A Cultural Formulation Approach to Career ... - ResearchGate
A Cultural Formulation Approach to Career ... - ResearchGate A Cultural Formulation Approach to Career ... - ResearchGate
466 Journal of Career Development 37(1) The current article applies cultural formulations approach of Leong, Hardin, and Gupta (2007) to career assessment and career counseling to Asian American clients. Consistent with the recommendations of Leong et al (2007), we illustrate the approach by using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV) Outline for Cultural Formulations, which consists of the following five dimensions: (a) cultural identity of the individual, (b) cultural explanation of the individual’s illness, (c) cultural factors related to psychosocial environment, (d) cultural elements of the relationship between the individual and the clinician, and (e) overall cultural assessment of the case (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision [DSM-IV-TR], pp. 897 898). Translating those dimensions into the career assessment and career counseling arena, we then discuss the cultural formulation approach with Asian Americans along the following five dimensions, which parallels the DSM-IV: (a) cultural identity of the individual, (b) cultural conception of the career problems, (c) cultural factors related to psychosocial environment, (d) cultural element of the relationship between the individual and the counselor, and (e) overall cultural assessment for career counseling and intervention. Finally, we illustrate the approach with a case study. Because of the salience of collectivist influences for virtually all Asian cultures, themes tied to collectivism and interdependence permeate our discussion of a cultural formulations approach to career assessment and counseling with Asian Americans. Before applying the cultural formulations approach to Asian Americans, we briefly review the distinctions between individualism and collectivism, particularly as they pertain to the career counseling process. For the purposes of this article, individualism and collectivism are described as extreme, static, and dichotomous cultures, whereas, in reality, this level of clear demarcations of biculturalism does not exist. Culture is a complex phenomenon and usually manifests as a multicultural entity within individuals, where the emphasis is on cultural salience. Various factors will determine which culture is important in what situation. The details of these various factors are beyond the scope of discussion for the purposes of this article. The Western world (i.e., North America and Europe) often adhere to individualistic cultural factors, where the individual is the smallest unit of survival and is the focus of the therapeutic process. Emphasis is usually placed on the individual’s goals, with less consideration toward the goals of others, the community, and/or the group. However, collectivism, where the group/collective is the smallest unit of survival, focuses to a higher degree on the interests, values, and goals of the group; and ‘‘group’’ here can refer to various forms such as extended family, work group, tribe, caste, country, and so on. Collectivism usually involves the subordination of personal goals to be able to attain the goals of the group/community. As will be discussed in more detail below, this does not mean that individuals from collectivistic cultures reject their own personal needs and goals; rather, the goals and values of the group have been internalized to the point that distinction between personal goals and collective goals are hard to make. 466 Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010
Leong et al. 467 There are important individual differences that can be found within the cultures. For instance, individuals from both individualistic and collectivistic cultures can display characteristics of the following: (a) Allocentric: Where individuals sacrifice their own needs for that of the group they affiliate with, as their needs are tied to the group and their sense of self is tied to that defined by the group. (b) Idiocentric: These individuals’ sense of self is defined by their own needs versus that of the group, therefore, these individuals may be viewed as being self-serving and more self-centered. Often they can be seen as taking advantage of opportunities that will help them advance (e.g., moving away from elderly parents to a distant community for a high-paying job). These individuals do not completely ignore the needs of the group but any attention to others is given out of a sense of duty/obligation (Triandis, Brislin, & Hui, 1988). There are many different types of patterns associated with persons from collectivistically and individualistically oriented cultures, but both types of individuals have some common components associated with them. For instance, individuals who lean toward being collectivistic, allocentric, and idiocentric pursue in-group goals, but allocentric individuals will do so at the expense of sacrificing their own feelings, values, and thoughts so that they can conform to the needs of the group (Triandis et al., 1988). Related to these ideas of idiocentrism and allocentrism, Markus and Kitayama (1991) have highlighted how culture influences the self, specifically related to concepts of independent and interdependent self-construals. Applying their ideas to the domain of career counseling suggests that individuals who come from individualistic cultures will approach career issues from an independent and autonomous perspective, making career decisions that are more likely independent from others and social contexts, and will derive internal self-concepts such as self-esteem by trying to independently get ahead or be recognized for work-related achievements. Contrary to this, individuals from collectivist cultures will approach career issues from an interdependent perspective, approaching career decisions that emphasize relationships and social context and these individuals’ self-esteem and career success will be tied to getting along with others or being able to fit in to the larger community. These themes of collectivism and interdependence and the effect they have on the career development and counseling needs of Asian Americans recur throughout the cultural formulations discussion below. Cultural Identity of the Individual The first dimension of the cultural formulations approach is Cultural Identity of the Individual. According to Lewis-Fernandez and Diaz (2002), this dimension includes a consideration of the extent to which clients identify with their ethnic culture and the dominant culture. Consequently, vocational counselors need to consider the acculturation levels of their client and how cultural identity provides a context for understanding the presenting vocational difficulties. Acculturation involves the Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010 467
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Leong et al. 467<br />
There are important individual differences that can be found within the cultures.<br />
For instance, individuals from both individualistic and collectivistic cultures can display<br />
characteristics of the following: (a) Allocentric: Where individuals sacrifice<br />
their own needs for that of the group they affiliate with, as their needs are tied <strong>to</strong> the<br />
group and their sense of self is tied <strong>to</strong> that defined by the group. (b) Idiocentric:<br />
These individuals’ sense of self is defined by their own needs versus that of the<br />
group, therefore, these individuals may be viewed as being self-serving and more<br />
self-centered. Often they can be seen as taking advantage of opportunities that will<br />
help them advance (e.g., moving away from elderly parents <strong>to</strong> a distant community<br />
for a high-paying job). These individuals do not completely ignore the needs of the<br />
group but any attention <strong>to</strong> others is given out of a sense of duty/obligation (Triandis,<br />
Brislin, & Hui, 1988).<br />
There are many different types of patterns associated with persons from collectivistically<br />
and individualistically oriented cultures, but both types of individuals have<br />
some common components associated with them. For instance, individuals who lean<br />
<strong>to</strong>ward being collectivistic, allocentric, and idiocentric pursue in-group goals, but<br />
allocentric individuals will do so at the expense of sacrificing their own feelings, values,<br />
and thoughts so that they can conform <strong>to</strong> the needs of the group (Triandis et al.,<br />
1988).<br />
Related <strong>to</strong> these ideas of idiocentrism and allocentrism, Markus and Kitayama<br />
(1991) have highlighted how culture influences the self, specifically related <strong>to</strong> concepts<br />
of independent and interdependent self-construals. Applying their ideas <strong>to</strong> the<br />
domain of career counseling suggests that individuals who come from individualistic<br />
cultures will approach career issues from an independent and au<strong>to</strong>nomous perspective,<br />
making career decisions that are more likely independent from others and social<br />
contexts, and will derive internal self-concepts such as self-esteem by trying <strong>to</strong> independently<br />
get ahead or be recognized for work-related achievements. Contrary <strong>to</strong><br />
this, individuals from collectivist cultures will approach career issues from an interdependent<br />
perspective, approaching career decisions that emphasize relationships<br />
and social context and these individuals’ self-esteem and career success will be tied<br />
<strong>to</strong> getting along with others or being able <strong>to</strong> fit in <strong>to</strong> the larger community.<br />
These themes of collectivism and interdependence and the effect they have on the<br />
career development and counseling needs of Asian Americans recur throughout the<br />
cultural formulations discussion below.<br />
<strong>Cultural</strong> Identity of the Individual<br />
The first dimension of the cultural formulations approach is <strong>Cultural</strong> Identity of the<br />
Individual. According <strong>to</strong> Lewis-Fernandez and Diaz (2002), this dimension includes<br />
a consideration of the extent <strong>to</strong> which clients identify with their ethnic culture and<br />
the dominant culture. Consequently, vocational counselors need <strong>to</strong> consider the<br />
acculturation levels of their client and how cultural identity provides a context for<br />
understanding the presenting vocational difficulties. Acculturation involves the<br />
Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010<br />
467
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