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474 Journal of Career Development 37(1) There is also reason to suspect that in some contexts, more highly acculturated Asian Americans might also be susceptible to adverse effects of the model minority stereotype. As summarized by Leong et al. (2007), social psychological theories of the self in context posit that individuals are more likely to identify as a member of a particular cultural group when in the minority (Oyserman & Markus, 1993). Asian Americans who have grown up in a predominantly European American environment may both be more acculturated, as a result of their frequent contact with the dominant culture, and be more likely to experience their Asian American identity as salient. Further, the drive for optimal distinctiveness (i.e., the need to optimally balance affiliation and distinction within a group; Brewer, 1991, 2003) may contribute to self-stereotyping, such that these individuals are more likely to identify with both the positive and negative stereotypes associated with their group. For Asian Americans, family influences are another important aspect of the context in which career development occurs. As discussed above, many Asian cultures are collectivistic and foster the development of an interdependent self-construal that defines the self in relation to others and derives self-esteem from the ability to fit in and maintain social relationships (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The most salient social relationships for many Asians are those with one’s family. Thus, to the extent that Asian Americans are enculturated to these traditional Asian values and sense of self, they are more likely to make vocational decisions that consider the wishes and expectations of family members (e.g., Tang et al., 1999). Cultural Elements in Relationship Between the Individual and the Counselor The fourth dimension of the cultural formulations approach is Cultural elements of the relationship between the individual and the counselor. According to Lewis- Fernandez and Diaz (2002), this dimension includes a consideration of how culture affects the establishment and maintenance of the working alliance and the effects of the therapeutic relationship on assessment and treatment. Vocational counselors need to attend to cultural factors that affect the therapeutic relationship. To improve therapeutic effectiveness and outcomes, we need to consider cultural dynamics. The literature suggests that there are many cultural variables that are important to consider that will vary depending on the situation and the client. These cultural variables will determine the quality of the therapeutic relationship and ultimately the quality of the therapeutic process. The following paragraphs will center on discussing how the construct of individualism collectivism works within the broader framework of activities, attitudes, values, and behaviors among Asian Americans to determine the outcome of the career counseling process. There are other factors that inform the concept of individualism collectivism (such as morality, social systems, religious issues, and economic development) but will not be discussed here, as they are beyond the scope of this article (Hui, 1988; Hui & Triandis, 1986; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Hui, & Lucca, 1988). 474 Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010
Leong et al. 475 Activities. Persons from individualistic cultures generally do not put much stock in group activities. For example, family celebrations may be avoided especially if they conflict with personal goal attainments. However, persons from collectivistic cultures strongly adhere to the norms and values of the group, to the point that they feel a strong obligation to sacrifice and conform to group expectations (Triandis et al., 1988). For example, financial support in some Asian families is accomplished through sacrifice of independence and autonomy by living in joint families. Career counselors who operate from an individualist worldview may erroneously interpret such activities as evidencing career immature dependence on the needs and values of the family. Questioning an Asian American client’s choices from this perspective is likely to communicate a devaluing of the client and his or her family that is likely to rupture the therapeutic relationship Attitudes. Individualistically oriented individuals tend to have ambivalent feelings toward their in-group members and extended families and at times these can be negative, whereas collectivistic-oriented individuals tend to have strong positive feelings toward their in-group members. Collectivistic-culture-focused individuals are also more likely to display positive attitudes in their vertical relationships (e.g., Asian Americans show tremendous respect for their elders such as father son, etc.) and in relationships that have power differentials (e.g., boss and employee). Harmony and cooperation are ideal characteristics. Individualistic-culture-focused persons display the most positive attitudes in horizontal relationships (spouse spouse, friend friend) and display ambivalent feelings toward individuals in authority positions. Competition and interpersonal discourse are considered acceptable in individualistic communities, depending on the relative costs versus pros. Both of the groups value self-reliance, but persons from collectivistic cultures use self-reliance as a way not to burden the community even though most extended families would prefer that their children come to them in times of need. Persons from individualistic cultures use self-reliance as a way to obtain personal goals via independence and at times competition can be a valued aspect of that process toward attaining those personal goals (Triandis et al., 1988) In terms of the therapeutic relationship, career counselors need to be aware of how Asian American clients may see the counseling relationship as vertical, with the counselor in the superordinate or expert role. Deference to the counselor’s opinion and seeking of advice therefore does not necessarily represent passivity or dependence on the part of the client but rather a culturally appropriate deference to the counselor’s legitimate authority (cf. Sue & Sue, 2008). Values. The following are considered values important for collectivistically oriented individuals: harmony, face saving, filial piety, modesty, moderation, thrift, equality of distribution of rewards, and fulfilling other’s needs before one’s own. Status is defined through ascription, and this suggests importance being placed on the past and the present. For example, Asian Americans believe that they have Downloaded from http://jcd.sagepub.com at MICHIGAN STATE UNIV LIBRARIES on May 19, 2010 475
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