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482 Journal of Career Development 37(1) What at face value may appear to be career indecision should not be interpreted as a result of Anil’s poor career decision making self-efficacy. This is because Anil’s cultural background makes this more complex and multifaceted than what it initially appears to be. Individualized and western-based assessments may only tell part of the story and may ignore the cultural factors that are salient to clients like Anil. Imposing an individualist approach and assuming Anil is overly dependent on his family, has personal interests that differ from those of others, and therefore should pursue a career that aligns with those personal interests ignores Anil’s group identities and inappropriately imposes universal assumptions on Anil. However, imposing a collectivist approach and assuming Anil wants to conform to his family’s expectations, would be fulfilling his private self by doing so, and should not be encouraged to explore other options ignores Anil’s individual experience that results from the interaction of his multiple cultural identities, and inappropriately imposes stereotypical assumptions on Anil. To work effectively with Anil, then, the therapist needs to use an understanding of Anil’s various cultural group identities to explore Anil’s own understanding of his problem within his unique context, taking into account how his multiple identities create a unique psychosocial environment and using this understanding to establish an effective therapeutic relationship and to provide culturally informed, individualized treatment. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article. Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article. References Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In A. Padilla (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models and findings (pp. 9-25). Boulder, CO: Westview. Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475-482. Brewer, M. B. (2003). Optimal distinctiveness, social identity, and the self. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 480 491). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 195-209. Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (1997). Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation and work attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 50, 147-163. 482 Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010
Leong et al. 483 Flores, L. Y., & O’Brien, K. M. (2002). The career development of Mexican American adolescent women: A test of Social Cognitive Career Theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 14-27. Hardin, E. E. (2007, August). Cultural validity of career theories: A new perspective. Symposium presented at the 115th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. Hardin, E. E. (2008, March). Theoretical approaches and their efficacy with diverse populations: Holland’s Theory. In N. E. Betz (Chair), Theoretical approaches and their efficacy with diverse populations. Invited symposium presented at the Society of Vocational Psychology’s Preconference Workshop at the International Counseling Psychology Conference, Chicago, IL. Hardin, E. E., Leong, F. T. L., & Osipow, S. H. (2001). Cultural relativity in the conceptualization of career maturity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 36-52. Heine, S. J. (2001). Self as a cultural product: An examination of East Asian and North American selves. Journal of Personality, 69, 881-906. Holland, J. L. (1996). Exploring careers with a typology: What we have learned and some new directions. American Psychologist, 51(4), 397-406. Hui, C. H. (1988). Measurement of individualism-collectivism. Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 17-36. Hui, C. H., & Triandis, H. C. (1986). Individualism-collectivism: A study of cross-cultural researchers. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 225-248. Hui, C. H., & Villareal, M. (1987). Individualism-collectivism and psychological needs: Their relationship in two cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 310-323. Kluckhohn, C, & Murray, H. A. (1950). Personality formation: The determinants. In C. Kluckhohn & H.A. Murray (Eds.), Personality in Nature, Society, and Culture (pp. 35-48). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Lee, J. Y. (1994). The relationship between women’s self-efficacy expectations and career decision status at the college level in Korea. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus. Leiblum, S., Wiegel, M., & Brickle, F. (2003). Sexual attitudes of US and Canadian medical students: The role of ethnicity, gender, religion and acculturation. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 18, 473-491. Leong, F. T. L. (1991). Career development attributes and occupational values of Asian- American and European-American American college students. Career Development Quarterly, 39, 221-230. Leong, F. T. L. (1995). Career development and vocational behavior of racial and ethnic minorities. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Leong, F. T. L. (1996). Toward an integrative model for cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 5, 189-209. Leong, F. T. L. & Chou, E. L. (1994). The role of ethnic identity and acculturation in the vocational behavior of Asian Americans: An integrative review. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44(2), 155-172. Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010 483
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