use, but it is advisable to be<br />
familiar with the function of the various controls. Put 2-4 V, 50 Hz<br />
a.c. on the input. Change V/cm to 5. Turn the variable timebase<br />
control (red knob) fully anticlockwise and then back to the calibrated<br />
position (fully clockwise). Change the timebase control to 100 /J.S,<br />
then return it to 1 ms. Change trig + to - (if the sine curve trace is<br />
not inverted by this, turn the stability control very slightly anticlockwise<br />
until it is) and return the control to +.<br />
Details regarding the use of the stability and trig-level controls are<br />
given in the oscilloscope handbook. For most experiments the triglevel<br />
control can be left at auto. To give a steady trace the stability<br />
control should be turned as far as possible anticlockwise without<br />
losing the trace. This setting may vary slightly with different timebase<br />
speeds.<br />
To avoid screen damage, do not use excessive brightness. With the<br />
timebase off, do not leave the spot in a fixed position longer than<br />
necessary.
Operating instructions for the class oscilloscope<br />
The details given below refer to the Telequipment Serviscope Minor<br />
cathode ray oscilloscope.<br />
Procedure<br />
The oscilloscope controls are as shown in the diagram. To prepare the<br />
instrument for use, plug into the mains supply and set the controls<br />
as follows:<br />
brightness to OFF<br />
focus to the mid-position<br />
Y-shift to the mid-position<br />
Y-gain to 1 division/volt<br />
AC-DC switch to DC<br />
timebase range switch to 2<br />
timebase switch to OFF<br />
Switch on the oscilloscope using the brightness control. Allow the<br />
instrument to warm up for one minute. Turn the brightness control<br />
clockwise and move the Y-shift control gently about its mid-position<br />
until a trace appears. Adjust the brightness and focus controls until a<br />
clear, sharply focussed trace is obtained. With the timebase switched<br />
off, do not allow the spot to be too bright. It may be found impossible<br />
to obtain a sharp focus when the brightness control is set near maximum.<br />
If this is the case, turn the brightness control anticlockwiseuntil<br />
a sharp trace is seen.<br />
229
230<br />
The AC-DC switch should normally be set to DC even when the<br />
oscilloscope is used for a.c. work. In the AC position there is a capacitor<br />
in series with the input and this will separate the a.c. component<br />
of a wave form. In the DC position this capacitor is shorted out. When<br />
the oscilloscope is used for pure a.c. setting the switch to AC will<br />
cause a smaller deflection at low frequencies than when switched to<br />
DC.<br />
When the timebase is switched off the spot is automatically centred<br />
and there is no X-shift control. When switched on, the speed of the<br />
spot is determined by the setting of the range and variable controls.<br />
The frequency of repetition of the timebase is not much increased at<br />
the higher speeds and it is often interrupted by slow changes of the<br />
input voltages. When the instrument is used as a d.c. voltmeter it is<br />
best to have the time base off. When an alternating voltage is applied<br />
to the input, it automatically triggers the timebase and gives a steady<br />
trace.<br />
The input terminal labelled 'low' should normally be connected to<br />
that part of a circuit, if any, which is at earth potential. As the terminal<br />
is not directly connected to earth it does not matter if it is<br />
connected to a point above or below earth potential.<br />
The 'high' input terminal is sensitive and should normally be<br />
connected to the part of the circuit which is above earth potential. If<br />
it is touched, the spot will often show considerable deflection on<br />
account of the high potential of the body of the person touching it.<br />
This effect is not often seen with a.c. voltmeters on account of their<br />
much lower internal resistance.<br />
The gain control is roughly calibrated and the markings are not<br />
intended to be precise. For accurate readings of voltage the<br />
calibration should be set with a moving coil voltmeter connected to<br />
the terminals. The numbers on the gain control indicate approximately<br />
'scale divisions per volt'.<br />
These oscilloscopes are discussed in detail in the film Oscilloscopes<br />
and slow a.c., Esso Nuffield.<br />
Oxygen concentration in water<br />
The degree of pollution of river and pond water can be measured in<br />
terms of the quantity of oxygen available to organisms. The Miller<br />
method of estimating the quantity of oxygen in water, is described<br />
below and should be suitable for use in Investigation 12.1. Other<br />
methods of analysis are given in Nuffield Biology Teachers' Guide IV,<br />
Chapter 18.
A solution of iron(II) sulphate will decolourize some dyes, but if<br />
oxygen is present then it will react with the oxygen before acting on<br />
the dye. This preferential reaction occurs in alkaline solution when the<br />
dye phenosafranine is used. This principle is used in Miller's method for<br />
determining the oxygen content of samples of water.<br />
1. Obtain a sample of water (50 ern") from one locality in the pond or<br />
tank, causing as little disturbance as possible. Use a large pipette or<br />
plastic syringe fitted with a disposable filling tube or length of plastic<br />
tubing. Take care not to allow any air to be taken in with the sample.<br />
Carefully run the sample into a 100 crrr' conical flask.<br />
2. Add 5 ern" of 5 M sodium hydroxide solution (see Appendix 3) or<br />
10 cm' of Fehling B solution.<br />
3. Add 2 drops of phenosafranine solution, see Appendix 3.<br />
4. Extend the end of the burette with a length of glass tubing so that<br />
the end is below the surface of the sample as shown in the diagram.<br />
Fill the burette with 0.0089 M iron(II) sulphate solution, see<br />
Appendix 3.<br />
5. Titrate the sample against the iron(II) sulphate solution very gently<br />
swirling the flask until the colour of the phenosafranine just disapears.<br />
6. The quantity of iron(II) sulphate used is approximately equal to the<br />
volume of oxygen per 1 000 crrr' of water from which the sample was<br />
taken. This may be converted into a percentage by using the information<br />
in the table below, providing the temperatures of the sample<br />
and its source are the same and are known.<br />
For notes concerning titration techniques see 'Titration' below.<br />
4---- burette containing<br />
iron (II) sulphate<br />
extended jet below surface<br />
of liquid in the flask<br />
pond water (50 cm 3 sample)<br />
231
232<br />
Table of oxygen contained in air-equilibrated water at different<br />
temperatures<br />
The table shows the volume of oxygen, reduced to s.t.p. (OOe and<br />
760 mmHg), which will dissolve in 1 000 crrr' of water at a range<br />
of temperatures. Note that under some circumstances in pond water,<br />
it is possible for more oxygen, than the quantity in the table, to be<br />
dissolved at a given temperature.<br />
Temperature/" C Dissolved oxygen/cm '<br />
8<br />
9<br />
10<br />
11<br />
12<br />
13<br />
14<br />
15<br />
16<br />
17<br />
18<br />
19<br />
20<br />
Peel models<br />
8.13<br />
7.95<br />
7.77<br />
7.60<br />
7.44<br />
7.28<br />
7.12<br />
6.96<br />
6.82<br />
6.68<br />
6.54<br />
6.40<br />
6.28<br />
Peel (probability envelopes of electron location) models are suggested<br />
for use in Section 9. The kits consist of plastic spheres (atom units),<br />
springs and expanded polystyrene shapes (orbitals). In any compound<br />
it is possible to specify the positions in space in which bonding<br />
electrons are most likely to be found. The orbitals are a three dimensional<br />
representation of the probable positions of these bonding<br />
electrons.<br />
The four types of orbital are illustrated below in longitudinal<br />
section.<br />
Protonated orbitals (white)
Sigma orbitals (white)<br />
Lone pair or non-bonding orbitals (red)<br />
Pi or delocalised electron models (green)<br />
Procedure for using Peel components<br />
1. Fit the spring connectors to the atom units before attaching orbitals.<br />
2. Screw the springs into the atom in an anticlockwise direction (against<br />
the coils of the spring). This gives a tight fit of the spring in the atom<br />
unit, and helps resist removal of the spring by the orbitals when the<br />
model is dismantled.<br />
3. When the springs have been inserted into the atom unit, attach the<br />
orbitals by carefully pushing them into place on the springs.<br />
4. When dismantling the model, carefully unscrew the orbitals. Do not<br />
pull them off as this will enlarge the holes.<br />
5. After a while the holes in the orbital units will become enlarged. The<br />
external diameter of the connecting springs can be increased by gluing<br />
on a length of thin walled plastic tubing with an Araldite adhesive, or<br />
the diameter can be increased by binding the spring with plastic<br />
adhesive tape.<br />
Peel models can be used as alternatives to the polystyrene sphere<br />
constructions described above, see Molecular models. The diagram<br />
below illustrates a Peel model of methanol as suggested for<br />
Investigation &9.2.<br />
233
234<br />
Pump<br />
C sigma 0<br />
lone pair<br />
A vacuum pump is required for Investigations 7.7b and'" 7.16.<br />
In order to protect the pump a water trap should be inserted<br />
between the apparatus and the pump. An easily assembled form of<br />
trap consists of a U-tube held by a retort stand, bosshead and clamp<br />
adjacent to the pump. Freshly roasted calcium chloride or silica gel<br />
acts as the desiccant and this is prevented from being drawn into the<br />
pump by the insertion of rocksil plugs between it and the U-tube<br />
outlet.<br />
Water in the pump leads to corrosion of metal surfaces and also<br />
impairs the efficiency of the vacuum oil. Water traps should be fitted<br />
whenever the pump is to be used in the presence of water or water<br />
vapour.<br />
For most efficient use the pump should be regularly checked and<br />
maintained according to the manufacturer's instructions. If the pump<br />
has been unused for some time it should be specially checked before<br />
it is required in case it has corroded. Failure to start is probably due<br />
to corrosion. Switch off immediately to protect the motor. It is sound<br />
practice to run vacuum pumps regularly (e.g. for fifteen minutes once<br />
a week), with the inlet closed to purge the pump oil of water.<br />
Resistors<br />
A 1.5 kD. resistor is required for Investigation "'8.2. A wire wound<br />
resistor will be suitable and can be distinguished from carbon resistors<br />
by the fact that wire wound resistors are usually shiny as they have a<br />
vitreous covering, and have a higher wattage rating, from about 3 W<br />
upwards. Carbon resistors have a dull finish and are rated at less than<br />
3W.
Resistor codes<br />
There are two codes in current use. The older code consists of a series<br />
of coloured bands painted onto the resistor while the newer code<br />
consists of figures and letters printed onto the resistor. The resistor<br />
required will either have its first three colour bands brown, green and<br />
red or it will have the letter code 1K5 with a second letter to indicate<br />
the tolerance.<br />
Rockets<br />
Water rockets<br />
Various kinds of water rocket are obtainable from toy shops. A suitable<br />
water rocket is made by Merit, Merit Lunar Rocket catalogue<br />
number 9220. A plastic bottle fitted with a rubber bung with a bicycle<br />
valve inserted (cut from an old inner tube) can also be used. The<br />
rocket should be attached horizontally to a truck, or allowed to rise<br />
vertically from a loose support.<br />
Carbon dioxide capsule rockets<br />
A simple arrangement is to attach a carbon dioxide capsule (as used<br />
for soda siphons) to the top of a toy truck or a dynamics trolley. The<br />
capsule should be horizontal with its neck facing the rear of the truck.<br />
An easy method of mounting the capsule is to fix an aluminium or<br />
other metal tube to the truck. The forward end of the tube is closed<br />
with some form of stop and the capsule is placed inside it. The capsule<br />
can be opened with a round nail and a sharp blow from a hammer. The<br />
best size of hole can be found by trial.<br />
Balloon rocket<br />
A simple balloon rocket can be employed as alternative or supplementary<br />
to water or carbon dioxide rockets. A 'sausage' balloon is attached<br />
by Sellotape cradles to two lengths of standard glass tubing, each of<br />
which should be 50-60 mm long and flame smoothed at both ends. It<br />
is easiest to assemble the rocket by threading the glass tubes onto a<br />
button thread guide line which is then fixed horizontally. Inflate the<br />
balloon and then connect it to the glass tubing with two Sellotape<br />
slings. Do not try to remove the Sellotape after use as this will<br />
probably puncture the balloon.<br />
235
236<br />
balloon<br />
button thread<br />
For successful firing of the rocket, it is important that the thread<br />
should be as taut as possible, otherwise the leading edges of the glass<br />
tubes tend to snag. The thread should be 3-5 m long and should be<br />
horizontal or sloping slightly downhilL<br />
Scaler (counter)<br />
The type of scaler recommended is one with a built in pulse generator<br />
producing 1 000 pulses per second. In Section 8, a GM tube is used<br />
with the scaler, which must, therefore, incorporate an appropriate (up<br />
to 450 V) voltage supply. The output from the pulse generator is led<br />
to an external switch and back to the scaler which records the number<br />
of pulses received. The instrument records.in milliseconds the duration<br />
for which this switch is closed. The instrument may be made to start<br />
counting by connecting the green sockets (Panax scaler SA 102 ST)<br />
and stopped by breaking this connection.<br />
A second pair of sockets (red) are fitted across the counter. When<br />
connection is made between the sockets the instrument stops counting<br />
providing the green sockets are connected. With these connections the<br />
counter can be started by breaking the red connection, see the diagram<br />
below, and stopped by breaking the green connection, thus giving the<br />
time taken over a measured distance.<br />
Breaking aluminium tapes<br />
(G)<br />
green?<br />
I<br />
I<br />
I I<br />
redo :<br />
(R) l I, I<br />
o<br />
make to start<br />
break to stop<br />
o<br />
(R)<br />
G<br />
G<br />
---- .•...<br />
.... bR<br />
break to start<br />
make to stop
Start-stop mechanisms<br />
break-to-start tape break-to-stop tape<br />
----}--trolley motion of trolley ~<br />
runway<br />
G<br />
R R<br />
L..------O<br />
G<br />
scaler sockets<br />
- ---<br />
The ends of the start tape are connected across the red terminals and<br />
the stop tape is connected across the green terminals. The scaler<br />
measures the time in milliseconds between the breaking of the two<br />
tapes.<br />
Using a photodiode The green sockets are connected with a short<br />
connecting lead and the photo diode is connected across the red<br />
sockets. In order that the photodiode should not activate the scaler<br />
under conditions of diffuse light it should be shielded so that only<br />
the direct beam from a prefocussed 2.5 V bulb can impinge directly<br />
on it. The speed of a passing trolley is calculated from the length of<br />
a piece of card mounted on it, so as to break the light beam, and the<br />
time for which the light beam is broken.<br />
Hgh~ rOtOdiOdl~ I oR<br />
connections on scaler<br />
G<br />
G Ii<br />
btackl, J<br />
Using photo transistors Phototransistors, type OCP 71 may be used in<br />
the same way as photodiodes. They are more sensitive than photodiodes.<br />
Light should be focussed onto the emitter junction for maximum sens-<br />
237
238<br />
itivity. The emitter is the smaller of the two junctions. Only emitter<br />
and collector connections are used, the base is left unconnected. The<br />
emitter should be connected to the right-hand red socket and the<br />
collector to the left-hand red socket with the green sockets connected<br />
by a short lead.<br />
Speed of an air-gun pellet<br />
This is Investigation A4.5.<br />
Plasticine<br />
R<br />
rule<br />
G<br />
G<br />
R<br />
end stop<br />
Mount the rifle on its side to a board so that the pellet will enter<br />
the Plasticine (In the flat truck. Time the truck through one metre,<br />
starting the truck 50-100 mm before the end of the rule.<br />
The air-gun end of the board should be raised sufficiently to compensate<br />
for friction. When in the correct position the truck should<br />
move along the track, if given a start, without accelerating. A pellet<br />
trap must be placed at the end of the range. This may consist of a<br />
large block of Plasticine, clay or polystyrene, backed with a 20 mm<br />
backing sheet of wood which itself is backed with a metal plate. A<br />
large cardboard box of sand will also suffice.<br />
Circuit breakers
The circuit breakers must be accurately in the line of fire of the airgun.<br />
Alignment is easily achieved by placing a sheet of paper in each<br />
of the circuit breaker stands and then loading and firing the air-rifle.<br />
Thin strips of aluminium foil are then connected across the pellet<br />
holes in the sheets of paper. An alternative to aluminium foil is graphite<br />
rod as used for the 'lead' in propelling pencils.<br />
The connections to the scaler are made by connecting the circuit<br />
breaker nearest to the rifle to the red terminals and connecting the<br />
other circuit breaker to the green terminals. For notes on the use of<br />
the scaler see above.<br />
Standard wire gauge<br />
The standard wire gauge (s.w.g.) is related to metric and imperial<br />
measures as shown in the table<br />
s.w.g. diameter/mm diameter lin<br />
10 3.25 0.128<br />
12 2.64 0.104<br />
14 2.03 0.080<br />
16 1.63 0.064<br />
18 1.22 0.048<br />
20 0.914 0.036<br />
22 0.711 0.028<br />
24 0.559 0.022<br />
26 0.457 0.018<br />
28 0.376 0.014 8<br />
30 0.315 0.0124<br />
32 0.274 0.0108<br />
34 0.234 0.0092<br />
36 0.193 0.0076<br />
38 0.152 0.0060<br />
40 0.122 0.0048<br />
42 0.102 0.0040<br />
44 0.081 0.003 2<br />
46 0.061 0.0024<br />
Titration<br />
Titration techniques are required in Investigations "'3.9, "'3.10 and<br />
12.1<br />
The description of the technique which follows, is the traditional<br />
method using volumetric glassware, and should give accurate results if<br />
all precautions are taken. Minor variations in style do exist and some<br />
239
240<br />
slight modification may be dictated by the type of apparatus and<br />
reagents used.<br />
Apparatus required<br />
balance, weighing bottle or watch glass, and spatula<br />
burette, 50 ern", fitted with ground glass stopcock<br />
1 burette stand, or retort stand, bosshead, clamp<br />
1 filter funnel, 50-75 mm diameter<br />
3 flasks, 100 em", conical<br />
1 flask, 100 ern" , volumetric<br />
1 pipette, 20-25 ern", and pipette filler<br />
1 reagent bottle, 250-500 ern?<br />
1 spotting tile, for use with external indicators<br />
1 white tile<br />
Note that all apparatus should be clean and that weighing bottles<br />
should be kept dry in a desiccator until required.<br />
Procedure<br />
Essentially a titration is the determination of the concentration of<br />
one reagent by comparing it with a known standard. The unknown is<br />
thus titrated against the known standard, although at times it is the<br />
standard which is actually run in to the unknown from a burette.<br />
Before the determination can be made the standard solution must be<br />
prepared. Technically such solutions should be standardised against a<br />
primary standard, but in the school situation this procedure is often<br />
ignored and the 'standard' solution is one made up accurately from a<br />
solid analytical grade reagent. In school acidimetry the use of a strong<br />
base such as sodium hydroxide as a standard for titration by a strong<br />
acid, is open to the criticism that the hydroxide may not be of the<br />
purity required especially if the solid has been in store for some time,<br />
but its use avoids the complication of selecting an appropriate indicator,<br />
as would be the case if sodium carbonate were used instead.<br />
Preparing the standard<br />
1. Calculate the mass of solid standard required to make up the appropriate<br />
quantity of solution, e.g. for 0.1 M sodium carbonate, 1.06 g are<br />
required for 100 ern" of solution.<br />
2. Find the approximate mass of the weighing bottle (or watch glass) and<br />
put some of the solid reagent into the bottle.<br />
3. Reweigh the bottle and its contents and adjust the total mass by tipping
out some solid until the total is approximately equal to the mass of<br />
the bottle plus 1.06 g.<br />
4. Tip the contents of the bottle into the volumetric flask then reweigh<br />
the bottle accurately. The mass of solid actually used is calculated by<br />
subtracting this last mass from that found in 3 above.<br />
5. Add the appropriate solvent (usually distilled or deionised water) to<br />
the flask so as to half fill it. Put the stopper in the neck of the flask<br />
and dissolve the solid by shaking. Add further solvent if necessary<br />
until it is about 15 mm below the bottom of the neck of the flask.<br />
6. When all the solid is dissolved and the solution is at room temperature<br />
the flask is topped up to the appropriate graduation mark by the<br />
addition of more solvent, until the bottom of the meniscus is on the<br />
mark when viewed horizontally. The mark will be easiest to see if a<br />
white background (e.g. the sleeve of a laboratory coat) is placed<br />
behind the neck of the flask.<br />
Volumetric flasks frequently have two graduation marks on the<br />
neck. The upper one is used when the prepared solution is to be<br />
completely poured from the flask. The lower one is used when the<br />
flask's contents form the stock solution from which samples will be<br />
taken. It is this lower mark which is normally required for titrations;<br />
the other one being used when an exact volume of liquid is required<br />
to be measured before pouring into some other vessel.<br />
7. The concentration of the standard solution is calculated from the mass<br />
of solid used, and the theoretical mass required, i.e. if in the example<br />
(sodium carbonate) quoted an actual mass of 1.08 g were made up<br />
into the standard solution, the molarity would be:<br />
1.08 X 0.1 M = 0.102 M<br />
1.06<br />
Titrating against the standard<br />
The pipette<br />
1. Shake the volumetric flask well by repeatedly inverting it. Draw a<br />
small quantity of the standard into the pipette and wet the inside of<br />
the instrument by rotating it horizontally. Expel this solution to waste.<br />
2. Draw in sufficient solution to the pipette to fill it to the graduation<br />
mark on the stem. The bottom of the meniscus should be on the mark<br />
when viewed horizontally.<br />
3. Wipe the outside of the outlet end of the pipette and expel its contents<br />
into a conical flask. Two types of pipette are in common use. In one<br />
type the pipette is designed to deliver the correct volume by simply<br />
241
242<br />
running the liquid out slowly, while in the other type the contents are<br />
blown out. In either case allow the pipette to stand vertically in the<br />
flask for ten to fifteen seconds then either blowout (but not by mouth<br />
especially when alkalis are in use), or touch the end onto the surface of<br />
the liquid already expelled, depending on the type of pipette in use.<br />
4. Repeat the pipetting procedure for the other two conical flasks. Make<br />
such other additions to the flasks as are demanded by the experiment.<br />
Indicators should be used sparingly; between one and five drops will<br />
usually be quite sufficient. Note that pipettes with damaged outlet<br />
ends will not deliver an accurate quantity of liquid, and should therefore,<br />
be discarded.<br />
tt« burette<br />
1. Wash out the burette with a little of the liquid to be used in it. Allow<br />
some of this washing to run out through the burette tap.<br />
2. Fill the burette with the liquid using a filter funnel in the top of the<br />
apparatus. Remove the funnel and allow enough liquid to run through<br />
the burette tap to bring the meniscus onto the graduated part of the<br />
burette. Allow the burette to stand for ten to fifteen seconds before<br />
reading the scale.<br />
3. Run solution slowly from the burette into the standard solution in one<br />
conical flask and make a note of the quantity used. The first additions<br />
may be quite large, e.g. 5 ern", at a time but as the end point is approached<br />
only 1 em" or 0.5 em? quantities should be allowed to enter<br />
at a time. In the following two titrations the final additions are made<br />
one drop at a time.<br />
4. Top up the burette so that the same portion of its scale is used for<br />
each titration. Titrate the second sample of the standard as accurately<br />
as possible, using the first titration as a guide to the total quantity<br />
required. Finally titrate the third sample. These latter two determinations<br />
should not vary by more than 0.1 crrr' from each other.<br />
5. If a magnifier is available for reading burettes it is possible to extend<br />
the limits of the burette's accuracy by counting the number of drops<br />
required to reach the end point from the previous scale division. The<br />
number of drops per 0.1 crrr' needs to be found by trial and error but<br />
may well be more than five or ten so that the reading may be made to<br />
the nearest 0.02 crrr' or better.<br />
6. Generally alkalis are not put in burettes as they can cause clogging of<br />
the ground glass tap. The taps should be lightly greased after cleaning<br />
and should not be interchanged between burettes.
All glassware should be carefully cleaned and dried after use. A<br />
washing with dilute hydrochloric add followed by rinsing with tap<br />
water and finally distilled water will usually keep glass clean but with<br />
some reagents other cleaning fluids may be required. Scouring powders<br />
should never be used on volumetric equipment.<br />
Two-dimensional motion apparatus<br />
This apparatus is suggested for Investigations A4.12 and A8.11.<br />
Several varieties of this apparatus are commercially available. In<br />
each case the apparatus consists of a selection of pucks, with or without<br />
magnets, and a suitable means of allowing the pucks to move<br />
'without friction' over a surface.<br />
The de luxe apparatus consists of an air table which works on the<br />
same principle as the linear air track. The table consists basically of a<br />
box with a smooth top perforated with fine holes. The pucks are made<br />
of plastic with ring magnets which can be loaded into them. The disadvantage<br />
of an air table is that in use the working surface tends to distort<br />
slightly (especially in the cheaper versions) and the pucks, therefore,<br />
tend not to travel in straight lines.<br />
Another type of apparatus consists of a glass plate over which the<br />
pucks can run. Pucks may be of several types.<br />
Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) pucks<br />
These are open underneath rather like the top of a Petri dish, and may<br />
be magnetic or non-magnetic. For supply of dry ice see Appendix 4<br />
'Gas cylinders'. The cavity receives 1-2 em" of dry ice at a loading. As<br />
the dry ice evaporates allowing a relatively slow escape of gas the puck<br />
will move on the gas cushion. It is advisable to clean the glass plate<br />
with ethanol (IMS) before use.<br />
Compressed air pucks<br />
These have a chamber above the base which can be pumped up using<br />
a bicycle pump. The pucks should be handled with care since over<br />
pumping can cause them to split open. The puck moves on a cushion<br />
of air expelled through the base. The simplest type of compressed air<br />
puck uses a toy balloon as the source of compressed air.<br />
Self propelling pucks<br />
These are miniature hovercraft. They contain a small electric motor<br />
driven by batteries contained in the puck itself. The motor drives a<br />
pump which forces air through the base of the puck.<br />
243
244<br />
Using polystyrene beads<br />
If the glass plate is sprinkled with polystyrene moulding beads then<br />
aluminium discs, coins or washers can be used to illustrate two dimensional<br />
collisions. The discs run very well over this surface (better than<br />
when sliding on a polished bench) but the technique is not suitable for<br />
quantitative work. Polystyrene (Styrocell) beads are very dangerous<br />
when dropped on the floor so great care must be taken if they are to<br />
be used. The plate must be framed with a raised edge.<br />
The glass plate is best made of plate glass and should be kept very<br />
clean by washing with IMS and polishing carefully with a soft cloth or<br />
leather. Before use it needs to be levelled carefully using small wedges<br />
until an operating puck does not drift appreciably.
Appendix 2<br />
Notes on biological materials<br />
This appendix is mainly concerned with hints for the culture and<br />
maintenance of organisms. It is helpful to have a special animal room,<br />
apart from the main work areas. A greenhouse is advantageous for the<br />
culture of plants but in its absence some sort of propagator will be<br />
found useful.<br />
The point needs making that organisms are alive and are susceptible<br />
to disease and death. They need constant care and overseeing,<br />
and will not survive long periods without attention, such as occur<br />
over holidays. When organisms are diseased it is usually more humane<br />
to kill than to try to cure them.<br />
It is worth checking all cultures daily and where incubation<br />
procedures are involved the setting of the incubators should be<br />
checked frequently. Strict cleanliness should be observed when<br />
handling cultures to prevent cross contamination or self infection<br />
through handling them. Always wash hands well with soap and<br />
water after dealing with animals.<br />
The information given concerning culture methods has been tried<br />
and tested, but it is not claimed that the methods are infallible nor<br />
that they are the only correct ones. There are often variations on<br />
these methods and different technicians are likely to have their own<br />
favourite and effective procedures.<br />
Agar<br />
Petri dishes prepared with MacConkey agar are required for Investigation<br />
12.1, and with milk agar for Investigation ~3.13. Minimal<br />
medium is required for 66.19.<br />
Agars are mixtures of nutrients made into a jelly with agar and<br />
water. Organisms usually grow only on the surface.<br />
Media are usually in powder or tablet form. All that is required is<br />
to add appropriate quantities of water according to the directions<br />
which are usually printed on the bottle label. The medium is mixed<br />
thoroughly and then sterilised.<br />
245
246<br />
The necks of containers should be sterilised by flaming in a Bunsen<br />
burner flame after the top has been removed and before the medium<br />
is poured from them. Petri dishes should be uncovered for only as<br />
long as it takes to fill them with medium. Allow 10-15 crrr' of<br />
medium for each 90 mm diameter Petri dish.<br />
Take care to keep media sterile during transfer.<br />
Condensation can be avoided by pouring the agar as cool as<br />
possible and stacking the plates on top of each other. Any condensation<br />
which forms on the plates or the covers can be removed before<br />
use by drying them in an oven or incubator without a fan. Set the<br />
oven for 37-40 °C. Open the Petri dish quickly and place both halves<br />
open side down. Place the bottom half on the oven shelf and rest the<br />
top half over it. Leave until most of the cloudiness disappears. Dried<br />
plates cannot be stored for later use.<br />
bottom containing<br />
agar<br />
oven shelf<br />
Prepared plates can be stored in a refrigerator for about one month<br />
until required. Put the plates in a polythene bag which can be sealed.<br />
Incubate plates infected with bacteria with the lids down, and with<br />
lids up for fungal cultures. All cultures should be labelled on the<br />
underside of the dish, not the lid, with the initials of the medium,<br />
the date of inoculation and the type of organism used.<br />
Infected medium should be burned after use and the containers<br />
must be sterilised. Medium can also be rendered harmless by autoclaving<br />
(or soaking in disinfectant for 24 hours) before wrapping<br />
and disposing by burying or in the dustbin.<br />
Media<br />
Media should be made up exactly as directed. Tap water is often<br />
better to use than distilled or deionised water as it affects the pH<br />
(degree of acidity /alkalinity) less. Resterilisa tion of media should be<br />
avoided as each heating tends to make them more acid, and also<br />
causes darkening due to sugars becoming carameIised.<br />
MacConkey agar<br />
MacConkey agar may be purchased as a ready prepared sterile gel.<br />
The container needs to be warmed in a water bath until the contents
are liquid. Before warming any cap on the container should be loosened<br />
but not completely removed. Pour the molten agar into Petri<br />
dishes as quickly as possible to reduce risk of contamination by aerial<br />
micro-organisms. Tablets are also available which are usually made up<br />
at the rate of 1 or 2 tablets per 10 em" of sterile distilled water.<br />
Milk agar<br />
This is a special agar required for experiments on enzyme activity. If<br />
required suitable buffer tablets can be added to the agar so that<br />
enzyme activity at various degrees of acidity or alkalinity can be<br />
investigated. To prepare the agar mix:<br />
2 g agar<br />
4 g instant non-fat milk powder (e.g. Cadbury's Marvel)<br />
200 crrr' water<br />
Sterilise the agar by autoclaving at 10 5 N m -2 (15 p.s.i.) for<br />
10-15 minutes and pour the agar into Petri dishes to produce a very<br />
thin layer (5-10 cm ' of agar per 90 mm diameter dish).<br />
Autoclaves must be allowed to steam for five minutes to expel all<br />
air before bringing to pressure. After the sterilising time the autoclave<br />
must be allowed to cool and the pressure must be equalised with<br />
atmospheric pressure before the instrument is opened.<br />
Minimal medium<br />
This agar is required for the yeast mutation experiment,<br />
Investigation 6.6.19. It may be bought ready prepared.<br />
Details of the preparation of the agar are to be found in Nuffield<br />
Biology Teachers' guide V, Chapter 4 which should be read in conjunction<br />
with the Pupils text V, Chapter 4. Unless schools intend to<br />
culture the ad-strain of yeast it is not worthwhile to prepare the<br />
medium required. If culturing is to be undertaken then minimal<br />
medium plus adenine will be required.<br />
Light will cause mutation. Cultures should therefore be kept in<br />
the dark.<br />
Bacterial counting<br />
The following method of counting bacteria is suggested for<br />
Investigation 12.1.<br />
It may be assumed that each colony of bacteria is produced from<br />
a single bacterium so that a total count of the colonies arising from<br />
a sample of water represents a count of the individual bacteria present<br />
247
water from<br />
polluted source<br />
9 em" MacConkeyagar<br />
(45°C)<br />
248<br />
in the sample before incubation. Before the pollution is first started it<br />
is likely that a count can be made without diluting the sample, unless<br />
an established minipond is used as the starting community. It is best<br />
in all cases to prepare agar plates using several different dilutions of<br />
the water sample, as indicated in the diagram below, which refers to<br />
the 'pour plate method'. If a simple plating method is used it is<br />
advisable to make two further dilutions so as to count the number of<br />
colonies in 0.001 crrr' and 0.00 1 em" of polluted water respectively.<br />
I 'em3 sample<br />
!<br />
incubate 1-2 days at 37 °C<br />
1<br />
count no. of<br />
colonies from<br />
1 cm ' of polluted water<br />
9 em 3 sterile<br />
distilled water<br />
!<br />
, em' ,ample U<br />
9 ern" MacConkey agar<br />
(45°C)<br />
\<br />
I 'ern? sample<br />
!<br />
Incubate '.2rav, at 37·C<br />
count no. of<br />
colonies from<br />
0.1 cm ' of polluted water
Pour plate method<br />
9 ern" of sterile MacConkey agar (see 'Agar') at a temperature near its<br />
setting point, are mixed with 1 ern" of the appropriate sample in a<br />
Petri dish. The resulting 10 cm ' of mixture are allowed to set and are<br />
incubated at 37°C for 1-2 days. Mixing is accomplished by gently<br />
swirling the contents of the Petri dish.<br />
9 cm 3 sterile<br />
distilled water<br />
t<br />
1 cm 3 U<br />
sample U'em' ,ampl. further dilution<br />
~. and plating<br />
9 crn' MacConkey agar<br />
(45°C)<br />
\<br />
1<br />
1ern" sample<br />
!<br />
incubate 1-2 days at 37 °C<br />
l<br />
count no. of<br />
colonies from<br />
0.01 cm ' of polluted water<br />
249
250<br />
Simple plating method<br />
MacConkey agar plates are prepared the day before required and are<br />
dried over night. 1 em" of sample is placed on the surface of a dry<br />
plate and spread over the surface either by swirling or by streaking it<br />
with a sterile inoculating loop.<br />
Calliphora, blow-fly<br />
Blow-fly or other fly larvae (maggots) are required for Investigation 2.1<br />
It is so easy to obtain maggots that it is not worthwhile keeping fly<br />
cultures specifically for this purpose. Larvae are obtainable during the<br />
fishing season from bait shops where they are sold as 'gentles'. They<br />
will pupate in damp (not wet) sawdust. The pupae hatch after ten days.<br />
Fly larvae may be obtained from the environment by placing a<br />
piece of liver in the bottom of a jam jar which is then placed in a<br />
sheltered situation outside, particularly near dustbins. Flies will lay<br />
eggs on the moist liver which is scored with a knife to provide cracks<br />
in which the eggs are deposited. Leave the jars for 2-3 days to ensure<br />
a good supply of maggots. Wash the larvae with clean water and<br />
transfer them to a jar of damp sawdust. Eggs will take about ten hours<br />
to hatch and the larvae pupate in eight days.<br />
Larvae may be separated from the sawdust by sieving.<br />
Note that there is a risk of infection from fly larvae, especially<br />
when collected locally. Take care to wash hands well after handling<br />
maggots.<br />
Clover<br />
The following information is required for Investigation 6.6.6.9.<br />
The aim of this work is to show the correlation between the<br />
selective eating of clover by snails and the inheritance of the ability<br />
of some clover plants to generate hydrocyanic acid when the cells are<br />
damaged. The work consists of identifying and planting clover with<br />
the ability to generate hydrocyanic acid and then comparing the<br />
number of leaves the snails eat from these plants with the number of<br />
leaves they eat from plants without this ability.<br />
Obtaining clover plants<br />
Clover plants of cyanogenic and acyanogenic types are established<br />
by one of the following methods.<br />
a. Seeds of New Zealand certified permanent pasture white clover are<br />
sown in John Innes no. 1 compost in small pots. The plants are
thinned after six weeks leaving one plant per pot. In summer these<br />
plants will be usable three to four weeks after thinning. The plants<br />
should be numbered and later identified as cyanogenic or acyanogenic.<br />
b. A lawn with isolated patches of white clover may be used as a source<br />
of clover plants. When the plants in the clone have been identified as<br />
cyanogenic or acyanogenic, runners from the patch may be transplanted<br />
into pots to provide a suitable number of plants of each<br />
type. The diagram shows the preparation procedure.<br />
three months ahead collect put at once into separate test a leaf for cyanide<br />
20 runners of clover from corked, numbered boiling generation in a numbered<br />
20 different patches of tubes to prevent roots tube (do this at once)<br />
white clover on a lawn drying<br />
John Innes<br />
compost<br />
two hours later pot up<br />
enough runners to produce<br />
6 cyanide and 6 non cyanide<br />
generating plants, label<br />
clearly and permanently<br />
grow on plants quickly two weeks before the lesson,<br />
in moist warm conditions for cut back to produce a plant<br />
10 weeks, do not let runners with about 20 young leaves<br />
passfrom pot to pot ready for the lesson<br />
The propagation of clover and the determination of the nature of<br />
the clover plants is best carried out beforehand so that enough plants<br />
of both types are available for the pupils' work.<br />
Testing leaves for hydrocyanic acid<br />
The diagram shows how the plants are tested. Two leaves from each<br />
plant are bruised to pulp. The pulp from each plant is scraped up<br />
with a spatula and put in the bottom of small glass tubes or small<br />
McCartney bottles and covered with two drops of water and one<br />
drop of toluene. A strip (20 mm X 5 mm) of sodium picrate paper<br />
is pushed into a slit in each cork or is taped to the screw top so that<br />
it does not touch the side of the tube or the liquid in it. The tube is<br />
251
252<br />
now closed. If the tubes are incubated at 40°C a reaction will occur<br />
in two hours. If they are left at room temperature the reaction will<br />
occur overnight. The results will be:<br />
hydrocyanic acid colour<br />
none<br />
some<br />
much<br />
yellow<br />
brown<br />
red/brown<br />
sellotape@<br />
1 attach picric acid paper 2 thoroughly bruise two<br />
to lid of tube leavesfrom one plant<br />
4 put at bottom 5 add 2 drops<br />
of glasstube of water<br />
Experimental procedure<br />
3 scrape up leaf<br />
6 add 1 drop 7 cork and incubate 8 compare<br />
of toluene at 35-40 0<br />
2 hours<br />
C for colours<br />
Approximately one week before the investigation sufficient land<br />
snails Helix should be collected and kept in a plastic aquarium or<br />
large jar (e.g. a sweet jar) containing a moist 1: 1 mixture of peat and<br />
soil. A piece of limestone should be placed in the jar together with<br />
a source of food such as carrot or potato. Cover the jar with a glass<br />
plate so that the snails do not escape. On setting up the experiment<br />
2 leaves from each plant used are tested and the leaves in each plant<br />
counted by pupils. Put two or three snails on each of 2 or 3 of each<br />
type of plant and enclose the pot in a plastic bag.<br />
Set up control pots without snails.<br />
Count the leaves of both control and experimental plants at 2 day<br />
intervals for the next 2 weeks.
Drosophila melanogaster, fruit fly<br />
The fruit fly,Drosophila is a small fly well known to amateur winemakers<br />
as the vinegar fly. These flies are attracted to ripe and overripe<br />
fruit and will congregate around mashed bananas. The flies can<br />
be collected by leaving a jar of mashed banana outside on a summer's<br />
evening but with the availability of recognized strains from biological<br />
supply houses the effort is hardly worthwhile. The organism is<br />
suggested as an alternative to Tribolium for Investigation 6A6.13.<br />
Culture medium<br />
There are many different formulations of culture media for Drosophila<br />
ranging from simple fruit pulps to highly sophisticated specialities.<br />
The particular formulation given here has proved successful in trials<br />
as, too, have some of the commercially available ready mixed and<br />
sterile media. Fruit pulps are not recommended as they have a tendency<br />
to rot and promote fungal growths which results in wastage<br />
of cultures.<br />
The recipe given is sufficient for 20 one-third pint orange juice<br />
or milk bottles.<br />
30 g agar powder<br />
100 g oatmeal (breakfast oats)<br />
50 g soft brown sugar or 40 ern" black treacle (molasses)<br />
26 g yeast, dried<br />
1 000 ern" distilled water<br />
Mix the ingredients together and bring to the boil while stirring.<br />
Simmer until a uniform consistency is obtained, stirring continuously.<br />
In order to help prevent the medium from growing moulds it<br />
should be sterilized in an autoclave, and may also be treated with<br />
Nipagin. Conflicting reports concerning the efficacy of this chemical<br />
exist and the alternative, propionic acid seems not to work. Nipagin<br />
(methyl p-hydroxy benzoate or n-propyl p-hydroxy benzoate) is<br />
prepared by dissolving 0.5 g of solid in 2 crrr' of ethanol. This solution<br />
is diluted to 80 ern" with distilled water. The solution is added<br />
to the food medium just before it is added to the culture bottles.<br />
Sterile culture media may be kept in a refrigerator for about six<br />
weeks or in a deep freeze for about six months when protected<br />
from desiccation by storing in a sealed polythene bag.<br />
Culture bottles<br />
Before use, containers should be thoroughly washed out with hot<br />
water and disinfectant such as Izal or Lysol (5% solution), but care<br />
253
254<br />
must be taken with the hot disinfectant which may be caustic. They<br />
then need to be rinsed well with clean water before filling with<br />
culture medium and sterilizing.<br />
~--cotltoml\lool stopper<br />
enclosed in muslin<br />
H--l-----filter paper pushed into culture<br />
medium with glass rod<br />
30-50mm {<br />
deep --- culture medium<br />
t pint milk bottle<br />
The culture medium is poured into the bottles whilst still hot and<br />
fluid. A 50-80 mm X 25 mm length of grade 3 filter paper is folded<br />
in half lengthwise and pushed into the medium using a clean glass rod.<br />
The bottles are stoppered with non absorbent cotton wool covered<br />
with muslin, or with foam plastic stoppers.<br />
One-third pint orange juice or milk bottles are suitable for stock<br />
cultures. Each bottle should be labelled with the date and number of<br />
flies used to start the culture, see 'Keeping cultures'.<br />
After sterilization allow the medium to cool and then add a little<br />
granular dried yeast to the medium in each bottle just before adding<br />
the flies. Since the flies will be unconscious when added to the bottles<br />
the yeast is powdered and sprinkled over the surface of the food<br />
medium so that the flies do not become stuck. The yeast is also<br />
required so that the medium will ferment.<br />
Handling of flies<br />
It is best to use at least five to ten pairs (male and female) of flies to<br />
start a stock culture. Each female on average will produce about 80<br />
offspring. If sexing proves difficult an initial stock of ten to twenty<br />
flies should ensure the presence of males and females.<br />
There are basically three methods of immobilizing flies for transfer:<br />
using ethoxyethane (ether), using carbon dioxide, and refriger- __<br />
ation. The standard method is to anaesthetize the flies using<br />
ethoxyethane in special etherizers. The ether is put on the cotton
wool inside the etherizer so that it is damp but not saturated. When<br />
the flies have been transferred to an etherizer the apparatus should<br />
be rotated while watching the flies until none of them move.<br />
Quickly empty the flies onto a sheet of filter paper and sort out the<br />
ones required using a brush. Place the unconscious flies on the filter<br />
paper strip inside the new culture bottle. Close the bottle and lay it<br />
on its side (so that the flies do not fall onto the sticky medium)<br />
until recovery is complete.<br />
If large quantities of flies are to be transferred by this method do<br />
not try to make them all go into the etherizer at the same time but<br />
deal with them in batches. The ethoxyethane can be diluted by mixing<br />
with ethanol so that there is less danger of over etherizing. Notes<br />
on etherizers are given at the end of this appendix item.<br />
Flies may also be rendered unconscious by treating them with<br />
carbon dioxide from a gas cylinder. Do not use a gas generator as<br />
there is a chance of killing the flies with acid fumes from the gas<br />
producing reactants. The carbon dioxide treatment is safer than<br />
etherization and most of the flies will recover. An emergency<br />
etherizer will be required in addition to the source of carbon<br />
dioxide. The gas is let into the culture jars by means of a hypodermic<br />
syringe needle which is inserted through the stopper. The<br />
needle is connected to the gas cylinder by means of rubber connecting<br />
tubing, and the gas must be applied slowly.<br />
If the culture bottles are placed in a refrigerator for up to half an<br />
hour the flies can be easily handled. Should they recover too quickly<br />
during sorting operations, have an emergency etherizer nearby.<br />
In all cases it may be advantageous to keep the culture bottles and<br />
tubes on their sides until the flies have recovered so that they do not<br />
become stuck to the food medium. Flies which escape into the work<br />
area may be trapped in a narrow necked jar fitted with a filter funnel<br />
and containing mashed banana. It is easier, however, to use a fly<br />
spray and write-off the escaped organisms.<br />
Keeping cultures<br />
Keep the stock bottles on trays holding six to twelve bottles each.<br />
They may be stored, inspected and handled easily when on these<br />
trays. Label each bottle with details of the strain, the date of starting<br />
the bottle, and the genetic cross involved. In order to reduce the<br />
risk of infection of cultures by mites it is advisable to put motor<br />
oil (e.g. SAE 30) in the trays and to stand the bottles in Petri<br />
dishes placed in the oil.<br />
255
256<br />
Drosophila breed best at 25°C. They become sterile if kept above<br />
28 °c for any length of time and the rate of reproduction is<br />
significantly reduced below 15°C. It is best to keep them in a<br />
reliable incubator. Normal room temperatures are usually adequate<br />
providing the cultures are not kept on window sills where the greatest<br />
temperature fluctuations tend to occur. Rapid changes in temperature<br />
cause condensation in the culture bottle. Flies become stuck to<br />
this and die.<br />
Life history<br />
At 25°C the adult hatches from the pupa approximately nine days<br />
after the egg is laid. Females can lay eggs twelve hours after emergence<br />
(sometimes this is 48 hours if the flies have been etherized). Males<br />
are potent three hours after emergence. The average length of adult<br />
life is 26 days for females and 33 days for males. Allow for a life<br />
cycle of 12-14 days in planning work. If the cultures are not kept in<br />
an incubator at this temperature the times quoted are likely to be<br />
incorrect with all stages taking much longer.<br />
Sexing the flies<br />
To obtain virgin females all the adults are removed from a culture.<br />
Any flies emerging in the next eight hours are likely to be virgins.<br />
Under school conditions a suitable and reliable procedure is to<br />
remove the adults first thing in the morning and "then remove the<br />
virgin stock at lunchtime and again immediately after school. Separate<br />
the males from the females as soon as possible and keep them<br />
separate until required. (Virgin flies are required for 6A6.13.)<br />
Young virgin females have a pale, almost white, body colour. They<br />
tend to hatch earlier than the males. When in doubt the absence of<br />
the sex comb (see diagram) should be used to confirm identification.<br />
Other criteria for sexing are the brown chitinized claspers at the end<br />
of the abdomen of the male which are absent in the female. The<br />
dorsal surface of the male's abdomen is darkly pigmented at the<br />
posterior while in the female this dark hind portion has lighter<br />
bands across it.<br />
Etherizers<br />
Etherizers are easily prepared from specimen tubes and small filter<br />
funnels as shown in diagram a below. Diagram b shows a commercially<br />
available etherizer in which the side arm may be used either for<br />
adding ethoxyethane or for pouring out the flies.
female<br />
dorsal<br />
view<br />
ventral<br />
view<br />
ventral<br />
view<br />
side<br />
view<br />
male<br />
features to distinguish between male and female Drosophila<br />
257
258<br />
In either case the ethoxyethane may be diluted with ethanol and<br />
only sufficient should be added to moisten and not soak the cotton<br />
wool.<br />
A<br />
J
I----final position of t pint<br />
milk bottle<br />
putting flies into the etheriser; the movements<br />
should be performed as Quickly as possible<br />
transfer them all at one go but take out several batches until the<br />
bottle is empty.<br />
The flies are usually anaesthetized very quickly and are soon<br />
ready for examination.<br />
If at any stage flies are seen with their abdomens arched, their legs<br />
bunched together, and wings stretched over their backs it is a sign<br />
that some flies are dead due to the use of too much ether. Immediately<br />
take the funnel off the etherizer and replace it with a stopper.<br />
Shake any flies in the funnel back into the culture bottle and replace<br />
the bung. Start again using less ether.<br />
etherised cotton wool<br />
259
260<br />
Place one edge of the etherizer just in front of the flies and<br />
quickly close it over them. Do not rush the movement or the flies<br />
will be blown away.<br />
Locust testes<br />
Locust testes may be prepared up to a month in advance of the<br />
required lesson if aceto-carmine stain is to be used. Aceto-orcein is<br />
best for use with fresh material and Feulgen's stain can be used with<br />
material preserved for several months although in this latter case a<br />
second staining with aceto-orcein may be required. If the testes are<br />
to be kept for later use they should be fixed for 24 hours in acetic<br />
alcohol and then stored in 70% ethanol (IMS).<br />
Obtaining the testes<br />
Locusts may be bought from biological suppliers specially for this<br />
work or they may come from the school's continuing stock, if<br />
available.<br />
Male locusts can be distinguished from females by the shape of<br />
the terminal segments of the abdomen.<br />
Male Female<br />
Holding locust ready<br />
for dissection
The males (fifth instars) can be killed by decapitation, injection of<br />
ethanol (lMS) into the brain region, or by using a killing jar.<br />
The testes are dissected out by pinning the animal down dorsal<br />
surface uppermost on a cork mat and cutting up the midline of the<br />
back with a fine pair of scissors. The body wall is pinned back revealing<br />
the abdominal contents. Add a few drops of Ringer's solution<br />
(see Appendix 3) to the internal organs but do not flood the body<br />
cavity. Notice the yellow fat material covering the gut. The testes lie<br />
between the second and seventh abdominal segments. and are usually<br />
obscured by the fat.<br />
Remove all the fat containing the testes from the top of the gut,<br />
place it on a glass slide, and moisten the material with Ringer's<br />
solution. The testes will become whiter and easier to see against the<br />
yellow fat if the preparation is left in Ringer's solution for about<br />
10 minutes.<br />
Gently press on the tissues with a scalpel blade or similar instrument<br />
to break up the fat. The testes look like a bunch of bananas<br />
and can be seen if the slide is held against the light. Tear them carefully<br />
from the fat.<br />
When looking for testes care needs to be taken not to confuse<br />
the glistening white tubes of the tracheal system, which will be<br />
found to the side of the gut.<br />
fat containing testes<br />
tracheal system<br />
Abdominal wall pinned back<br />
261
262<br />
The testes are fixed for a minimum of two hours and a maximum<br />
of 24 hours by soaking them in acetic alcohol, see Appendix 3. They<br />
are then removed to 70% ethanol, IMS (see Appendix 3) for storage<br />
for up to a month.<br />
Staining techniques<br />
Using prepared material The testes are removed from the 70%<br />
ethanol into tap water in a watch glass. After 5 minutes transfer<br />
them to 0.8 M ammonium iron (III) sulphate (iron alum), see<br />
Appendix 3, and leave them for 5 minutes.<br />
Place the material on a micro slide and add a few drops of acetacarmine.<br />
Warm until the aceto-carmine is about to bubble. Repeat<br />
this warming several times. Wipe off the stain. Place fresh stain on the<br />
slide, cover and squash by tapping the cover glass gentlywith a<br />
needle, or by pressing gently on the cover glass with a pad of paper<br />
towelling.<br />
Fresh material can be treated in the same way providing it is<br />
first fixed using acetic alcohol.<br />
The mount is improved if Euparel mounting medium is used.<br />
Stuck cover glasses may be removed by soaking the slides after use<br />
in IMS.<br />
Using fresh material The fresh testis is stained with one or two drops<br />
of aceto-orcein (or propionic orcein), see Appendix 3, on the slide<br />
for 2-3 minutes. The slide must be heated during staining and extra<br />
stain is added to replace any lost by evaporation. Excess stain is<br />
washed off and the material is squashed between coverglass and<br />
slide for viewing.<br />
Using well preserved material The Feulgen technique is particularly<br />
valuable for preparations which have hardened due to being stored<br />
too long in a flxative such as ethanol.<br />
1. Fix the material in acetic alcohol for at least one hour and preferably<br />
one day.<br />
2. Hydrolyse the material in 1 M hydrochloric acid (see Appendix 3)<br />
for 6 minutes at 60 °e. Transfer to Feulgen's stain (see Appendix 3)<br />
and leave for one hour in the dark.<br />
3. Place a piece of material in one drop of Feulgen's stain (see Appendix<br />
3) and squash with the end of a glass rod.<br />
4. Put on a cover glass, warm gently and squash under filter paper.<br />
Should the Feulgen's stain not be very effective the cover glass<br />
should be removed and the material macerated again with aceta-
orcein stain. Such double stained material is likely to be more effective<br />
than any single stained material as described above.<br />
Schiff's reagent is effectively the same as Feulgen's stain.<br />
Mice<br />
Mice are suggested as alternative organisms for breeding in<br />
Investigation LA6.13.<br />
Hands must be carefully washed with soap and water after handling<br />
mice in order to reduce the risk of transferring disease organisms<br />
either to other animals or to oneself.<br />
Keeping mice<br />
Mice are best kept in shallow cages with separate areas for nesting<br />
and feeding.<br />
The 'Cambridge' cage consists of a plastic (polypropylene) trough<br />
with internal dimensions 275 mm X 220 m X 80 mm. It is covered<br />
by a wire lid sloping down towards the centre of the trough. On the<br />
lid a metal plate acts as a cover to the nesting area. A half-pint milk<br />
bottle supplies water.<br />
Up to six adults can be kept in one cage. For breeding, a trio of<br />
two does and a buck can be kept in a cage. The does can nurse<br />
several litters at the same time, but if the litters are of unequal age,<br />
and equally if one of the mothers tends to eat her young, it is best to<br />
separate the does for parturition (birth) and nursing.<br />
Cages can be kept on racking made of metal strips or wooden<br />
battens fixed to a wall. A space of 165-180 mm is needed between<br />
shelves and a space of 50 mm between adjacent cages. Three shelves<br />
of four cages each will occupy a wall area about 1.2 m wide by 0.6 m<br />
high and will project about 0.3 m.<br />
A room temperature of around 20 DC and reasonable ventilation<br />
with no draughts is desirable. Each doe should have her own record<br />
card which is clipped to the cage by a spring clip. If these are to be<br />
permanent records, writing in ball-point pen, Indian ink or spirit ink<br />
will safeguard against accidental wetting. Pencil will not run on wet<br />
card but is likely to smudge with handling.<br />
It has been found that noise may impede breeding procedures<br />
presumable by disturbing the does' oestrus cycles. The mothers<br />
disturbed in this way are likely to eat their litters and adults are<br />
frequently found to become vicious giving painful bites to the<br />
handler and to prying fingers. Should mice become vicious only one<br />
or two people should handle them, giving them time to become aware<br />
263
264<br />
of their presence. All movements made near the mice wne.; cleaning<br />
them should be slow and gentle so as not to disturb them.<br />
Cleaning<br />
Mice urinate and defaecate during exercise and especially when eating<br />
and drinking. They are extremely clean around the nesting area. In<br />
the Cambridge cage, the soiled bedding can be scooped out without<br />
disturbing the nest. If the mice are very active, a mesh shield, shaped<br />
to fit the nesting corner, can be held over them during cleaning. With<br />
particularly lively animals, the cage can be put in a large cardboard
ox, a dry sink, an aquarium, or the equivalent. It is particularly<br />
desirable not to disarrange the nest when birth is imminent or during<br />
nursing.<br />
If the cages are cleaned and additional bedding is added at least<br />
once a fortnight, the smell of mice should not be objectionable and<br />
the animals will remain healthy. Mice fed on cheese tend to smell<br />
strongly. Mouse food as described below contains all the necessary<br />
ingredients and does not need a supplement such as cheese.<br />
A layer of peat on the cage floor about 5 mm deep plus a handful<br />
of hay provides a suitable bedding. The hay can be twisted into a<br />
rough sort of nest and put in the nesting area, but this is not<br />
necessary as the mice will construct a nest without human help.<br />
Sawdust may be used as an alternative to peat but it may be<br />
contaminated by wild mouse droppings and should therefore be<br />
sterilised by autoclaving for at least an hour. Peat is more sterile than<br />
sawdust and also absorbs the smell more effectively. Check hay for<br />
the presence of mites and if necessary sterilise it by autoclaving.<br />
It is a wise procedure to wash the troughs and other parts of the<br />
cages weekly with hot water (75°C). If a detergent or disinfectant<br />
(e.g. Cetavlon, TCP) is used, the cages must be thoroughly rinsed out<br />
afterwards. The trough and the rest of the parts can withstand boiling<br />
water and may be sterilised in an autoclave at 5-6.7 X 10 4 N m- 2<br />
(8-10 p.s.i.). This is only necessary should the mice become diseased.<br />
Strongly smelling cages need cleaning. In warm, unventilated<br />
conditions the cages will need cleaning more frequently than in cool<br />
well ventilated conditions.<br />
Feeding<br />
Rat cake pellets obtainable from many pet stores make a good food.<br />
When placed on the cage cover they do not become contaminated<br />
with droppings and approximately 1-1.5 kg can be put there at a time.<br />
This will last about a fortnight with a maximum cage population. Use<br />
a smaller quantity if there are not many mice in a cage so as to prevent<br />
the uncovered pellets becoming stale by prolonged exposure to<br />
the air. Other recommended foods are Oxoid 41 B diet which is<br />
available in small quantities and mouse diet FM available from E.<br />
Dixon Ltd. in 25 kg (~hundredweight) sacks. Addition of extra seeds<br />
such as sunflower or barley improves the fertility of the mice.<br />
The water bottles have a single-holed bung through which passes<br />
a piece of glass tubing (5 mm internal diameter) whose open end has<br />
been heated until it has only a small hole (1 mm) in it. Capillary<br />
265
266<br />
tubing 1.25-2 mm internal diameter and 6-8 mm external diameter,<br />
can be used but tends to become airlocked. The tubing protrudes<br />
from the bung about 15 mm and needs to be about 30 mm long,<br />
depending on the depth of the bung. The bottle is placed with the<br />
spout protruding through the hole below the two short horizontal<br />
bars, in the space left for it by the upright divider. It will then be at<br />
the correct angle and distance from the cage floor. The bottle is filled<br />
with water to within 25 mm of the top and the bung is pressed in<br />
tightly. The bottle is inserted gently into the cage so as not to shake<br />
any water into it. The water should be replenished when the inner<br />
projection of the tube is out of the water. A supply usually lasts for<br />
a week.<br />
Mice rarely flood the cage by building up their bedding against the<br />
water tube but they may do so if there is too much bedding. A routine<br />
daily check should be made that flooding has not occurred and that<br />
there is sufficient water in the bottles. Algae grow in the bottles if they<br />
are in sunlight. Such bottles should be emptied and sterilised by filling<br />
with a 10% solution of sodium hypochlorite for a few hours. They<br />
need to be rinsed well, refilled with water and replaced in the cages.<br />
Handling<br />
Mice should be picked up by the tail held half way along. They will<br />
stay still if allowed to hold a coat sleeve or the bars of the cage with<br />
their front feet. They quickly become accustomed to handling<br />
providing this is carried out gently. A doe which is used to being<br />
handled is less likely to desert her litter when that is handled, than<br />
is one which is not used to such treatment. Up to 12 days old the<br />
whole litter may be held in the hand and each mouse should be<br />
returned to the rest of the litter as soon as possible after examination.<br />
Does are likely to reject cold young. Sometimes a litter born<br />
in new surroundings is abandoned but it is usual that subsequent<br />
litters are well cared for.<br />
When mice are first received from suppliers they may find their<br />
new environment unsettling. Occasional handling at first with a<br />
gradual increase in frequency will help them settle in two or three<br />
weeks.<br />
Young mice become very lively at 2-3 weeks of age and are difficult<br />
to catch because they move so fast. After 5-6 weeks they slow<br />
down and become more amenable to handling. It is sensible to open<br />
the cages inside a large box so that young mice do not escape.
Breeding<br />
Mice become sexually mature when they are 6-8 weeks old. Gestation<br />
takes 19-21 days and longer if the doe is suckling. The minimum<br />
generation is 9-10 weeks. The regular oestrus cycle is 4-5 days and<br />
the doe will only accept a male every fourth or fifth night. Mating<br />
can be detected by the presence of a vaginal plug formed by the male<br />
after copulation. It is a hard white substance which completely fills<br />
the vagina so that it can be seen with the naked eye. When it is more<br />
deeply placed it can be detected with the aid of a small spatula gently<br />
inserted into the vagina. For exact timing an inspection for vaginal<br />
plugs should be carried out daily. The plug usually disperses after 24<br />
hours but may sometimes persist for 2-3 days.<br />
Does may have eight or more litters in their lifetime. The first<br />
litter tends to be small but subsequent litters average about six. The<br />
second and third litters are likely to be the largest with up to eleven<br />
or twelve young.<br />
Sexing<br />
The young may be weaned at about twenty days old.<br />
\<br />
_ I<br />
teatsof mammary'---'-- )<br />
i .',"d, \.. - I<br />
) V'-----'(';------genital papilla ) \<br />
j()}A1<br />
( \ 9"''''<br />
anus<br />
papilla { ~<br />
Y5j~<br />
~ L~<br />
maleadult femaleadult<br />
Sexing is easiest from 0-15 days and after 6 weeks. The penis of the<br />
male is further from the anus than is the vulva of the female. At about<br />
one week the does show milk teats. Cases of mistaken identity do<br />
occur and some mice may have genital abnormalities which give rise<br />
to incorrect sexing. It is best for breeding purposes to kill any abnormal<br />
mice at an early age.<br />
267
268<br />
Social effects<br />
Mice are social animals. They react to each other in many subtle, as<br />
well as obvious, ways. The oestrus cycle is modified differently by<br />
the presence of males and by the presence of females. The cycle is<br />
shorter when males (or their smell) are present, but in the presence<br />
of females only the cycle is mutually suppressed.<br />
The presence of a different male after removal of a doe from the<br />
male with which she has mated can cause a failure of pregnancy,<br />
especially if the second male belongs to a different strain from the<br />
first. All litters born to females which have mated twice, with different<br />
males, have been found to be sired by the second male.<br />
Marking, killing and preserving mice<br />
It is necessary to mark mice and this is best done by using stains of<br />
different colours which dye the fur. Some stains are not permanent<br />
and may have to be renewed from time to time, others will grow out<br />
as the hair is moulted. Vegetable dyes or hair dyes, obtainable from<br />
the local pharmacy are recommended.<br />
Mice are killed, either by etherisation or by use of trichloromethane<br />
(chloroform) in a closed airtight box. The killing box should have a<br />
separate compartment for the killing liquid, which must not come<br />
into contact with the animals. The vapour escapes from this compartment<br />
into the main part of the box, where the mice are placed. A<br />
wad of cotton wool dampened with the killing liquid is placed in the<br />
compartment.<br />
If mice are to be preserved the easiest method is to skin them<br />
when freshly killed and to mount the skins on hardboard or wooden<br />
formers. Skinning is carried out by slitting the ventral surface from<br />
hind leg to hind leg and peeling off the skin forwards, cutting at tail<br />
tip, paws, ears and nose. Rub salt and borax into the skin then stretch<br />
it on a former made to the size of the mouse. The former needs an<br />
extension at the posterior end on which details of the mouse are<br />
noted. Allow the skin to dry on the former and store with mothballs<br />
(naphthalene).
Mice intended for dissection may be dropped into 70% ethanol<br />
providing the abdominal wall is first cut open to allow the preservative<br />
to bathe the gut and other abdominal organs.<br />
Tradescantia<br />
T. paludosa or T. bracteata are suitable alternatives to locust testes<br />
for chromosome staining. The cultivated forms of T. virginia are not<br />
suitable because of the larger number of chromosomes in the nuclei.<br />
Immature flower buds taken from the bulbs of wild bluebells are also<br />
suitable as an alternative to Tradescantia. Bulbs should be obtained<br />
in February or March.<br />
Anthers are removed from the young flower buds and are<br />
stained using toluidine blue stain (see Appendix 3) without first<br />
transferring to acetic alcohol. The buds need to be removed before<br />
they open and the anthers, which will be pale yellow, are removed.<br />
If aceto-carmine is to be used the anthers are transferred to acetic<br />
alcohol. The presence of meiotic divisions in the immature pollen<br />
will prove diagnostic of the size of bud to choose for this work.<br />
Staining with toluidine blue<br />
Anthers are placed on a micro slide with 1 M hydrochloric acid. The<br />
slide is warmed to near boiling and allowed to cool. The warming is<br />
repeated several times then the acid is blotted off and replaced with<br />
toluidine blue stain. Crush the anther slightly in the stain using a<br />
needle then repeat the warming procedure. Blot away the old stain.<br />
Add fresh stain, cover and squash by tapping the cover glass with a<br />
needle.<br />
269
270<br />
Tribolium<br />
Tribolium castaneum is suggested as the organism for breeding in<br />
Investigation 6&6.13. Alternatives are Drosophila or mice.<br />
Culture method<br />
The culture medium consists of 19 parts of wholemeal flour to one<br />
part of powdered dried yeast. No water is necessary since the beetles<br />
obtain their requirements from their food.<br />
Containers are 500 g Kilner type jars in which the glass lid has<br />
been substituted by filter paper or a perforated polythene sheet. The<br />
culture is best kept at 35°C over a tray of water to maintain humidity.<br />
The culture is divided when the beetle population becomes high.<br />
Handling<br />
To obtain adult beetles put a screw of paper in the culture container<br />
and leave overnight. Many beetles will crawl into the crevices.<br />
Remove the paper and unravel it over a tray. Pooters (see diagram<br />
below) should not be used to remove beetles from the container<br />
because of the dusty medium, but can be used to pick up adults from<br />
the tray.<br />
An alternative method is to sieve the medium using a flour sieve,<br />
wire mesh tea strainer, or any sieve with holes approximately 1 mm<br />
X 1 mm. In this way adults, pupae and larvae can be collected. Eggs<br />
are so small that they remain in the flour or adhere to the mesh of<br />
the sieve, so a different sieve should be used for each culture to avoid<br />
cross contamination. For the same reason the cultures should be<br />
sieved well away from each other.<br />
Life cycle<br />
The adult beetles mate soon after emergence from pupae and store<br />
sperm for some time, so if breeding experiments are to be undertaken<br />
the sexes should be separated at the pupal stage. Females lay eggs<br />
about ten days after emerging from pupae and continue laying for a<br />
couple of months. Eggs hatch after about four days and start a larval<br />
period of about three weeks. The larvae then pupate for about one<br />
week before emerging as adult beetles. Times will vary considerably<br />
according to temperature and humidity.
Sexing<br />
pooter<br />
IrUbbertubing<br />
i-------c:nAcimen tube<br />
150mmx25mm<br />
Adult beetles are very difficult to sex even for the experienced<br />
handler. It is useful to sex pupae.<br />
In the male pupa the external genitalia are two short appendages<br />
which are little more than rounded protuberances, whereas in the<br />
female the appendages are divergent, segmented and altogether more<br />
prominent.<br />
~Female<br />
Ventral surface of the abdomen of Tribolium pupae<br />
MaleCi'<br />
A stereo microscope giving X 40 magnification is desirable for<br />
this method of sexing.<br />
In the adult stage sexing relies on the differences in the grooves<br />
and ridges at the apex of the elytra. In the male these are discontinuous,<br />
whereas in the female all but the extreme outside ones are<br />
continuous.<br />
271
272<br />
QFemale<br />
elytra of Tribolium<br />
\\<br />
Malecf<br />
Unfortunately when viewed by normal top illumination it is<br />
difficult to see the ridges since they are on a curved surface. It is<br />
advisable to use a combination of top and lateral lighting in conjunction<br />
with a X 40 stereo microscope.<br />
Sexing by probability<br />
T. castaneum is preferred to T. confusum for genetic work because<br />
the latter species tends to eat its eggs and small larvae.<br />
The red/brown variety is the 'wild-type' and the factor is<br />
dominant. The ebony (black variety) factor is recessive. Beetles<br />
can be sexed at the pupal stage but this is not easy and 'sexing by<br />
probability' is the technique employed in Investigation .6A6.13.<br />
Two larvae or pupae are put into each of twelve specimen tubes<br />
containing food medium. Between four and eight tubes will<br />
probably contain both male and female larvae.<br />
Due to the dominance of red/brown genes over ebony, great care<br />
should be taken not to cross-contaminate the pure breeding stock<br />
cultures. Pure breeding ebony beetles can be obtained by separating<br />
the very young specimens from a mixed stock and then breeding<br />
them, but the red/brown beetles of mixed stock are likely to be<br />
carrying the ebony gene. Careful breeding procedures are therefore<br />
necessary for isolating and maintaining pure breeding wild type<br />
Tribolium.<br />
Procedure for Investigation .6A6.13<br />
Place one larva or pupa of the wild type (red/brown) beetle in each<br />
of twelve small (75 X 25 mm) specimen tubes. To each of the tubes<br />
add one larva or pupa of the mutant (ebony) stock. The organism<br />
should be handled carefully using a section lifter (or spatula) and<br />
soft hair brush. Close the tubes and keep in an incubator set at 35°C<br />
and containing a dish of water.<br />
30 days after emergence of adults young larvae should appear in<br />
approximately 50% of the tubes. Remove the original adults from the
tubes and, after killing, keep them as a record, stuck to card. When<br />
the new adults emerge in about 20 days check for colour and transfer<br />
twenty to the large (I20 X 40 mm) specimen tubes. Kill and mount<br />
the rest as before. All adults in this generation should be red/brown<br />
wild types.<br />
In another 30 days larvae should appear in the large tubes.<br />
Separate out the adults and add to the killed, mounted specimens.<br />
Incubate the larvae for another 20 days and finally colour check<br />
them. They can be killed and mounted or be carried on in fresh<br />
specimen tubes to provide results for Investigation "'6.20. If such<br />
a continuous experiment is carried out then remove the ebony<br />
beetles from the continuing culture but keep an accurate count of<br />
each generation of adults of each colour.<br />
273
274<br />
Appendix 3 Chemical preparations<br />
For common reagents, solutions are made by diluting stock solutions.<br />
This appendix gives instructions both for diluting to the required<br />
strength from stock solutions, and for preparing the more dilute<br />
solutions from solids and concentrated reagents. In most cases<br />
there is no need to take quantities accurately, they are intended<br />
to be guides to the order of concentration: thus a 1.1 M solution<br />
will be as satisfactory as a 0.9 M solution and both of these can<br />
be used where a 1.0 M solution is required.<br />
Most of the recipes given here produce molar solutions rather than<br />
percentage solutions. Where percentage solutions are given they are<br />
prepared according to the following convention:<br />
Solutions whose components are liquid<br />
These are vlv (volume/volume) solutions in which the combined<br />
volume of the liquid components is 100 crrr' or a multiple or submultiple<br />
of this volume in which the relative proportions of the<br />
components is the same as if the total volume were 100 em? .<br />
Solutions of solids in liquids<br />
These are m/v (mass/volume) solutions in which the required mass of<br />
solid is dissolved in solvent and the total volume is made up to<br />
100 ern" , or a multiple or submultiple of this volume, in which the<br />
relative proportions of the components is the same as if the total<br />
volume were 100 ern".<br />
Where appropriate, solutions are cross-referenced against the<br />
investigations where they are used, or against appropriate appendix<br />
references.<br />
Acetic acid, glacial (concentrated), 1.05 s.g.<br />
The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparation has a<br />
specific gravity of 1.05 g em -3. It is approximately a 99.5% solution<br />
of acetic acid and has a molarity of approximately 17.5 M. The<br />
melting point of the acid is approximately 16.5 °c so in cold
weather the stock bottle should be brought into a warm room and<br />
the cap loosened if the acid is to be used.<br />
Acetic acid, 1.0 M<br />
This acid is required for Investigation "'3.6. The solution needs to be<br />
made as accurately as possible.<br />
Carefully and slowly pour between 57.1 and 57.2 ern" of concentrated<br />
(1.05 s.g.) acetic acid into 500 em" of cold distilled water.<br />
Stir continuously as the acid is added. Make up the volume to 1 000<br />
ern? with water.<br />
Acetic alcohol<br />
Acetic alcohol is suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for use<br />
during staining procedures in Investigation 6.14.<br />
Dilute 25 em" of glacial acetic acid to 100 crrr' with ethanol<br />
(IMS). This solution must be freshly made for use.<br />
Aceto-carmine<br />
This is one of the stains suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for<br />
use in Investigation 6.14. It is best to buy the stain ready prepared<br />
as the preparation requires refluxing.<br />
Dissolve 1 g of carmine stain in 45 ern" of glacial acetic acid. Add<br />
55 em" of distilled water and bring the mixture to the boil. Reflux<br />
for up to an hour in the apparatus illustrated.<br />
Allow to cool and filter the solution. It may be necessary to filter<br />
the solution, before use, as sediment may form even if ready<br />
prepared solution is bought.<br />
Aceto-orcein<br />
This is one of the stains suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for<br />
use in Investigation 6.14. It is easiest to buy the stain ready prepared.<br />
Mix together 1-2 g of orcein, 45 ern" of glacial acetic acid and<br />
55 crrr' of distilled water. Boil for 30-60 minutes or reflux (see the<br />
diagram in appendix item 'Aceto-carmine') for 15-20 minutes.<br />
275
276<br />
heat<br />
An alternative is propionic orcein which is reputedly better than<br />
aceto-orcein. It is prepared by replacing the acetic acid as described<br />
above with propionic acid. The rest of the preparation is as for<br />
aceto-orcein.<br />
Ammonium hydroxide 0.88 s.g.<br />
The concentrated solution referred to in the following preparations<br />
has a specific gravity of 0.88 g ern -3. It is a 35% solution of ammonia<br />
(NH3) and has a molarity approximately 18.1 M.
Ammonium hydroxide ~-strength<br />
This solution is used in the discussion following ..•.7.15 and for ..•.7.16.<br />
Dilute 125 ern" of concentrated (0.88 s.g.) ammonia solution to<br />
500 ern" with water.<br />
Ammonium hydroxide 2 M<br />
This solution is used in the discussion following ..•.7.15.<br />
Dilute 1 000 ern" of 5 M ammonia to 2 500 ern" with water; or<br />
dilute 276.5 crrr' of concentrated (0.88 s.g.) ammonia solution to<br />
2 500 em" with water.<br />
Ammonium iron (III) sulphate 0.8 M (iron alum)<br />
This solution is suggested for use in Investigation 6.14.<br />
Dissolve 38.6 g of the solid in distilled water and make up the<br />
volume of solution to 100 em" with water. A drop of concentrated<br />
sulphuric acid added to the solution will help to stabilise it.<br />
Barium hydroxide, 0.1 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation ..•.3.7.<br />
Dissolve 31.5 g of solid barium hydroxide (Ba(OHh.8H2 0) in<br />
distilled water and make up the volume to 1 000 em" with water.<br />
Benedict's solution<br />
This solution is required for Investigation ..•.9.3a. The solution may<br />
be bought ready made.<br />
Make the solution as follows:<br />
100 g Sodium carbonate Na2C03.10H20<br />
173 g Trisodium citrate Na3 C6 H, 07 .2H2 0<br />
1 000 ern" Water, distilled or de-ionised<br />
Dissolve the solids in distilled water and filter if necessary. Dissolve<br />
17.3 g of copper (II) sulphate (CUS04 .5H2 0) in the carbonate/citrate<br />
solution and make up to 1000 em" with distilled water. Filter the<br />
final solution if it appears cloudy.<br />
277
278<br />
Bromine water, Br 2/H 20 J<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 11.6.<br />
Shake 2-3 em" of bromine with 200 crrr' of water in a glass<br />
stoppered bottle. Some liquid bromine should be kept in the bottom<br />
of the stock bottle to ensure saturation of the water.<br />
Calcium hydroxide, saturated<br />
See 'Lime water' below<br />
Congo red indicator, 0.1%<br />
This indicator is required for Investigation A2.7.<br />
Dissolve 0.1 g of solid in 100 ern" of distilled water.<br />
Eluent<br />
An eluent is required for Investigation A9.3a. Two suggested formulations<br />
are given below.<br />
a. Mix 10 crrr' distilled water with 80 ern" ethyl acetate and 20 cm'<br />
pyridine. Shake the mixture well before use.<br />
b. Mix 60 ern" propan-Z-ol (iso-propyl alcohol) with 20 ern" of acetic<br />
acid (1.05 s.g.) and 20 ern" distilled water.<br />
Ethanol 70%<br />
This solution is used in the staining methods suggested in Appendix 2<br />
'Locust testes'.<br />
Dilute 70 ern" of ethanol (IMS) to 100 cnr' with distilled water.<br />
Fehling B solution<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 12.1.<br />
Dissolve 173 g potassium hydrogen tartrate (COOH.CHOH.CHOH.<br />
COOK) and 50 g sodium hydroxide pellets in water to make 500 em"<br />
of solution. The solution should be made with constant stirring to
prevent localised heating and possible breaking of the container. The<br />
solution may be safely made in polythene beakers.<br />
Alternatively dissolve 121 g sodium hydroxide pellets and 93.1 g<br />
of tartaric acid in water to make 500 ern" of solution.<br />
Feulgen's stain (Shiff's reagent)<br />
This stain is suggested in Appendix 2 'Locust testes' for use in<br />
Investigation 6.14.<br />
Boil 0.5 g of basic fuchsin in 100 ern" of distilled water. Cool the<br />
solution and filter it. Add 15 ern" of 1 M hydrochloric acid (see<br />
below) and 1.5 g of potassium disulphate (VI)<br />
Store the solution for 24 hours in a tightly stoppered bottle in the<br />
dark. Shake with 1-2 g of decolourising (activated) charcoal and filter.<br />
The solution should finally be stored in a dark, glass-stoppered bottle<br />
away from the light and in a refrigerator.<br />
Gelatine containing potassium nitrate, 30%<br />
This substance is required for Investigation 63.12.<br />
30 g Gelatine<br />
1 g Potassium nitrate<br />
Supply Universal (Yamanda's) indicator, see below<br />
100 em" Water, distilled<br />
Boil 90 crrr' of distilled water and dissolve the gelatine and<br />
potassium nitrate in the hot water. Add sufficient water to make up<br />
the volume to 100 crrr' when the solution has cooled but not set.<br />
Stir in sufficient of the indicator to colour the gel. Pour into the<br />
U-tubes and allow to set.<br />
Glucose, 20%<br />
This solution is required for Investigation .A9.3b.<br />
Dissolve 20 g of glucose (dextrose) in water and make up the<br />
volume to 100 crrr' with water.<br />
Glucose, 1%<br />
This solution is required for Investigation ~9.3a.<br />
Dissolve 1 g of glucose (dextrose) in water and make up the<br />
volume to 100 em" with water.<br />
279
280<br />
Hydrochloric acid, 1.18 s.g.<br />
This acid is required in Investigations 6&8.10, "'9.7, and "'11.7.<br />
The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparations<br />
has a specific gravity of 1.18 g cm- 3 . It is approximately a 35.4%<br />
solution of hydrogen chloride (HCI) and has a molarity of approximately<br />
11.5 M.<br />
Hydrochloric acid, 5 M<br />
This may be regarded as the stock solution from which other dilute<br />
solutions are made.<br />
Carefully pour 437.5 crrr' of concentrated (1.18 s.g.) acid into<br />
500 em? of cold water. Add the acid slowly and with stirring. Allow<br />
to cool. Makeup the volume to 1 000 em" with cold water.<br />
Hydrochloric acid, 1.0 M<br />
This acid is required for Investigations "'3.2,3.3, "'3.5, 6&3.11,<br />
63.12 and "'9.3a. The acid needs to be made as accurately as<br />
possible for Investigation "'3.5, and should, therefore, be made up<br />
by dilution of concentrated acid.<br />
Dilute 220 ern" of 5 M hydrochloric acid to 1 000 em" with cold<br />
water.<br />
Or, carefully pour 87.5 ern" of concentrated (1.18 s.g.) acid into<br />
500 ern" of cold water. Add the acid slowly and with stirring. Make<br />
up the volume to 1 000 em" with cold water.<br />
Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 M<br />
This acid is required for Investigations "'2.7, "'3.8, "'3.9, and "'3.10.<br />
Dilute 20 ern" of 5 M hydrochloric acid to 1 000 crrr' with cold<br />
water.<br />
Or, carefully pour 8.75 crrr' of concentrated (1.18 s.g.) acid into<br />
500 em" of cold water. Add the acid slowly and with stirring. Make<br />
up the volume to 1 000 ern" with cold water.
Hydrochloric acid, 0.001 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation "'2.7. When made the<br />
solution should register as pH 3 when tested with Universal indicator<br />
paper or solution.<br />
Dilute 10 ern? of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid to 1 000 ern" with<br />
distilled water.<br />
Iron (II) sulphate, 0.1 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 6.A 11.8.<br />
Dissolve 28 g of iron (II) sulphate (FeS04 .7H2 0) in a mixture of<br />
3 crrr' of concentrated sulphuric acid and distilled water. Make up<br />
the volume to 1 000 em" with distilled water.<br />
The iron(II) sulphate solution should be made up fresh and not<br />
kept as it tends to oxidise.<br />
Iron(II) sulphate, 0.0089 M<br />
This solution is required for determining the oxygen content of water.<br />
It is used in Investigation 12.1.<br />
Dissolve 2.48 g of iron(II) sulphate (FeS04 .7H2 0) in water to<br />
make 1 000 ern" of solution. Make up fresh and use immedately. For<br />
best results the water should be freshly boiled and cooled, and the<br />
solid weighed as accurately as possible.<br />
Iron(III) sulphate, O.IM<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 6.A 11.8.<br />
Dissolve 40 g of iron(III) sulphate (Fe2 (S04)3) in water to make<br />
1 000 crrr' of solution.<br />
Lime water, calcium hydroxide, saturated<br />
This solution is required for Investigations "'3.2 and "'9.3b.<br />
Prepare the solution by standing water over calcium hydroxide<br />
(slaked lime) in a Winchester bottle and shaking it. Allow to settle<br />
and filter as required. From time to time the stock bottle should be<br />
shaken and more water and fresh solid added occasionally.<br />
281
282<br />
Litmus indicator, 0.1 %<br />
This indicator is suggested for use in Investigations .&3.10 and 11.6. The<br />
solution may be bought ready made or may be prepared as follows.<br />
Dissolve 1 g of azolitmin in 1 000 ern" of distilled or de-ionised<br />
water. The solution may be warmed to help the solid dissolve. Filter<br />
off any undissolved solid.<br />
Locating agent for sugars<br />
A locating agent for sugars, separated by paper chromatography, is<br />
required for Investigation .&9.3a.<br />
Mix together the following reagents.<br />
0.9 ern" aniline<br />
48 crrr' butan-l-ol (n-butyl alcohol)<br />
48 em" ethoxyethane (di-ethyl ether)<br />
4 crrr' water<br />
1.6 g phthalic acid<br />
Shake to dissolvethe solid and apply as a spray.<br />
Maltose, 1%<br />
This solution is required for Investigation .&9.3a.<br />
Dissolve 1 g of maltose in water and make up the volume to<br />
100 ern" with water.<br />
Methyl orange<br />
This indicator is suggested to colour sulphuric acid in Investigation<br />
.&11.10.<br />
A concentrated stock solution consisting of 0.5 g of solid dissolved<br />
in 1 000 em" of distilled water or ethanol will keep indefinitely.<br />
For use as an indicator dilute 100 em" of this stock solution to<br />
1 000 em" with distilled water.<br />
Nitric acid 1.42 s.g.<br />
The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparation has a<br />
specific gravity approximately 1.42 g em -3. It is approximately a<br />
70% solution and has a molarity of approximately 22.5 M. Acid<br />
which has been in stock for some time often takes on a yellow tinge<br />
due to the presence of nitrogen oxides.
Nitric acid, 1.0 M<br />
This acid is required for Investigations "'3.5 and 6&3.11. It should be<br />
made as accurately as possible for Investigation "'3.5.<br />
Pour 44.4 crrr' of concentrated (1.42 s.g.) acid slowly and carefully<br />
into 500 crrr' of cold water. As the acid is added to the water<br />
stir continuously. Allow the solution to cool and then dilute to<br />
1 000 ern? with cold water.<br />
Phenolphthalein indicator, 0.05%<br />
This indicator is required for Investigations e2.7 and "'3.7.<br />
Dissolve 0.5 g of solid in 500 em" of ethanol (IMS) and make up<br />
to 1 000 em" with distilled water.<br />
Phenosafranine, 1% aqueous<br />
This solution is required for determining the oxygen concentration<br />
of water. It is used in Investigation 12.1.<br />
Dissolve I g of the solid stain in water and make up the volume<br />
to 100 crrr' with water.<br />
Potassium carbonate, 1M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 3.3.<br />
Dissolve 138.2 g of the anhydrous salt (K2 C03) in water and<br />
make up the volume of solution to 1 000 ern" with water.<br />
Potassium chromate, 0.1 M<br />
This solution is required in Investigations 6.'.3.11 and 11.6.<br />
Dissolve 19.4 g of the solid (K2 Cr04) in water and make the total<br />
volume up to 1 000 crrr' with water.<br />
Potassium dichromate, 0.1 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 6.'.3.11.<br />
Dissolve 29.4 g of solid (K2 Cr207) in water and make up the<br />
volume of solution to 1 000 crrr' with water.<br />
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284<br />
Potassium hexacyanoferrate( III), 0.1 M, potassium ferricyanide<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 6A 11.8.<br />
Dissolve 33 g of the solid, K3Fe(CN)6' in distilled water and make<br />
up the volume of the solution to 1 000 ern" with water.<br />
Potassium hydroxide, 25%<br />
This solution is required in Investigation .6.11.10.<br />
Dissolve 25 g of pellets in 100 em" of cold water, with constant<br />
stirring to prevent localised heating and possible breaking of the<br />
container. The solution may be safely made in polythene beakers.<br />
Potassium hydroxide, 1.0 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigations .6.3.2, .6.3.5, .6.3.6, and<br />
6A3.11. The solution should be made as accurately as possible for<br />
Investigations .6.3.5 and .6.3.6.<br />
Dissolve 66 g of (85%) pellets in 800 ern" of cold water, with<br />
constant stirring to prevent localised heating and possible breaking<br />
of the container. After cooling make up the volume to 1 000 ern"<br />
with cold water. The pellets used should not be dull nor contain<br />
powder (potassium carbonate). The solution may be made safely<br />
in polythene beakers, buckets or other containers.<br />
Solutions of potassium hydroxide should be kept in bottles<br />
fitted with rubber bungs NOT ground glass stoppers, which may<br />
become cemented into the necks due to the formation of<br />
potassium carbonate.<br />
Potassium iodide, 1M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 11.5.<br />
Dissolve 166 g of potassium iodide crystals in water and make up<br />
the volume of solution to 1 000 crrr' with water.<br />
Potassium pyrogallate<br />
This solution is used in Investigation .6.11.10.<br />
The reagent can be stored indefinitely under a layer of liquid<br />
paraffin in a well sealed flask or bottle.
Dissolve 5-15 g of resublimed pyrogallol in 100 em" of freshly<br />
boiled and cooled distilled water. Cover the solution with liquid paraffin<br />
to a depth of about 10 mm and add 100 cm-' of 25% potassium<br />
hydroxide through a funnel whose stem is inserted through the layer<br />
of paraffin. Gently swirl the container to mix the aqueous constituents.<br />
Potassium thiocyanate, 0.5 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 6J;..11.8.<br />
Dissolve 49 g of solid (KSCN), in water to make 1 000 crrr' of<br />
solution.<br />
Ringer's solution<br />
This solution is suggested for use in dissecting out locust testes in<br />
Investigation 6.14. Tablets are available for making up this solution,<br />
or it may be prepared as follows.<br />
0.24 g calcium chloride, CaCl2 .6H2 0<br />
0.42 g potassium chloride, KCI<br />
6.0 g sodium chloride, NaCI<br />
0.2 g sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHC03<br />
Dissolve the solids in I 000 ern" of distilled water. It is best to keep<br />
stock solutions of known concentration of each constituent and to<br />
mix the solutions. This applies in particular to calcium chloride<br />
because the solid is deliquescent.<br />
Silver nitrate, 0.1 M<br />
This reagent is required for Investigation 6J;..11.8.<br />
Dissolve 17 g of solid in distilled water to make I 000 cnr' of<br />
solution. Do not use tap water as this will produce a cloudy suspension<br />
of silver chloride.<br />
Sodium chloride, saturated<br />
This solution is used in Investigation "'11.10.<br />
The solubility of sodium chloride at 20°C is 36 g per 100 em",<br />
Add 40 g of sodium chloride to a beaker containing 100 ern" of cold<br />
water. Stir well and leave the solution standing over the excess salt.<br />
285
286<br />
Sodium hydroxide, 5 M<br />
This solution may be regarded as the stock solution. It is used in<br />
Investigation 12.1.<br />
Dissolve 208.3 g of (96%) or 204.1 g of (98%) pellets in 800 em"<br />
of cold water, with constant stirring to prevent localised heating and<br />
possible breaking of the container. After cooling the volume of<br />
solution is made up to 1 000 ern" with cold water. The pellets used<br />
should not be dull nor contain powder (sodium carbonate). The<br />
solution may be made safely in polythene beakers, buckets or<br />
other containers.<br />
Solutions of sodium hydroxide should be kept in bottles fitted<br />
with rubber bungs NOT ground glass stoppers, which may become<br />
cemented into the necks due to the formation of sodium carbonate.<br />
Sodium hydroxide, 2 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 11.6.<br />
Dilute 400 em" of 5 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 em" with<br />
water. Or, dissolve 83.4 g of (96%) or 81.6 g of (98%) pellets to<br />
make 1 000 ern" of solution.<br />
Sodium hydroxide, 1M<br />
This solution is required for Investigations "'3.2,3.3, "'3.5, "'3.6,<br />
6&3.11, and 63.12. The solution should be made as accurately as<br />
possible for Investigations "'3.5 and "'3.6.<br />
Dilute 200 em" of 5 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 ern" with<br />
water.<br />
Or, dissolve 41.7 g of (96%) or 40.8 g of (98%) pellets in water<br />
to make 1 000 ern" of solution.<br />
Sodium hydroxide, 0.1 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigations "'3.9 and "'3.10. It<br />
should be made as accurately as possible.<br />
Dilute 20 em" of 5 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 em" with<br />
water.<br />
Or, dissolve 4.17 g of (96%) or 4.08 g of (98%) pellets in water<br />
to make 1 000 em" of solution.
Sodium hydroxide, 0.00 J M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation &2.7. When made the<br />
solution should register as pH 11 when tested with Universal<br />
indicator paper or solution.<br />
Dilute 10 ern" of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide to 1 000 ern" with<br />
water.<br />
Sodium hydroxide, 0.000 1M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation &2.7. When made the<br />
solution should register as pH 9 when tested with Universal<br />
indicator paper or solution.<br />
Dilute 100 ern" of 0.001 M sodium hydroxide to 1 00n:::Cm 3<br />
with water.<br />
Sodium picrate papers<br />
These test papers for hydrocyanic acid are required for<br />
Investigation 6&6.9.<br />
Make a saturated solution of picric acid (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol) by<br />
standing 100 crrr' of distilled water over surplus picric acid crystals<br />
for a few days. Agitate the container at intervals.<br />
Decant the saturated solution and add small quantities of solid<br />
hydrogen sodium carbonate to neutralise the acid. Approximately<br />
0.5 g of sodium hdryogen carbonate will be required for each 100 em"<br />
of acid solution. The neutral point is reached when no further effervescence<br />
occurs on addition of a further small quantity of solid.<br />
Filter the neutralised solution into a shallow tray and soak sheets<br />
of filter paper in the solution.<br />
Dry the papers by allowing evaporation to occur at room temperature.<br />
Keep the paper away from strong sunlight.<br />
Discard any paper which is not uniformly impregnated, and cut<br />
the remainder into 50 mm X 5 mm strips and store in a dark glass<br />
bottle or in a can. The papers will keep for several weeks.<br />
287
288<br />
Starch,1%<br />
This solution is required for Investigation .&.9.3a.<br />
Mix 109 of analytical grade starch with a little distilled water to<br />
make a thin paste. Make up the volume to 1 000 em" with boiling<br />
distilled water and simmer the mixture while stirring until a clear<br />
solution is obtained.<br />
Sulphuric acid, 1.84 s.g.<br />
This acid is required for the discussion following Investigation 611.4.<br />
The concentrated acid referred to in the following preparations<br />
has a specific gravity of 1.84 g ern-3. It is a 98% solution of sulphuric<br />
acid (H2S04) and has a molarity of approximately 18.3 M.<br />
Sulphuric acid, 2 M<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 11.6.<br />
Carefully and slowly pour 108.4 crrr' of concentrated (1.84 s.g.)<br />
sulphuric acid into 500 ern" of cold distilled water. Stir continuously<br />
as the acid is added and take care that it does not splash upwards.<br />
After cooling make up the volume of the solution to 1 000 ern" with<br />
cold water. Work with the vessel in a sink and do not lean over it<br />
while mixing.<br />
Sulphuric acid, 1M<br />
This solution is required for Investigations .&.3.2,3.3, .&.3.7and 6.&.3.11.<br />
Dilute 500 ern" of 2 M sulphuric acid with cold water to make<br />
1 000 em" of solution.<br />
Or, carefully and slowly pour 54.2 em" of concentrated (1.84 s.g.)<br />
sulphuric acid into 500 ern" of cold water. Stir continuously as the<br />
acid is added and take care that it does not splash upwards. After<br />
cooling make up the volume of solution to 1 000 crrr' with cold water.
Sulphuric acid, 0.50 M<br />
This solution is required to be made as accurately as possible for<br />
Investigation &3.5.<br />
Dilute 250 em" of 2 M sulphuric acid with cold water to make<br />
1 000 ern" of solution.<br />
Or, carefully and slowly pour 27.1 crrr' of concentrated (1.84 s.g.)<br />
sulphuric acid into 500 ern" of cold water. Stir continuously as the<br />
acid is added and take care that it does not splash upwards. After<br />
cooling make up the volume to 1 000 em" with cold water.<br />
Sulphuric acid, 0.3 M<br />
This solution is used for neutralising splashes of alkaline reagents<br />
in Investigation & 11.10. It is stained with methyl orange indicator<br />
before use.<br />
Dilute 150 ern? of 2 M sulphuric acid with cold water to make<br />
1 000 em" of solution.<br />
Toluidine blue-O stain, 1% aqueous<br />
This stain is suggested in Appendix 2 'Tradescantia' for use in 6.14.<br />
Dissolve 1 g of the solid stain in 100 crrr' of distilled water, with<br />
warming. Cool and filter the solution if necessary to remove any<br />
undissolved solid.<br />
Trypsin, 4%<br />
This solution is required for Investigation 6&3.13.<br />
Dissolve 0.5 g of trypsin in 12.5 em" of distilled water.<br />
Universal (Yamada's) indicator<br />
This indicator is required for Investigations &3.2, &3.8, &3.9,<br />
D,3.12 and &9.7.<br />
Yamada's indicator forms a cheap and useful alternative to<br />
Universal indicator. For accurate work it is best to use a pH meter<br />
or a commercial pH indicator. Prepare the indicator as follows.<br />
250 mg bromothymol blue<br />
62.5 mg methyl red<br />
500 mg phenolphthalein<br />
25 mg thymol blue<br />
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290<br />
Dissolve the solids in 500 crrr' of ethanol (IMS). Neutralise to a<br />
green colour with 0.05 M sodium hydroxide solution (a few drops<br />
only are required). Make up the volume to 1 000 ern" with<br />
distilled water.<br />
Water<br />
De-ionised (DI) water can be substituted for distilled water for<br />
school uses. The only time distilled water has any advantage over<br />
DI water is when pH indicator and culture solutions are being<br />
prepared. On standing both types of water will dissolve carbon<br />
dioxide (and in industrial areas, sulphur oxides) from the air.<br />
Freshly distilled water will tend to have negligible quantities of<br />
these acidic gases (and other gases) present. In any case indicator<br />
solutions should be made using freshly boiled water. (NB pure water<br />
is only neutral at 22°C and at standard pressure of one atmosphere<br />
(10 5 N m- 2 ).<br />
It is a false economy to use tap water rather than distilled or<br />
de-ionised water, and the following cases do require the purified<br />
water.<br />
1. Solutions of indicators and stains, and culture solu tions.<br />
2. Solutions required for accurate analytical work.<br />
3. Solutions made from substances likely to react with salts dissolved<br />
in tap water.<br />
4. Test reagents.
Appendix 4 Hazards and<br />
precautions<br />
Centrifuge<br />
Centrifuges used by pupils should be fitted with a lid which should<br />
be kept closed all the time the machine is in operation. Pupils must<br />
not be allowed to open the lid until the centrifuge tubes have stopped<br />
moving. In particular fingers must not be inserted into the centrifuge<br />
safety chamber in order to arrest the motion of the tubes.<br />
The centrifuge should be loaded evenly. If necessary tubes of<br />
water should be used to counterbalance tubes full of mixtures.<br />
If a tube should break, glass will be likely to be flung around<br />
inside the casing. The centrifuge should be switched off and the lid<br />
kept closed until movement stops then the machine should be<br />
thoroughly cleaned and dried.<br />
Chemical hazards<br />
Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)<br />
This acid is very corrosive and has an irritating vapour. The glacial<br />
acid assists burning. Spillages should, therefore, be mopped up with<br />
plenty of water with all sources of ignition turned off.<br />
Lungs Remove from exposure, rest and keep the patient warm.<br />
Skin Wash the affected skin with plenty of water. Remove contaminated<br />
clothing and wash it before reuse. If severely affected<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Mouth Wash out mouth well with fresh water. Give a large quantity<br />
of water to drink, followed by milk of magnesia, and<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
291
292<br />
Ammonia, 0.880 s.g. (ammonium hydroxide)<br />
Poisonous and corrosive solution giving off an irritant choking vapour.<br />
Bottles which have been previously opened tend to contain a quantity<br />
of gas above the solution, which escapes on opening. Open in a fume<br />
cupboard with a rag over the top.<br />
Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If<br />
severely exposed<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Skin Wash well with water. If severely affected<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Mouth Wash out well with water. Give vinegar or 1 % ethanoic acid<br />
(acetic acid) to drink.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Eyes Irrigate eyes with water by placing head under a running tap<br />
(or use an eye bath). If direct contact has occurred (i.e. by splashing)<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Aniline (phenylamine)<br />
Use in a fume cupboard if possible. Absorbed by the skin.<br />
Lungs Remove the patient from exposure and keep warm. In<br />
severe cases<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Skin Wash well with soap and water. Wash and dry clothing before<br />
reuse.<br />
Mouth Wash out well with water. Give emetic such as 1 tablespoon<br />
of mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon of common<br />
salt (sodium chloride) in warm water.<br />
Obtain medical attention
Barium hydroxide<br />
This is a Schedule 1 poison. On no account should it be pipetted by<br />
mouth. Has an accumulative effect.<br />
Mouth Wash out mouth with plenty of water and give 2 tablespoons<br />
of magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) in water. Give an emetic such<br />
as 1 tablespoon of mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon<br />
of common salt (sodium chloride) in warm water. Keep<br />
patient warm.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Bromine and bromine water<br />
Both liquid and gas of this element are very volatile. Causes severe<br />
burns if spilt on the skin and prompt first aid treatment is very<br />
important. The vapour is particularly corrosive to the eyes and<br />
respiratory system. Bromine is also a fire hazard and can inflame<br />
organic materials including sawdust.<br />
Wear rubber gloves when using bromine and work in a fume<br />
cupboard.<br />
Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If<br />
severely exposed<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Skin Drench affected area with water and remove any contaminated<br />
clothing. Bathe with a dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate (hypo).<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Mouth Wash out mouth thoroughly and give large quantities of<br />
water to drink.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Eyes Irrigate eyes thoroughly then<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
293
294<br />
Carbon dioxide (dry ice)<br />
Handle with gloves to avoid burns especially when the solid is in a<br />
metal container. Effects are similar to frostbite. The affected area<br />
should be placed in warm water. Take care that the cylinder nozzle<br />
is not directed towards any person when making dry ice.<br />
When carbon dioxide capsules are in use as rockets the operator<br />
should wear protective gloves and safety goggles and should take<br />
care that the opening of the capsule is not directed towards any<br />
other person.<br />
Carbon tetrachloride<br />
See tetrachloromethane.<br />
Chloroform<br />
See trichloromethane.<br />
Ethoxyethane, (Ether, diethyl ether)<br />
Highly inflammable. Anaesthetic. May form explosive peroxides if<br />
stored for long periods and exposed to light. Use in a fume cupboard<br />
or well ventilated room.<br />
No naked flames in the room when ether is in use.<br />
Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If<br />
exposure is severe<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Other ethers should be similarly treated with extreme caution.<br />
Hydrochloric acid<br />
Very corrosive. Gives off irritant vapour. Use in a fume cupboard.<br />
Lungs Remove from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If exposure is<br />
severe<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Skin Wash well with plenty of water. In severe cases<br />
Obtain medical attention
Mouth Wash out mouth with plenty of water. Give plenty of water<br />
to drink, then give milk a/magnesia and<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Eyes Irrigate eyes with water by placing head under a running tap<br />
(or use an eye bath). If direct contact has occurred (i.e. by splashing)<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Iodine<br />
Poisonous volatile substance. Vapour irritates eyes and respiratory<br />
system.<br />
Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm.<br />
Skin Drench with water, then bathe with a dilute solution of sodium<br />
thiosulphate (hypo)<br />
Mercury<br />
Extremely poisonous vapour. In all cases of suspected mercury<br />
poisoning<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Spillages of mercury should be cleaned up immediately. If the<br />
spillage is in an inaccessible place it should be treated to render it<br />
harmless. It is advisable to wear rubber gloves when handling mercury,<br />
and if gloves are not available all cuts and abrasions on the hands<br />
should be well covered. Personal jewellery (rings, etc.) should be<br />
removed before handling mercury since the gold will readily form<br />
an amalgam and turn 'silver'. The amalgam is unstable and as it<br />
decomposes the mercury released is likely to be absorbed by the<br />
skin.<br />
When spillages occur a proprietary collecting instrument (such as<br />
the mercury collecting pad from GG, or the E-mil suction mercury<br />
retriever) may be used to pick up the mercury, or small globules may<br />
be pushed together by means of the edge of a card and be picked up<br />
using a plastic hypodermic syringe as a suction pump. If the mercury<br />
has run into inaccessible cracks, for instance between floorboards,<br />
pour zinc dust or sulphur powder to form the non-volatile zinc<br />
295
296<br />
amalgam or mercury(II) sulphide. Both substances take time to react<br />
completely. The sulphur technique requires several weeks before any<br />
attempt is made to clean out the crack.<br />
If mercury has become chemically contaminated the safest mehod<br />
of decontamination is to send it to Belgrave (mercury) Ltd. who will<br />
redistill it a reasonable cost.<br />
Surface-dirty mercury is most easily cleaned by using Fison's<br />
mercury cleaner which produces clean, dry mercury by simply<br />
pouring the metal through the cleaner over a collecting vessel.<br />
4-Methyl phenylamine<br />
See p-Toluidine.<br />
Nitric acid<br />
Very corrosive. Gives off irritant vapour (dinitrogen tetroxide) in<br />
many reactions.<br />
Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If<br />
exposure is severe<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Skin Wash well with plenty of water. In severe cases<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Mouth Wash out mouth with plenty of water. Give plenty of water<br />
to drink, then give milk of magnesia and<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
4-Nitro to luene<br />
Poisonous.<br />
Lungs Remove the patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If<br />
severely exposed<br />
Obtain medical attention
Skin Wash well with soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing<br />
and wash before reuse.<br />
Mouth Wash out with water. Give emetic such as 1 tablespoon of<br />
mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon of common<br />
salt (sodium chloride) in warm water.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol)<br />
Poisonous if swallowed. Can be absorbed by the skin and can cause<br />
dermatitis. May explode if jarred or knocked and, therefore, it must<br />
be kept as a saturated solution in water. Check the storage container<br />
regularly to ensure that it does not dry out. Clean up any spillages<br />
immediately, washing down with plenty of water.<br />
Skin Wash skin well with plenty of water, then with soap and water.<br />
Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.<br />
Mouth Wash out well with water and give plenty of milk to drink.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Potassium hydroxide<br />
See sodium hydroxide<br />
Pyridine<br />
Use in a fume cupboard. Has a highly irritant vapour.<br />
Lungs Remove from exposure, rest the patient and keep him warm.<br />
Skin Drench the skin well with water. Wash contaminated clothing.<br />
In severe cases<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Mouth Wash out well with water. Give emetic such as 1 tablespoon<br />
of mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon of common<br />
salt (sodium chlbride) in warm water.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
297
298<br />
Sodium<br />
Reacts violently with water to produce hydrogen which will be<br />
spontaneously ignited by the heat of reaction and may cause explosion<br />
as well as fire. Reacts in air giving sodium oxide, a caustic<br />
compound which causes severe skin burns. Store under naphtha or<br />
liquid paraffin.<br />
Skin Drench skin with water after removing any metal particles.<br />
Sodium hydroxide (and potassium hydroxide)<br />
Very corrosive as solid or solution. Generates heat when dissolving.<br />
Wear protective gloves when using.<br />
Skin Wash affected area with plenty of water, then bathe with<br />
vinegar or 1% ethanoic (acetic) acid.<br />
Eyes Irrigate thoroughly with water and<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Sodium picrate<br />
Poisonous if swallowed. Treat as for cases of picric acid poisoning.<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Sulphuric acid<br />
Very corrosive. Reacts violently with water. When diluting, the<br />
concentrated acid must be poured slowly and carefully with stirring<br />
into a large volume of cold water. Do not lean over the vessel while<br />
mixing. The reaction with water releases a large amount of energy.<br />
When diluting the acid use polythene or hard glass vessels standing<br />
in a sink.<br />
Skin Wash well with plenty of water. In severe cases<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Mouth Wash out with water. Give plenty of water to drink, then<br />
give milk of magnesia and<br />
Obtain medical attention
Eyes Irrigate well with water by placing the head under a running<br />
tap (or use an eye bath), and<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride)<br />
Poisonous. Continuous exposure to low concentration may give rise<br />
to irreversible liver damage. Use in a fume cupboard.<br />
Lungs Remove patient from exposure. Rest and keep warm. If<br />
exposure is severe<br />
Obtain medical attention<br />
Skin Drench skin with water, then wash with soap and water. Air<br />
clothes before reuse.<br />
p-Toluidine<br />
This reagent will irritate skin and is poisonous if swallowed.<br />
Lungs Remove the patient from exposure, rest and keep warm.<br />
Skin Wash well with soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing and<br />
wash it well before reuse.<br />
Mouth Wash out mouth with water then give an emetic such as 1 tablespoon<br />
of mustard in half a glass of cold water, or 1 tablespoon of common<br />
salt (sodium chloride) in warm water.<br />
Trichloromethane (chloroform)<br />
Has a narcotic effect, can cause hallucinations and unconsciousness.<br />
The poisonous gas phosgene may be present. Use in well-ventilated<br />
conditions.<br />
2,4,6- Trinitrophenol<br />
See picric acid.<br />
Electrical hazards<br />
Electrical supplies are classified into low tension (1.t.) under 100 V,<br />
high tension (h.t.) 100-500 V and extra high tension (e.h.t.) over 500 V.<br />
299
300<br />
Van de Graaff generator<br />
The Van de Graaff generator is capable of producing extremely high<br />
voltages. On a dry, cold day it can produce a voltage well in excess<br />
of 3 X 10 4 V, providing all surfaces are clean and dust free.<br />
Generally this equipment is reasonably safe as the current it produces<br />
is at the microampere (pA) level, but some people (e.g. those with<br />
weak hearts) are susceptible to these voltages. All electrical<br />
equipment should be used with great care. Discharging tongs are<br />
available from reputable manufacturers of static electricity<br />
generators and it is advisable to discharge the generator spheres<br />
before making any alterations to the circuit. It is advisable to earth<br />
the chassis of the generator to a metal pipe (but not a gas pipe).<br />
Electrically driven generators are usually supplied with a three cored<br />
lead in which the earth lead (green and yellow) makes this connection<br />
to earth without the need for a special arrangement.<br />
E.h.t. supplies<br />
The rules regarding the Van de Graaff generator also apply here.<br />
However, as the supply is taken from the mains it is possible to<br />
draw a higher current than that usually produced in the generator. It<br />
is, therefore, essential, when purchasing e.h.t. power supplies, to<br />
ensure there is a large current-limiting resistor in series with the<br />
positive (+) terminal, fitted into the supply. Always connect the<br />
negative socket to the earth socket unless otherwise instructed.<br />
Gas cylinders, carbon dioxide<br />
Carbon dioxide cylinders are usually painted black with, in some<br />
cases a silver neck. The valve outlet has a left-hand screw thread.<br />
All cylinders should be labelled by the suppliers with the name<br />
of whatever gas is in them. They should be checked on receipt of a<br />
recharged cylinder. If there is any doubt concerning the contents of<br />
a cylinder it should not be accepted. It is a good plan to label each<br />
cylinder with the date on which it was recharged. Check the gas from<br />
time to time, particularly before it is required, so that there is time<br />
to have the cylinder recharged if it is empty. The quantity of gas in a<br />
carbon dioxide cylinder is checked by weighing the recharged cylinder<br />
on arrival, and at intervals afterwards. The mass of contained gas<br />
and the tare mass (the mass of the empty cylinder) should be stamped<br />
on the cylinder.<br />
Cylinders should be stored in a cool place away from radiators.
They should be protected from rusting and from corrosive conditions<br />
but grease or oil must not be used on them.<br />
Store and use gas cylinders in an upright position, secured so that<br />
they cannot fall over. They must not be propped up against a wall,<br />
nor left unsupported. Cylinder trolleys may be used for both storage<br />
and use.<br />
Never use cylinders in an inverted position.<br />
Cylinders should be kept clean and free from grit, water and oil.<br />
This is particularly important for the cylinder valves, and the key<br />
spanners, which should not be regarded as general purpose implements<br />
but kept for use with the cylinders.<br />
When returning the cylinders to the supplier for recharging<br />
always close the main valve, remove any accesories and close any<br />
outlets with the plastic cap provided for that purpose. Collection,<br />
refilling and return of cylinders often exceeds a month, so plan well<br />
in advance.<br />
The recommended carbon dioxide cylinder for producing dry ice<br />
(solid carbon dioxide) is the siphon type and it is fitted with asimple<br />
valve. Pressure gauges are not fitted and pressure control is very<br />
limited. The supplier's instructions should be followed. This type of<br />
cylinder is not suitable for supplying carbon dioxide gas. A second<br />
cylinder fitted with regulator and pressure gauges is recommended<br />
for supplying carbon dioxide gas.<br />
Dry ice<br />
It may be possible to arrange delivery of solid carbon dioxide from<br />
some local source such as an ice-cream manufacturer. However,<br />
experience has shown that it is best not to rely on these sources but<br />
to use high pressure carbon dioxide cylinders fitted with a special<br />
attachment, and to make the dry ice as required.<br />
When the cylinder has been fitted with the special attachment a<br />
burst of 10-15 seconds duration should produce sufficient dry ice for<br />
a whole class set of cloud chambers or dry ice pucks. As the gas issues<br />
from the cylinder the valve and cylinder will cool down rapidly.<br />
A simple dry ice attachment is shown below. It is inadvisable not to<br />
attempt to construct your own attachment. The diagram is intended<br />
to show how the components are assembled. Care should be taken<br />
that the nozzle and attachment are not directed towards any pupils<br />
when the cylinder is in use because, should the attachment come<br />
adrift, then solid carbon dioxide may be sprayed on them.<br />
301
302<br />
thick rubber bands<br />
metal delivery tube cylinder<br />
~==============~<br />
cork bung 50 mm diameter<br />
fine canvas sleeve<br />
F------400 crr?polythene beaker<br />
If all the dry ice is not used immediately it is advised that a vacuum<br />
flask without a fitted top or stopper is used to store excess solid for<br />
some time, or it can be stored in a polythene bag surrounded by<br />
expanded polystyrene packing.<br />
Radioactive materials<br />
Radioactive sources are categorised as either open or closed.<br />
Open sources required in this course consist of compounds of<br />
uranium and thorium which are used in small quantities in Section 8.<br />
Unused supplies of the compounds can be returned to the storage<br />
bottle as they are not required for chemical reactions. The materials<br />
should be handled with the same precautions as are taken with<br />
poisons. There is little risk from these sources.<br />
The closed sources used in the course are obtained from' the<br />
suppliers mounted in holders which are kept in special containers.<br />
The sources should only be removed from their containers at the<br />
working area and should be returned to them as soon as the experimental<br />
work is complete. At no time should the holders be handled<br />
<strong>manual</strong>ly, but only with suitable forceps or the special handling tool<br />
which is usually provided with the sources. Always maintain maximum<br />
working distance between the operator and the mounted source,<br />
and avoid directing the source towards the operator or anyone else.<br />
If disposal of closed sources is necessary then they should be<br />
returned to their manufacturer.<br />
Apparatus which has become contaminated with radioactive<br />
chemicals may be cleaned with such proprietary cleaners as Decon-<br />
90. The apparatus is rinsed thoroughly on removal from the cleaning<br />
agent and the rinsings are diluted until the background radiation<br />
count is reached, before they are flushed away with plenty of water.<br />
Rubber gloves should be worn when this type of cleaning operation<br />
is carried out. The background count is obtained using a scaler<br />
connected to a GM tube. The time for which counting is carried out
should be at least five minutes and an average number of counts per<br />
minute is obtained. The GM tube is then directed towards the diluted<br />
wastes and dilution is continued until the count falls to approximately<br />
that of the background radiation. There should be few problems of<br />
disposal in the <strong>Patterns</strong> scheme as the open sources are relatively<br />
weakly radioactive.<br />
Xenon strobes<br />
The flashing of a xenon strobe can cause dizziness, vomiting, trance<br />
states or hallucinations, or epileptic fits in susceptible persons. The<br />
particularly relevant range of flashing is between 7 and 15 Hz (cycles<br />
or flashes per second) although some people may be affected by<br />
higher frequencies (some are given headaches by 50 Hz as in a fluorescent<br />
tube). Make sure that no one in the class suffers from epilepsy<br />
before using a strobe.<br />
303
304<br />
Appendix 5 Accommodation<br />
for Integrated Science<br />
In the past it has been possible to accommodate 'integrated' science<br />
schemes within the framework of traditional style laboratories,<br />
mainly because such schemes have tended to be easily divided into<br />
biology, chemistry and physics components. Recent trends in the<br />
development of science courses, which cut across the separate science<br />
subject boundaries, have resulted in the traditional laboratory suite<br />
becoming an hindrance rather than an aid to good science learning. It<br />
becomes increasingly sensible to regard science as being taught in<br />
work areas rather than laboratories, and this is especially true where<br />
the <strong>Patterns</strong> approach is adopted. Science work areas for <strong>Patterns</strong><br />
need to provide all the facilities and services required for traditional<br />
science courses, and in addition there is also a requirement for<br />
adequate library, visual aids and discussion facilities. In many ways<br />
open plan suites recommend themselves to a <strong>Patterns</strong> approach,<br />
although there are disadvantages associated with noise and security<br />
of materials.<br />
Services required for work areas<br />
The benches required for integrated science practical work should<br />
provide all the facilities necessary for any specific aspect of practical<br />
work in the spectrum of sciences taught at any time. This raises the<br />
old problem of whether to adopt fixed or moveable benches. In the<br />
planning of laboratories for teaching the separate sciences there has<br />
been a tendency to have moveable tables for work in biology and<br />
physics, while fixed benches are preferred for chemistry - as they<br />
are safer and can provide all the essential services (water, gas and<br />
electricity) within reach of a pupil's working place. In physics and<br />
biology there is perhaps not the same need to have all services within<br />
reach all the time, but it is absolutely essential for any chemical<br />
work. It should be remembered that it is reasonably easy to carry<br />
out experimental work in physics and biology in a chemistry laboratory,<br />
but not vice versa. So it would seem that the general purpose<br />
facilities to be provided for integrated science practical work must<br />
primarily facilitate the teaching of chemical topics with access to all
B<br />
Key<br />
basic services at the respective working places. If this provision is<br />
made as a priority then the teaching of other science topics will be<br />
automatically accommodated. Past practice in the provision of general<br />
science laboratories has usually been to plan for moveable tables<br />
with limited services on the fixed perimeter benches. Such laboratories<br />
were adequate for physics and biology but most inconvenient<br />
for chemistry.<br />
A combination of fixed service points and.moveable tables<br />
provides the best setting for a practical work area. The plans below<br />
show two of the work areas in use for the <strong>Patterns</strong> scheme at Valley<br />
Comprehensive School, Nottinghamshire, and illustrate well two<br />
approaches to the successful accomplishment of this combination.<br />
B = bench<br />
BS = book shelves<br />
C = cupboard<br />
R = rack for plastic trays<br />
all<br />
moveable<br />
tables<br />
O_-R-B----10<br />
FC = fume cupboard<br />
RB = roller board<br />
S = sink<br />
GE = gas + mains electricity<br />
In the first case all the benches are moveable and service bollards<br />
are provided to which the benches can be moved as required. The<br />
problem of this type of accommodation is that, in the interests of<br />
safety, bottles cannot be stored on the benches. Storage for items<br />
usually kept with the benches has thus to be arranged elsewhere in<br />
the work area or within easy access of it.<br />
S<br />
305<br />
S
306<br />
The second design combines fixed benches with moveable tables<br />
and a dry services boom. The problem of storage disappears with this<br />
system but the area is large, designed to accommodate approximately<br />
sixty pupils at a time, and without some form of central divider the<br />
area tends to be unsuitable for traditional work, if such work is run<br />
concurrently with integrated science.<br />
s<br />
B<br />
II 0 R BS<br />
II RB<br />
II<br />
II<br />
I!<br />
I<br />
\:<br />
!I<br />
Ii<br />
il<br />
il<br />
8 =0 bench<br />
BS =0 book shelves<br />
C =0 cupboard<br />
R =0 rack for plastic trays<br />
II service<br />
14-boom<br />
I GE<br />
II C<br />
II<br />
S<br />
G E<br />
S<br />
S<br />
G E S<br />
S<br />
S<br />
G E<br />
S<br />
S<br />
G E<br />
S<br />
FC =0 fume cupboard<br />
RB '" roller board<br />
S '" sink<br />
GE '" gas + mains electricity<br />
Whatever type of work area is used there is always the problem of<br />
waste disposal, indeed the removal of liquid often poses constraints<br />
on design due to the location of drainage channels. Solid waste<br />
materials may be collected easily in simple boxes or bins placed in<br />
numerous convenient positions around the work area. Metal drums<br />
and coal hods are useful in this respect and are more durable than<br />
wooden or plastic containers. They are also safer than those made of<br />
other materials as they will not burn if, for instance, smouldering<br />
material is inadvertently placed in them. Biological waste is best<br />
incinerated in an automatic disposal unit, if a suitable location can<br />
be found for the installation of the unit. Liquid waste can provide<br />
2 tier<br />
shelve
problems, but the majority can be simply flushed through the drainage<br />
system. Poisonous wastes need to be collected and special<br />
arrangements made with the local authority for their removal from<br />
the premises. Organic solvents generally are collected and allowed<br />
to evaporate slowly in a fume cupboard with its fan running, although<br />
some such substances need special treatment. Information regarding<br />
the disposal of such substances is included on the wallchart Spillages<br />
of hazardous chemicals available from BDH; and most chemical<br />
suppliers will give advice if asked.<br />
Fume cupboards are essential in any work area which is to be<br />
used for teaching <strong>Patterns</strong>. A general purpose work area will require<br />
at least two units, and a fume hood is a most useful additional facility<br />
for housing ovens, furnaces, water baths, etc. An extraction grill in<br />
the ceiling is desirable, but failing initial planning for this unit then<br />
it is often possible to install one or two three-speed forward and<br />
reverse extractor fans in the windows. Suitable fans are 225 mm or<br />
300 mm (9 in or 12 in) diameter Vent-Axia window fans.<br />
Ancillary spaces associated with practical work areas<br />
Apart from the provision of practical work areas it is essential to plan<br />
and organise associated facilities which are increasingly necessary in<br />
the teaching of any integrated science course.<br />
A science reference library close to the practical work area, containing<br />
practical, project and reference texts is vital for ready use by<br />
staff, technicians and pupils. There may be initial objections to this<br />
localised departmental science library but books must be considered<br />
as essential as other scientific equipment. Usually a compromise on a<br />
.policy dedicated to one centralised school library can be achieved.<br />
The traditional concept of even a departmental library must be<br />
widened to include not only books but also all the other resources of<br />
educational technology, such as film strips, photographic transparency<br />
slides, films, film loops, overhead projectors and their transparencies,<br />
loop projectors and slide projectors, which will be used by staff and<br />
by pupils working singly or in small groups. Similarly it is essential<br />
that such a resource area should contain copying (duplicating)<br />
facilities. Ideally the library/resource area should be central and<br />
accessible both from the practical work areas and from outside the<br />
science suite.<br />
Study space and small rooms with blackout and sound proofing<br />
will be required for using visual and sound aids, and these rooms may<br />
also serve well as discussion and project rooms as teaching techniques<br />
307
308<br />
are developed and become less dependent on the formal class methods<br />
based on one teacher with one form in one room.<br />
A teaching area adjacent to the practical work area, but capable of<br />
being shut off from it by sliding or folding doors is recommended<br />
for discussion, demonstrations, films, television, etc. Adequate blackout<br />
facilities should be provided within this area which needs to be<br />
permanently equipped with film, slide and overhead projectors.<br />
Stepped pew type seating enables pupils to see and be seen easily,<br />
and bench seats enable more pupils to be accommodated than is<br />
possible with separate seats.<br />
Consideration needs to be given to furnishing so as to provide a<br />
comfortable situation conducive to work. Carpet tiles and rubber<br />
flooring tiles can improve the appearance and reduce noise in the<br />
teaching and study areas if these are separate from the practical<br />
work areas. Stools at work benches are uncomfortable and their<br />
movement contributes considerably to noise, which is lessened<br />
if separate teaching/discussion areas are provided.<br />
Chalk boards can be of the double panel vertical sliding type with<br />
glass surfaces such as those produced by Westland Engineering Ltd.<br />
They are excellent for chalk writing and always clean well. If both<br />
panels are pushed down to expose the wall behind, then this surface<br />
covered with Sundeala medium hardboard painted with ultra-white<br />
matt emulsion paint, provides a dual purpose projection screen and<br />
pinboard. Roller boards are also suitable and can be fitted with panels<br />
which are specially prepared for such purposes as graph plotting. It is<br />
possible to have one of the sections replaced with a white projection<br />
screen, or such a screen can be mounted over the board, being rolled<br />
away when not in use. However, additional facilities for hanging<br />
charts will need to be provided if this type of board is used.<br />
Staff facilities<br />
Staff should have their own study/offices near the laboratory complex<br />
with desk, bookshelves, filing cabinet, typewriter, and space<br />
for consultation with one or two pupils. This sort of provision has<br />
not been customary in past planning, and may not be possible in<br />
many existing departments, but future planning should include it<br />
for the benefit of staff and pupils.<br />
Apart from the desirability of providing small individual studies<br />
for each member of science staff, as a matter of professional<br />
necessity and efficiency, it is equally essential to have a general<br />
departmental staff room. This room, or two adjacent rooms,
divided by a folding or sliding door should make reasonable provision<br />
for staff work, meetings, reading, marking, relaxation, coffee breaks,<br />
etc. Some social amenities must be incorporated within modern<br />
professional facilities. In this context 'social' denotes staff facilities<br />
which will be increasingly necessary for discussion and integrated<br />
activities for team teaching on the broader basis which the <strong>Patterns</strong><br />
approach fosters.<br />
Large centralised storage facilities need to be provided for the<br />
apparatus and resources demanded by modern schemes. These<br />
facilities have to provide almost a 'supermarket' system of 'off the<br />
shelf service' to all the work areas with trolleys, which technicians<br />
prepare and organise for specific lesson activities. Such storage<br />
facilities need to be separated even from open plan suites, otherwise<br />
there is a serious security problem with the small items, in particular,<br />
disappearing from the store. For the same reason it is advisable to<br />
store in corridors only if the cupboards used are securely locked,<br />
and providing that access routes are not so diminished in size as to<br />
impair their efficiency as fire escapes. Reasonably wide and straight<br />
corridors without steps are best where trolleys are in use.<br />
The traditional <strong>technicians'</strong> preparation room/storeroom/workshop<br />
of the past has proved too small and consequently cluttered<br />
for really effective organisation and service, so it becomes necessary<br />
to plan storage in larger areas and provide additional <strong>technicians'</strong><br />
rooms or alcoves.<br />
The <strong>technicians'</strong> workshop, fully equipped with hand and simple<br />
machine tools, and materials, for the maintenance, repair and making<br />
of apparatus is increasingly important as the quantity and cost of<br />
equipment rises. The chief requirements are for work benches with<br />
vice, power points, gas, simple glass blowing equipment, pillar and<br />
hand drills, grinder, lathe, and facilities for electronic work.<br />
While it is an ideal to have all accommodation on a single floor<br />
level, this is not often achieved in practice. Multi-floor departments<br />
are usually built and there is then the necessity for the installation<br />
of lifts which will take equipment trolleys and staff personnel. Lifts<br />
are costly and for that reason seldom planned, but there is a sound<br />
case for their installation on the grounds of safety, speed and<br />
efficient service, especially if large centralised storage rooms are<br />
used. The difficulties and waste of time incurred in the transport<br />
of equipment between floors has to be experienced to be appreciated.<br />
The location of a lift should be considered in relation to the<br />
entrance for personnel and deliveries of goods, the central storeroom,<br />
and access routes between the various work areas.<br />
309
310<br />
Provision for special requirements<br />
Extra bench space, apart from the normal laboratory-style working<br />
places, needs to be available for long-term experiments and the<br />
increasing use of projects. Ideally separate alcoves leading off the<br />
main work area should be planned, but in existing accommodation<br />
it may only be possible to allocate perimeter benches for this<br />
purpose. The chief requirements of a project area are access to all<br />
services with fixed and/or moveable benches, and, if possible to<br />
prevent possible interference by pupils unconnected with the project.<br />
Animal rooms should be outside the main building and located on<br />
a shady site. Adequate ventilation, heating, lighting, electrical and<br />
water services are required. The floor and walls should be of suitable<br />
materials to facilitate cleaning. Floor drainage grills should be fitted<br />
to allow for hosing down. Animal cages may be placed on adjustable<br />
shelving (e.g. Spur) fitted to metal trolleys with lockable wheels.<br />
A greenhouse, or other plant propagation room, is necessary outside<br />
the work area. It may be sited in the grounds, or on a flat roof,<br />
with provision to control sunlight and ventilation. Electricity and<br />
water are essential, and heating is desirable. Details of a simple<br />
plant propagator are given in Technicians' <strong>manual</strong> 1, 'Appendix 1.'<br />
Associated outside facilities will depend on location and availability<br />
of space to make provision for a pond and garden which are<br />
easily accessible from the main work area. If no specific area can be<br />
found outside, then aquaria and plant boxes will have to be<br />
improvised inside on shelving, window sills, trolleys etc. The<br />
substantial weight of aquaria makes it essential to provide strong<br />
supporting structures, e.g. in Dexion metal angle, Handy-Angle, or<br />
Speedframe. Aquaria will need water supplies and drainage as well<br />
as electricity.<br />
Display facilities can be organised in corridors (fire regulations<br />
permitting) approaching and within the work area and on any free<br />
wall spaces by putting up pinboards in large sheets. These sheets<br />
can be emulsion painted to tone in with the general decor. Glass<br />
fronted display cupboards with adjustable wooden and glass shelves,<br />
and internal fluorescent lighting are desirable. Open adjustable<br />
shelving is useful but lacks some aspects of security and tends to<br />
collect dust. Sloping shelving as distinct from horizontal shelving is<br />
advantageous for the display of books, journals etc. It is worthwhile<br />
mounting valuable charts on sealed hardboard and spraying the chart<br />
surface with a protective covering as used on some wallpapers or<br />
artists' drawings. Large periodic classification charts are best mounted<br />
in this manner, unless they are purchased on canvas or a linen backing.
<strong>Patterns</strong> in the open plan situation<br />
Much of the preceding has been concerned with the ideal situation,<br />
and has been considered in the light of open plan science suites, John<br />
Smeaton School, Leeds was one of the phase 2 trials schools for the<br />
Schools Council Integrated Science Project and has an open plan<br />
science suite which is described below. Further details concerning<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> in this school are discussed in the Teachers' handbook<br />
pages 63-66.<br />
Key<br />
chemistry areas<br />
biology areas<br />
physics areas<br />
storage and maintenance areas<br />
lecture room<br />
tutor and technician's office<br />
reference library<br />
dark room<br />
electronics room<br />
fume cupboards<br />
toilets<br />
1 and 2<br />
3 and 4<br />
5 and 6<br />
S<br />
L<br />
T<br />
R<br />
D<br />
E<br />
F<br />
T'<br />
311
312<br />
The diagram shows the layout of the science work areas which<br />
are situated on the first floor of one building. The work areas and<br />
reference areas are open plan. The six main areas are furnished and<br />
equipped for different activities. Areas 1 and 2 with fixed, hexagonal<br />
island benches are designated chemistry; areas 3 and 4 with service<br />
pillars and moveable tables are best suited to biology and areas 5 and<br />
6 having both fixed benches and moveable tables are intended for<br />
physics.<br />
The library reference area is also open, the lecture room being<br />
the only teaching room provided with a door.<br />
The work areas vary in size; areas 1, 3 and 4 can accomm oda te<br />
twenty and twenty-four pupils comfortably, while areas 2, 5 and 6<br />
have an optimum capacity of thirty. The lecture room can hold<br />
approximately forty pupils.<br />
Experience during the first year of working has shown two major<br />
drawbacks of open-plan work areas:<br />
1. security<br />
2. noise.<br />
There are not enough areas which are inaccessible to pupils where<br />
apparatus and materials can be stored. Inevitably losses and damage<br />
occur when pupils have the freedom to move around a department.<br />
The noise and disturbance are greatest when a teacher attempts<br />
to teach a class in a conventional manner. While team teaching tends<br />
to minimise the need for such lessons, it does necessitate a greater<br />
degree of careful preparation of activities for small groups and<br />
individuals. Often quite trivial things can lead to the breakdown of<br />
the open plan system. For example the poor design of stools led to<br />
a large number being without seats. This meant that pupils removed<br />
chairs from the library area to the science work area. The lack of<br />
permanent seating in the library area was enough to discourage many<br />
from using the area as was intended.<br />
Storage<br />
The case study conceals the fact that storage was a major problem<br />
in most of the trials schools. Nowhere was this inadequacy felt more<br />
than in the older schools with traditional laboratories. The following<br />
notes are included in the hope that they may prove of use to schools<br />
attempting <strong>Patterns</strong>, in which storage of materials proves to be one<br />
of the major problems.<br />
Shelving is a basic requirement in any storage system, and may be<br />
simple or sophisticated in wood and/or metal but should in all cases
provide adjustable facilities for diverse sizes of equipment. Narrow<br />
wooden shelves 150-300 mm (6-12 in) width, for bottles, books, etc.<br />
can be erected on Spur slotted metal uprights with adjustable brackets<br />
available for various widths, and coloured grey or white.<br />
Wider shelving, 450-600 mm (18-24 in) is best erected by using<br />
vertical blockboards supported by a frame-work on a wall, or free<br />
standing framework. 12.5 mm (-i in) square section battens screwed<br />
horizontally at about 75 mm (3 in) intervals up the blockboards can<br />
hold a series of blockboard shelves or better still trays e.g. 750 mm<br />
X 450 mm X 50 mm (30 in X 18 in X 2 in). This provides a very<br />
versatile system especially as the tray size quoted exactly fits a type<br />
of2.4m(6 ft) tall trolley.<br />
Similar narrow or wide shelving may be constructed with Dexion<br />
slotted angle metal 37.5 mm X 37.5 mm (1 ~ in X 1~ in) size, or<br />
with Dexion Speedframe 75 mm (3 in) square section. This latter<br />
material is neat but costly. Dexion also supply metal shelves in<br />
various sizes for all metal shelving systems.<br />
Trays of the large wooden size 750 mm X 450 mm X 50 mm<br />
(30 in X 18 in X 2 in) are most useful in static frameworks and on<br />
trolleys for distribution and collection of equipment. There is an<br />
equal necessity for using smaller plastic trays which may be obtained<br />
in two sizes 400 mm X 300 mm X 7S mm (16 in X 12 in X 3 in)<br />
and 400 mm X 300 mm X 150 mm (16 in X 12 in X 6 in). These can<br />
be accommodated on 12.5 mm (~ in) square section wooden battens<br />
on vertical blockboards as recommended for shelving. If the battens<br />
are set 82 mm (3* in) apart then any selection of the 75 mm (3 in) or<br />
150 mm (6 in) deep plastic trays may be inserted into the framework<br />
This virtually makes an arrangement of trays that can be used as<br />
drawers in situ or removed for transport.<br />
Any vertical set of trays housed on battens in this manner may be<br />
secured by fitting a vertical hinged flap about 75 mm (3 in) wide<br />
covering all the trays to the top where a lock is fitted. These plastic<br />
trays are also self-stacking, and two may be placed on the larger<br />
750 mm X 450 mm X 50 mm (30 in X 18 in X 2 in) wooden trays<br />
if necessary.<br />
In general, these trays are highly recommended for storage and<br />
distribution, and have been found very durable over a period of<br />
years in use at colleges and schools.<br />
Chemical reagents should be stored in a separate locked room<br />
which need only be 1.5 m (5 ft) wide and at least 3 m (10 ft) long.<br />
313
314<br />
Spur adjustable shelving 150 mm (6 in) wide along the length of<br />
both walls provides considerable storage for bottles in line and makes<br />
for easy identification of them. Shelves wider than this are not<br />
recommended as they lead to the inadvisable practice of storing<br />
reagents one behind the other; a situation which makes for difficulty<br />
in stocking and which can lead to hazards in handling. Large 2 500 ern"<br />
bottles (Winchester quarts) can be stored at floor level in the<br />
blue safety containers as supplied by BDH.<br />
Continuous 24 hour low speed fan ventilation should be provided<br />
in all chemical storerooms to avoid the accumulation of toxic or<br />
inflammable vapours.<br />
Large quantities of hazardous chemicals which are not required<br />
for daily use should be stored in a specially constructed outside<br />
building.<br />
Half or full height office-style metal cabinets are better than the<br />
traditional poisons storage which has tended to be a small wooden<br />
cupboard with a poor lock. These metal cabinets have relatively<br />
secure locks and extra metal shelves may be purchased. Similar<br />
cabinets are useful for storing valuable equipment and may be arranged<br />
back to back at right angles to a wall in order to accommodate<br />
a large number of cabinet units per square metre of available wall<br />
space.<br />
Steel or plastic drawer units produced for industrial storage may<br />
be obtained in a variety of sizes holding numbers of similar or<br />
different size drawers according to the height of unit ordered. The<br />
drawers are removable like trays and may be fitted with slot-in metal<br />
dividers. They are invaluable for storing collections of small items<br />
such as bungs, screws, filmstrips, filter papers etc.<br />
Posters and charts are best hung vertically and not stored flat in<br />
sets of chart or plan drawers. The latter always results in damage to<br />
charts as they are not readily extracted or put away in these drawers.<br />
One system for vertical hanging uses large clips like trouser hangers.<br />
Other systems are available from architectural and engineering<br />
drawing suppliers.<br />
Film loops in their plastic cases can be arranged on narrow<br />
shelves or in bookcases with glass doors for additional security.<br />
Overhead projector transparencies accumulate increasingly from<br />
commercial and school resources, and need systematic storage for<br />
immediate access. The usual 250 mm X 250 mm (10 in X lOin)<br />
transparencies are conveniently stored in filing cabinets using the<br />
suspended system of filing, which can also house associated notes.
Slides 50 mm X 50 mm (2 in X 2 in) for projection may be stored<br />
in sets in slide magazines for immediate insertion into corresponding<br />
projectors. These magazines are relatively expensive, and so ordinary<br />
slotted slide boxes or even simple plastic boxes may be preferred.<br />
Transparent plastic wallets, with pockets for each of 24 slides, which<br />
can be hung on suspended filing rails in filing cabinets can be recommended<br />
for the economical storage of hundreds of slides in a small<br />
space, and for ease of viewing the slides by extracting individual<br />
wallets.<br />
It is fully appreciated that many of the items discussed in this<br />
short survey of planning possibilities may not be adopted or adapted<br />
for existing accommodation, and that departmental budgets are<br />
limited in making ideal provision for new teaching projects. At least<br />
it is hoped that in general terms some of the ideas may prove useful<br />
as a guide to needs, and perhaps in the planning of new buildings<br />
there may be the opportunity of designing better professional<br />
facilities for integrated science teaching.<br />
Addresses<br />
Dexion International Ltd.,<br />
Dexion House,<br />
P.O. Box 7,<br />
Empire Way,<br />
Wembley,<br />
Middlesex<br />
Educational Supply Association<br />
Ltd.,<br />
Esavian Works,<br />
Stevenage,<br />
Hertfordshire<br />
(For service bollards and laboratory<br />
furniture.)<br />
Gratnall's Ltd.,<br />
31 Queen Anne's Gate,<br />
London, SWI<br />
(For plastic trays and storage<br />
racks.)<br />
Morgan and Grundy Ltd.,<br />
High St.,<br />
Cowley,<br />
Uxbridge,<br />
Middx.<br />
(For laboratory furniture.)<br />
N. C. Brown Storage Ltd.,<br />
Cuba Works,<br />
Stubbins,<br />
Ramsbottom,<br />
Lancashire<br />
(F or cabinets of metal storage<br />
drawers.)<br />
Savage and Parsons Ltd.,<br />
Watford,<br />
Hertfordshire<br />
(For Spur adjustable shelving<br />
systems.)<br />
315
316<br />
Griffin & George Ltd., (Now with<br />
A. Gallenkamp Ltd.)<br />
Alperton Road,<br />
Wembley,<br />
Middlesex<br />
(For useful trolleys and trays<br />
Ref. N19/950 and NI9/952.)<br />
Sintercel Ltd.,<br />
53b High Road,<br />
Bushey Heath,<br />
Hertf ordshire<br />
(For laboratory furniture and<br />
overhead system of laboratory<br />
services which could be installed<br />
in existing accommoda tion to<br />
Home Fittings (Great Britain) Ltd., provide extra general purpose<br />
Woden Road South, facilities.)<br />
Wednesbury ,<br />
Staffs.<br />
(For Acousti-seal partitions.)<br />
J. Hodsman & Son Ltd.,<br />
82 Eldon Street,<br />
York<br />
(F or Planman chart storage<br />
systems.)<br />
Laboratory Investigation Unit,<br />
D.E.S.,<br />
Elizabeth House,<br />
York Road,<br />
London SEI 7PH<br />
(For general advice on laboratory<br />
planning and publications.)<br />
References<br />
Thermo Plastics Ltd.,<br />
Dunstable,<br />
Bedfordshire<br />
(For plastic storage trays.)<br />
Westland Engineering Ltd.,<br />
Yeovil,<br />
Somerset<br />
(For chalkboards.)<br />
'Designing a laboratory, parts I and II, Education in chemistry,<br />
Vol. 9 No.4, Vol. 9 No.5, 1972.<br />
Guy, K. Laboratory organisation and administration, 2nd. edition,<br />
Butterworth, 1973.<br />
Myrick, R. 'Architecture-a dynamic factor in learning', Educational<br />
technology, 30 April 1968. (Discussion of social factors in planning.)<br />
Stepan, O.M. Storage of apparatus, John Murray for the Association<br />
for Science Education.
Appendix 6 A guide to the<br />
inform·ation given in the four<br />
Technicians' <strong>manual</strong>s<br />
This appendix is concerned with the various items of information<br />
given in the preparation guide and appendices 1-4 of the Technicians'<br />
<strong>manual</strong>s. It is not intended to be an exhaustive index to the Manuals<br />
but should enable the user to find information which may be of use<br />
in both <strong>Patterns</strong> and other schemes of work.<br />
Page numbers are not given in this guide but references are given<br />
in the following way. All references commence with the number of<br />
the Manual as a bold figure. This is followed by either A in the case<br />
of an appendix item and the number of the appendix, or by the<br />
investigation number. Discussions are shown by a D following the<br />
investigation number preceeding the discussion. Items contained<br />
within appendixes are in alphabetical order; those in the preparation<br />
guide are to be found in the 'Notes' column in investigation number<br />
order. Options and problems are not indicated.<br />
Cross references are not generally included in this guide, but<br />
short notes on items are given where necessary for their clarification.<br />
accumulators, care, maintenance and charging of lead/acid batteries<br />
and short note concerning NiFe batteries, 2A1, 3A1<br />
acetic acid, (ethanoic acid), concentrated (1.05 s.g.), 4A3;<br />
hazard, 4A4; dilute (1.0 M), 4A3<br />
acetic alcohol, preparation, 4A3<br />
aceto-carrnine; preparation, 4A3<br />
aceto-orcein ; preparation, 4A3<br />
adipyl chloride, 5% solution, preparation, 2A3; hazard, 4A4;<br />
agars and broths, notes on preparation of media, sterilising<br />
procedures, streak plating, preparation of blackened agar,<br />
glycerol nutrient agar, glycerol nutrient broth, nutrien t<br />
agar, nutrient broth, lA2; nutrient agar, 3A2; MacConkey agar,<br />
milk agar, minimal medium, 4A2<br />
Amoeba, culture method, Chalkley's medium, obtaining soil<br />
Amoebae, 1A2<br />
aluminium nitrate, 0.5 M solution, preparation, 2A3<br />
ammonia, turmeric test, 1 7.21<br />
317
318<br />
ammonium chloride, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 3A3<br />
ammonium hydroxide, concentrated (0.88 s.g.), 2A3, 3A3, 4A3;<br />
hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; i-strength solution, lA3, 2A3,<br />
4A3; 5 M solution, 1A3, 2A3, 3A3; 2 M solution, 1A3, 2A3,<br />
4A3; 1 M solution, 2A3, 3A3; 0.1 M solution, 3A3<br />
ammonium iron(III) sulphate (ammonium iron alum), 0.8 M<br />
solution,4A3<br />
ammonium nitrate, 0.5 M solution, 2A3<br />
ammonium sulphate, 0.09 M solution, IA3<br />
anaesthetisation, using MS-222 Sandoz for tadpoles, trou t alevins,<br />
adult frogs and toads, 3A2; see also Drosophila<br />
aniline (phenyl amine ), hazard, 4A4<br />
aquarium pumps, aerators, notes on vibrator and piston types and<br />
on air lines, 3A1<br />
arm model, construction diagrams, 3A1<br />
arsenic, hazard, 2A4<br />
balloons, filling with gases, 1 6.1 D, see also Pumps<br />
barium chloride, 1.0 M solution, preparation, 2A3; 0.5 M solution,<br />
lA3; hazard, 1A4, 2A4<br />
barium hydroxide, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 4A3; hazard 4A4<br />
barley, containing albino form, 14.11<br />
Benedict's solution, preparation, lA3, 3A3, 4A3<br />
beryllium, hazard, 2A4<br />
bicarbonate indicator, - preparation, - 3A3<br />
biuret test, for proteins, 17.22<br />
blood, separation in centrifuge, 32.8b; citration and supply,<br />
3A2; circulation in capillaries of tadpoles, trout alevins, frog<br />
and toad web, fmger quick, 32.9<br />
breathing bag assembly, notes on manipulation of appara tus,<br />
measuring volumes of air, 3A1<br />
breathing models, intercostal muscles and ribs, iron lung, lungs/<br />
thorax,3A1<br />
brilliant cresyl blue stain, 1% solution, 3A3<br />
bromine, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 4A4<br />
bromine diffusion experiment, not into vacuum, 1Al , 2A 1,<br />
21 OAD, 4AI, 47.15D; inclusive of diffusion into vacuum,<br />
4A1,47.16<br />
bromine water, preparation, 4A3; hazard, 4A4<br />
Brownian motion, using smoke cells, 16.4<br />
buffer solution, pH 9.5, preparation, 3A3
ungs, boring and insertion and removal of items, 1AI, 3Al<br />
burning characteristics, notes concerning the burning of a<br />
range of organic substances in air and in an atmosphere<br />
enriched with oxygen, 32.10,32.18, 3A1<br />
calcium, hazard, 2A4<br />
calcium nitrate, 0.5 M solution, preparation, 2A3<br />
Calliphora (blow fly), obtaining larvae, 3A2, 4A2<br />
capacitors, experiments, 35.1d; notes and code for identification,<br />
3A1<br />
capillary tube, with mercury index, 47.17 c<br />
carbon dioxide, dry ice, hazard, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; preparation, see<br />
gas cylinders; test for gas using lime water, 11.1, 18.7<br />
carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane), hazard lA4, 2A4, 4A4<br />
carcinogens, hazard notes, 2A4<br />
centrifuge, care, hazard, usage, 2A3, 3A4, 4A4<br />
cetrimide, 1% solution as antiseptic, 3A3<br />
chainwheel assembly, construction diagram, 3Al<br />
Chalkley's medium, for culture of Amoeba, see Amoeba<br />
chicken dissection, for muscle action especially in the leg, 3A2<br />
Chlorine, source, 214.11, 2A3. hazard, 2A4; test for chlorine/<br />
chloride, 18.7, 18.19<br />
chloroform (trichloromethane), hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4<br />
choice chambers, construction from disposable Petri dishes for<br />
use with small organisms such as woodlice, 2Al<br />
chromatography solvent, preparation for 34.16, 3A3<br />
circular motion kit, diagrams and experiment, 47.19<br />
cleaning apparatus, barometer tubes, lA1; copper stains, lA1, 2Al;<br />
magnesium residues, 1AI; rub ber and organic material, 1AI, 2Al<br />
clones, of Coleus, dandelions, Zebrina, 14.9, lA2<br />
clover, acyanogenic and cyanogenic plants, supply and testing leaves<br />
for hydrocyanic acid, 4A2<br />
cobalt chloride paper, prepara tion, 1A3<br />
compact light source, care and maintenance, lA1, 3A1<br />
composition of air apparatus, wash bottle and gas syringe, 3Al;<br />
gas burette, 3Al; J-tube, 3A1, 4A1<br />
Congo red, 0.1 % solution, 4A3<br />
cooling of flasks, flasks covered with feathers etc, 14.6<br />
copper(II) chloride, 0.5 M solution, IA3<br />
copper(II) chromate, preparation for electrolysis, 1A3<br />
copper(II) nitrate, 0.5 M solution, 2A3<br />
319
320<br />
copper(II) sulphate, anhydrous, 1A3, 3A3; for drying, 210.1;<br />
saturated solution, 3A3; 1 M solution, 2A3; 0.5 M solution,<br />
lA3, 2A3, 3A3; 0.25 M solution, 1A3; 0.2 M solution, 3A3;<br />
0.1 M solution, 3A3; 0.05 M solution, lA3; 0.04 M<br />
solution, 1A3<br />
crystals, growth on rnicroslide, 18.17<br />
curren t balance, made from chemical balance, 211.11<br />
Daphnia, culture method, 2A2; see also water fleas;<br />
deflection tube, manipulation, 4A1<br />
dialysis, using cellulose tubing, diagram, 16.19<br />
1,6-diaminohexane, 5% solution, preparation, 2A3;hazard, 2A4<br />
diastase, 10- 3 - 10- 2 % solution, 3A3<br />
diffusion, bromine in air, 16.1; carbon dioxide and hydrogen,<br />
16.1, 16.3; ether/scent into air, 16.1 D; hydrogen chloride<br />
and ammonia, 16.1; iodine in tetrachloromethane, 16.10;<br />
see also bromine diffusion experiment<br />
diffusion tubes, construction diagram, and filing of chalk<br />
inserts, 16.3<br />
diode, demonstration and semiconductor, 48.2<br />
distillation, destructive distillation of coal, diagram, 34.1<br />
project 1; under reduced pressure, 32.23, 49.3a(ii);<br />
fractionation of alcohol and water, 49.3b(ii);<br />
fractionation of oil, 16.18, 34.1 project 2<br />
dogfish dissection, for gut parasites, 2A2<br />
double slits kit, description and use, 3A1<br />
Drosophila (fruit fly), culture medium, handling techniques,<br />
anaesthetisation using etherisers, carbon dioxide and<br />
refrigeration, sexing of flies, life history, 13.7,1 A2, 2A2,<br />
4A2<br />
dynamics trolleys, description, care and maintenance - 2A1,<br />
3A1,4A1<br />
electrical hazards; Van de Graaff generator, high tension supplies,<br />
lA4, 3A4, 4A4<br />
electrolysis, oflead bromide, 18.10; of dilute SUlphuric acid,<br />
33.4, 411.4 D; using alkaline sodium chloride electrolyte in<br />
experiment investigating deposition of Cu+ and Cu 2 + ions,<br />
33.18 ; errors in electrolysis experiments, amalgamated<br />
aluminium electrodes, 33.17<br />
electrolysis cells, construction of Nuffield style pupil voltameters,<br />
lA1,3Al
electromagnetic kit, description of contents, 2Al, 3Al<br />
electrostatics experiments; notes on successful accomplishment,<br />
18.1, 35·.1c<br />
eluent, for products of sugar hydrolysis, 4A3<br />
energy conversion kit, contents and care of model steam engine,<br />
3Al<br />
ethanol, method of drying using anhydrous copper(II) sulphate,<br />
210.1; 50% solution, 3A3; 70% solution, 4A3<br />
etherisers, see Drosophila<br />
ethoxyethane (ether, diethyl ether), hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 4A4; safe<br />
method of warming using water bath, 49.2<br />
faulting model, construction, 212.14c, 2A1<br />
Fehling B solution, preparation, 4A3<br />
fertiliser, effect of ammonium sulphate on grass, dosage, 18.20<br />
Feulgen's stain, Shiff's reagent, preparation, 4A3<br />
fine beam tube, manipulation, 4Al<br />
flame test wires, and inoculating loops, methods of construction,<br />
1AI, see also inoculating loops<br />
fluorescein, 0.2% solution for model eye, 3A3<br />
food calorimeter, construction and use, 3A1<br />
forces, methods for study of forces in equilibrium, 411.2<br />
formaldehyde (methanal), hazard, 2A4<br />
fossils from coal, preparation of fossil pollen grains, 34.18<br />
fractionation, of oil, 16.18,34.1 project 2; of alcohol/water,<br />
49.3b(ii)<br />
fuels, see burning characteristics<br />
gas from a water plant, experimental details, 411.10<br />
gas cylinders, carbon dioxide, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; dry ice,<br />
2A4, 3A4, 4A4; hydrogen, lA4, 2A4, 3A4; nitrogen, lA4,<br />
2A4, 3A4; oxygen, 1A4, 2A4, 3A4; sulphur dioxide, 2A4<br />
gas syringes, care and maintenance, 2Al, 3Al<br />
gear system, construction diagram, 3A1<br />
gelatine, 20% gel, 2A3; for variable focus eye, 3A3; with potassium<br />
nitrate,4A3<br />
glass jet, preparation, 3A1 ;<br />
glass rod, with solid point, 3Al; breaking of rod and tube, safety<br />
precautions, 15.4<br />
glucose, 20% solution, 4A3; 5% solution, 3A3; 1% solution, 4A3<br />
glucose-I-phosphate, 1% solution, 3A3<br />
GM tube, thin window, characteristics and use, 48.6, 4Al<br />
321
322<br />
groundsel; rayed and unrayed forms, 46.7b<br />
hand stroboscope, construction, 3A1<br />
hard water, preparation of synthetic hard water, 2A3<br />
hay infusion, preparation, 1A2, 2A2<br />
hot filament diode tube, manipulation, 4Al<br />
hot filament triode tube, manipulation, 4A1<br />
hot wire glass cutting technique, lA1, 3A1<br />
Hydra, method of culture, 2A2<br />
hydrochloric acid, concentrated (1.18 s.g.), 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; hazard,<br />
lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; 5 M solution, lA3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 2 M<br />
solution, lA3, 2A3, 3A3; 1 M solution, lA3, 2A3, 3A3. 4A3;<br />
0.5 M solution, 2A3; 0.1 M solution, 4A3; 0.001 M solution,<br />
4A3<br />
hydrocyanic acid, test for, see clover<br />
hydrogen, burning in air, 16.26; 'pop' test for, 16.25<br />
hydrogen peroxide, 20 vol solution, lA3, 2A3<br />
immersion heater, radio resistor type, wound from resistance wire,<br />
33.11<br />
inertia balance kit, construction diagram, 4Al<br />
infusorian culture, method of culture, 3A2<br />
inoculating loops, construction methods, 3A1, 4Al; see also flame<br />
test wires<br />
intemallight beam galvanometer, 'spot' galvanometer, care of,<br />
lA1,3A1<br />
iodine, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; obtained from seaweed, 12.11<br />
iodine in potassium iodide, (3% 12 /KI solution), lA3, 3A3<br />
ions in candle flame, experimental details, 18.6<br />
iron(Il) sulphate, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 3A3, 4A3;<br />
0.0089 M solution, 4A3<br />
iron(III) sulphate, 0.1 M solution, preparation, 4A3<br />
iron, Fe 2 + and Fe 3 + ions, tests for, 411.8<br />
Janus green B (diazine green), 3A3<br />
jets, making glass jets, 1Al<br />
lead(II) acetate (lead(II) ethanoate), 0.1-0.5 M, 1A3<br />
lead(II) bromide, hazard, 1A4<br />
lead(H) nitrate, 0.1 M solution, 3A3;hazard, 3A4<br />
lead salts, hazard, 3A4<br />
Lemna (duckweed), culture, 2A2; growth, 18.19
lenses, finding focal length, focal1engthjdioptres table, 3Al<br />
lime water, preparation, lA3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3<br />
lithium, hazard, 2A4<br />
litmus indicator, 0.1 % solution, preparation from azolitmin,<br />
lA3,4A3<br />
locating agent, for sugars separated by chromatography, 4A3<br />
locust testes, obtaining from fifth instar, staining squashes to<br />
show meiosis, 4A2<br />
lungs, supply of specimens, 32.25<br />
Lycopodium, hazard, 1A4<br />
macro-Millikan apparatus, notes on construction and use 4A1<br />
magnesium, hazard, 1A4, 2A4<br />
magnesium sulphate, 0.1 M solution, 3A3<br />
magnets, care and cleaning, 2A1, 4A1<br />
magnetic effect, of current in a liquid, 211.10<br />
Maltese cross tube, manipulation, 48.3a<br />
maltose, 1% solution, 4A3<br />
mats, hardboard mats for use as bench protectors, 1Al<br />
mercury, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4<br />
mercury(II) iodide, preparation of paper, 3A3; hazard, 3A4<br />
mercury salts, hazard, 3A4<br />
mercury(II) sulphate, hazard, lA4<br />
methyl orange, preparation of indicator, 3A3, 4A3<br />
4-methylphenylamine (p-toluidine), hazard, 4A4<br />
methylene blue, 1% solution, lA3, 3A3<br />
mice, breeding, handling, marking killing and preserving, 1A2, 4A2<br />
Micraster fossils, note concerning need for clear marking, 46.1<br />
microwave equipment, contents of kit, 3A1<br />
Millon's reagent, preparation, lA3, 3A3; hazard, lA4, 3A4<br />
model eye, goldfish bowl eye, 31.25; kit, contents and use, 3A1<br />
model food chain, construction and manipulation, 35.12<br />
model stream, construction and manipulation, 2A1<br />
Moire patterns, description and diagram, 3A1<br />
mole kit, contents, 1Al<br />
molecular models, models made with polystyrene spheres, body<br />
centred cubic lattice, diamond structure (and kit), graphite<br />
structure, hexagonal close packed lattice, simple cubic lattice,<br />
Ss sulphur, l Al ; butoxybutane, ethanol, ethoxyethane, fumaric<br />
acid, a-glucose, maleic acid, maltose, methanol, methoxymethane,<br />
propan-l-ol, propoxypropane, 4A1<br />
323
324<br />
MS-222 Sandoz anaesthetic, notes on use, 3A2; hazard, 3A4<br />
multiflash photography, stroboscopic photography using motorised<br />
strobe disc and xenon flasher, development of film in cassette,<br />
2Al,4Al<br />
nickel(II) sulphate, 0.1 M solution, 3A3<br />
nitric acid, concentrated (1.42 s.g.), 4A3, hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 3A4,<br />
4A4; 60% solution, 1A3, 2A3; 5 M solution, lA3; 1.0 M solution,<br />
4A3<br />
4nitrotoluene, hazard 4A4<br />
nutrient agar, preparation, 3A2; see also agars and broths<br />
nuts on a string, distances between nuts, 47.11<br />
oil film kit, contents and use, lA1<br />
onion, for plasmolysis experiment, also rhubarb tissue, 1A2<br />
oscilloscope, operating instructions for demonstration and pupil<br />
models, 2A1, 3AI, 4A1<br />
osmosis, membrane attachment to thistle funnel, 16.11<br />
oxygen, chemical source of oxygen, 210.15; concentration in water,<br />
4A1; removal from water, 32.23; test for, 16.25, 18.7,32.23<br />
Paramecium, culture method, lA2, 2A2<br />
parasites, parasitised caterpillars, 29.1 0; sources, killing and mounting,<br />
roundworms, Protozoa, Fungi, plant galls, dodder, disposal; 2A2;<br />
hazards, 2A4<br />
particle model of refraction kit, construction, 3A1<br />
PEEL models, contents of kit and example of use, 4Al<br />
personal weighing machine, conversion of bathroom scales, 1Al<br />
phenolphthalein, 0.05% indicator solution, 3A3, 4A3<br />
phenosafranine, 1% solution, 4A3<br />
phosphorus, hazard, 2A4<br />
picric acid (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol), hazard, 4A4<br />
pinhole camera kit, contents, 3Al<br />
pooter, see Tribolium<br />
potassium, hazard, 2A4<br />
potassium carbonate, 1 M solution, 4A3<br />
potassium chromate, 0.1 M solution, 4A3<br />
potassium dichromate, 0.1 M solution, 4A3<br />
potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) (potassium ferricyanide), 0.1 M<br />
solution, 3A3, 4A3<br />
potassium hydrogen carbonate, saturated solution, 3A3
potassium hydroxide, hazard, lA4, 3A4, 4A4; 25% solution, 3A3,<br />
4A3; 5 M solution, 3A3; 2 M solution, 3A3; 1.0 M solution,<br />
lA3,4A3<br />
potassium iodide, 1 M solution, 4A3<br />
potassium nitrate, saturated solution, 3A3; 0.5 M solution, 3A3<br />
potassium pyrogallate, preparation, 3A3, 4A3<br />
potassium thiocyanate; 0.5 M solution, 4A3<br />
'power line terminal rods, construction, 3Al<br />
propagator, construction, use of artificial lighting, 1Al<br />
protein, biuret test for, 17.22<br />
phenylthiourea (PTU), phenylthiocarbamide (PTe), hazard; 14.9<br />
pumps and associated apparatus, vacuum/compression pump, care of,<br />
lAl, 4Al; used for filling balloons with gas, 16.1D<br />
push-pull forcemeter, construction of simple model, 1Al ; forcemeter<br />
converter,3Al<br />
pyridine, hazard, 4A4<br />
pyrogallol (pyrogallic acid) preparation, 3A3; for storage see<br />
composition of air apparatus<br />
radioactive materials, precautions and hazards, 4A4<br />
rat dissection, to show alimentary canal, 1A2<br />
ray optics equipment, contents of kit and hints on use, 3Al<br />
reactions, the following reactions all have notes concerning the<br />
hazards associated with them or concerning the method of<br />
carrying them out:<br />
baking powder and water, 11.3;<br />
bismuth{lII) chloride and water, 411.7<br />
copper oxides and magnesium, 12.4<br />
copper oxides and coal gas or hydrogen, 17.19, 214.15a<br />
hydrogen and oxygen, explosion, 411.4D<br />
iron and acid, 43.2<br />
iron filings and copper(JI) sulphate solution, 210.9<br />
iron wool and bromine, 214.11<br />
iron wool and chlorine, 214.11<br />
iron wool and iodine, 214.12<br />
magnesium and hydrochloric acid, 210.9, 210.1 Oc<br />
marble chips and acids, 11.4<br />
metal oxides and acid, 43.2<br />
234 protactinium decay, 48.10<br />
silver chloride and light, 31.1<br />
sodium carbonate and barium chloride solution, 210.9, 210.1 Oa<br />
325
326<br />
sodium carb onate and hydrochloric acid, 210.I Oc(ii)<br />
sulphur trioxide (sulphuric acid) preparation, 210.12<br />
thionine and light, 34.15<br />
zinc and sulphuric acid, 18.16c<br />
resistors, insulation when used as heaters, 33.11; notes and codes,<br />
3Al,4Al<br />
resonance, using piano, 31.13d<br />
respirometers and differential air thermometers, simple version,<br />
32.22; Dixon-Barcroft, MacFadyen's, thermistor, 3Al<br />
Ringer's solution, preparation, 4A3<br />
ripple tank, accessories required and hints on use, 3A1<br />
rockets, balloon, carbon dioxide capsule, water, 4A1<br />
sampling plants, quadrat sampling, 13.5<br />
Savart's toothed wheels, construction, 3Al<br />
sawdust, method of damping sawdust for fly maggots, 42.1<br />
scaler, use of the scaler, stop/start mechanisms using photocells,<br />
aluminium tapes, 2A1, 4A1<br />
screw gear, worm drive, construction, 3A1<br />
sediment holder, construction, 2A1<br />
selenium, hazard, 2A4<br />
Serratia marcescens, culture, 14.10, lA2<br />
Shirlastain E, preparation of solution, 2A3<br />
silver nitrate, 0.5 M solution, lA3; 0.1 M solution, lA3, 3A3, 4A3<br />
silver 'tree', method, 33.19<br />
soap solution, preparation, lA3; for hardness of water, 2A3<br />
sodium, hazard, 2A4, 4A4<br />
sodium carbonate, 1.0 M solution, 2A3<br />
sodium chloride, saturated solution, 4A3; 25% solution, 2A3, 3A3;<br />
0.5 M solution, lA3, 3A3; 0.1 M solution, lA3<br />
sodium chloride alkaline electrolyte, preparation, 3A3<br />
sodium hydroxide, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; 5 M solution, IA3,<br />
2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 2 M solution, 4A3; 1 M solution, I A3, 2A3,<br />
3A3, 4A3; 0.1 M solution, 3A3, 4A3; 0.05 M solution, 2A3, 3A3;<br />
0.001 M solution, 4A3; 0.000 1 M solution, 4A3<br />
sodium picrate, hazard, 4A4 'Picric acid', preparation of papers, 4A3<br />
sodium silicate, 2 M solution, lA3<br />
sodium sulphate, saturated solution, 3A3<br />
sodium thiosulphate, 0.16 M solution, 2A3, 3A3<br />
soil sterilisation, 2A2
sound tape recording, details of the recording required for the work<br />
on noise and sound, 3Al<br />
spark counter, notes on use, 48.5c<br />
spectroscope handling, notes concerning ease of handling and long<br />
lasting flame production, 1Al<br />
spectrum, production using high dispersion prism, 31.28; absorption<br />
spectrum of chlorophyll, 34.17<br />
speed of an airgun pellet, details of experiment, 4AI; see also scaler,<br />
4AI<br />
speed of sound, experimental details, 2AI<br />
standard wire gauge, conversion table, I AI, 3AI, 4 Al<br />
starch, 1% solu tion, I A3, 4 A3 ; synthesis from glucose-l-phosphate,<br />
34.12; testing in leaves, 34.12,34.15<br />
sterilisation of grass clippings, 34.9; see also soil sterilisation and<br />
agars for other methods of sterilisation<br />
sticklebacks, handling details, 3A2<br />
stream table, construction, 2Al<br />
strontium, hazard, 2A4<br />
succession, on cellulose film, 410.3<br />
sucrose, 75% solution, IA3; 50% solution, IA3; 5% solution, IA3,<br />
2A3,3A3<br />
Sudan IV, 0.5% in ethanol, in paraffin, 3A3<br />
sulphate, test for, 18.19<br />
sulphur crystals, 16.24<br />
sulphur dioxide, hazard, 2A4; use, see gas cylinders<br />
sulphuric acid, concentrated (1.84 s.g.), 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; hazard,<br />
lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4; 5.6 M (accumulator acid) solution, 2A3, 3A3;<br />
2.5 M solution, IA3, 2A3, 3A3; 2.0 M solution, 4A3; 1 M<br />
solution, IA3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3; 0.5 M solution, 4A3; 0.3 M<br />
solution, 3A3, 4A3; 0.1 M solution, 2A3<br />
tests, ammonia, 17.21; carbon dioxide, ILl, 18.7; chloride/<br />
chlorine, 18.7, 18.19; hydrocyanic acid, see clover; hydrogen,<br />
16.25; iron?" and irorr" ions, 411.8; oxygen, 16.25, 18.7,32.23;<br />
protein, 17.22; starch in leaves, 34.12,34.15; sulphate, 18.19<br />
tetrachloromethane, hazard, 1A4, 2A4, 4A4<br />
thermocouple, construction, 3Al<br />
thionine, 0.1 % solution, 3A3<br />
three dimensional kinetic model kit, diagram, 16.8<br />
titration, notes on the procedure, 4Al<br />
tobacco, with albino characteristic, 14.11<br />
p-toluidine, hazard, 4A4<br />
327
328<br />
toluidine blue-O stain, I % solution, 4A3<br />
tourniquet, limitation on use, 32.24a(ii)<br />
Tradescantia, buds for meiosis, 4A2<br />
Tribolium, culture and handling techniques, experimental details,<br />
pooters, 13.8, lA2, 2A2, 4A2<br />
trichloromethane, hazard, lA4, 2A4, 3A4, 4A4<br />
2,4, 6-trinitrophenol (picric acid), hazard, 4A4<br />
trypsin, 4% solution, 4A3<br />
two-dimensional kinetic model kit, contents of kit, lAI<br />
two-dimensional motion apparatus, notes on types, 2AI,<br />
3AI,4AI<br />
Universal (Yamada's) indicator, preparation, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3<br />
variable focus eye, construction, 3AI<br />
Visking tubing, method of use, 16.20, 16.19<br />
water culture solution, 1A3<br />
water, deionised etc, 1A3, 2A3, 3A3, 4A3<br />
water fleas, source, 3A2<br />
water troughs, setting up, 13.4<br />
weed killers, hazards and notes, 2A4<br />
wheel and axle, construction of pupils' model, 3 Al<br />
xenon strobe, hazard, 2A4, 4A4<br />
yeast, culture method, 1A2, 2A2, 3A2<br />
zinc nitrate, 0.5 M solution, 2A3<br />
zinc sulphate, saturated solution, 3A3; 0.1 M solution, 3A3
Schoo s Cou ci<br />
Integrated Science Project (SCISP)<br />
Patte pro ide a tru tured cour e<br />
in integrated science for pupils in<br />
the 13-16 age range, aimed principally<br />
at a double O-le el. The scheme is<br />
outlined in the Teacher handbook and<br />
the material is organised in<br />
four sections:<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> I Building blocks<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 2 Interactions and building blocks<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 3 Energy<br />
<strong>Patterns</strong> 4 Interaction and change<br />
Each section comprises a pupils' <strong>manual</strong>,<br />
a teachers' guide, a <strong>technicians'</strong> <strong>manual</strong><br />
and a number of pupil ' topic books.<br />
Longman I SB 582 34008 X