Green Book Fall 2013 Version - Web Access for Home - Manhattan ...

MANHATTAN COLLEGE 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT 

A GUIDE TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 

(FORMERLY THE REPORT AND PRESENTATION 

PREPARATION MANUAL) 

FALL 2013

A Guide to Technical Communication 

Copyright © 2011-2013 by the Mechanical Engineering Department 

of Manhattan College. 

All Rights Reserved. 

Last Updated 8/22/2013 

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Cite as: A Guide to Technical Communication, Fall 2013. Mechanical Engineering 

Department, Manhattan College, Riverdale, NY. Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY]. 


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Table of Contents 

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v 

Preface to the Fall 2013 Edition......................................................................................... vi 

Preface to the Fall 2011 Edition........................................................................................ vii 

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 

What Makes Technical Writing Different? ......................................................................... 2 

How to Communicate Effectively ...................................................................................... 3 

Structure of an Effective Report ..................................................................................... 3 

Report Preparation .......................................................................................................... 4 

Layout, Grammar, and Usage ......................................................................................... 4 

Making a Report “Read Well” ........................................................................................ 4 

Numbers, Calculations, Units, and Equations ................................................................ 5 

Figures and Tables .......................................................................................................... 7 

Proofreading: You Still Need To Do It! ......................................................................... 7 

Organization and Archival .............................................................................................. 8 

Presentation of Graphical and Tabulated Data ................................................................... 9 

Placement ........................................................................................................................ 9 

Captions .......................................................................................................................... 9 

Photographs..................................................................................................................... 9 

Drawings ....................................................................................................................... 10 

Graphs ........................................................................................................................... 10 

Tables ............................................................................................................................ 15 

Guidelines for References ................................................................................................. 17 

Referencing of Works in a Document .......................................................................... 17 

Formats for References ................................................................................................. 17 

Laboratory and Technical Reports .................................................................................... 21 

Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 21 

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 21 

Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 22 

Introduction and Analysis ............................................................................................. 22 

Experimental Apparatus and Procedure ........................................................................ 23 

Results and Discussion ................................................................................................. 24 

Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 25 

References ..................................................................................................................... 25 

Appendices .................................................................................................................... 25 

Optional Sections .......................................................................................................... 26 

Format for Short Laboratory Reports ............................................................................... 28 

Design Project Reports - General Instructions .................................................................. 29 

Format for Design Project Proposals ................................................................................ 30 

Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 30 


Introduction ................................................................................................................... 30 

Proposal......................................................................................................................... 30 

Schedule ........................................................................................................................ 30 

Format for Design Project Progress Reports .................................................................... 31 


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Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 31 


Introduction ................................................................................................................... 31 

Progress to Date ............................................................................................................ 31 

Schedule ........................................................................................................................ 31 

Calculations (If necessary) ............................................................................................ 31 

Format for Design Project Final Reports .......................................................................... 32 

Cover Page .................................................................................................................... 32 


Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 32 

[Your Project Title] ....................................................................................................... 32 

Reflections .................................................................................................................... 32 

Calculations................................................................................................................... 32 

Acknowledgments......................................................................................................... 32 

References ..................................................................................................................... 33 

Appendices .................................................................................................................... 33 

General Guidelines for Oral Presentations ....................................................................... 34 

Initial Considerations .................................................................................................... 34 

Preparation Guidelines .................................................................................................. 34 

Slide Design and Creation ............................................................................................ 35 

To Outline or Not to Outline? That is the Question ...................................................... 35 

Use of Graphics ............................................................................................................. 36 

Presentation Issues ........................................................................................................ 36 

General Guidelines for Electronic Mail ............................................................................ 38 

Just Because It’s Fast Doesn’t Mean It Should Be Informal ........................................ 38 

Who Will Be Reading Your Email? ............................................................................. 39 

Subject Line .................................................................................................................. 39 

Keep the Length Appropriate ........................................................................................ 40 

Format ........................................................................................................................... 40 

Write an Initial Draft, Then Revise! ............................................................................. 40 

Attachments .................................................................................................................. 40 

Proofreading, You Still STILL Need to Do It! ............................................................. 40 

Don’t Hit Send in Anger ............................................................................................... 41 

Closing and Signatures ................................................................................................. 41 

Emails versus SMS (Text) Messages ............................................................................ 42 

General Guidelines for Voicemail .................................................................................... 43 

References ......................................................................................................................... 44 

Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets ............................................................................. 45 

Appendix B: Sample Presentations ................................................................................... 50 

Experimental Study Slides ............................................................................................ 51 

Design Study Slides ...................................................................................................... 55 


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Acknowledgments 

A guide like this is not a single-person effort. While I have been heading up the 

updates and revisions to this guide, it would be the height of pretense to claim that I have 

done this on my own. Many people, whether they realize it or not, have been instrumental 

in making this document what it is. First, the Mechanical Engineering faculty, past and 

present, have been responsible for putting together the original version of the Green 

Book, as well as offering edits and advice for this new, enhanced version. Second, other 

faculty members outside the department have expressed interest, and conversations with 

them have given me ideas on enhancements. Third, the alumni and students of this 

department, the ultimate beneficiaries of this work, have been instrumental for shaping 

this guide. Through watching what aspects of technical communication they find most 

challenging and listening to their suggestions, I have attempted to mold this guide to suit 

their needs. Finally, I must thank the College administration, which has been generous 

with summer grants and stipends to fund this effort. 

John C. Leylegian 

June 2013 


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Preface to the Fall 2013 Edition 

This manual can improve your career. 

This sounds like a far-fetched claim, doesn’t it? Don’t dismiss it outright. 

When I first read this manual, it was a guide for the correct format for reports to be 

written by the students of the Mechanical Engineering Department at Manhattan College. 

However, after reading my first batch of reports while teaching the Thermal-Fluids 

Laboratory, I realized that knowing the correct format for a report means precious little if 

a student doesn’t know what constitutes good technical writing. 

My path as an engineer has taken me through many different environments in many 

different institutions since I began my undergraduate engineering studies. My motivation 

for the “reboot” of the Green Book was to take the experiences I have had when it comes 

to some of the “soft skills” in engineering, particularly communication, and present them 

in a manner which could benefit you by improving your own communication skills 

The first edition of this new Green Book was released for the Fall 2011 semester, and 

thanks to the useful feedback from the faculty and students of this department, I have 

fine-tuned this guide, adding more new material wherever possible without obscuring the 

main idea of the guide: that a good, organized story is all you need to be able to 

communicate your ideas to your peers, managers, customers, the public, or anyone else 

who is counting on those ideas. 

The Fall 2013 Edition features new sections on email communications and voicemails. 

Based on my own experiences, as well as comments made by recent graduates, it is my 

belief that information like this would be useful, and my hope is that students will agree. 

So back to my grandiose claim. Why do I think that this pdf can improve your career? 

When I listen to the Consultors Committee at their semi-annual meetings, I rarely hear 

them say, “I wish students here got more Heat Transfer,” or “Why don’t your graduates 

know the difference between Pappas’ Theorem and Stokes’ Theorem?” What I do hear 

them say is, “New hires need to work on their writing skills,” or “Our newest engineers 

have to work on their presentation skills.” Just like any other skill, communication takes 

time and practice to cultivate. If you work on it before you finish your studies, you will 

have an advantage when looking for a job. If you continue to work on it after you leave 

here, you will have an advantage as you try to advance your career. 

Take this guide, read it, apply the lessons it provides, and give feedback on it. It will 

be worth it. 


June 2013 


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Preface to the Fall 2011 Edition 

In my two decades in the engineering field, I have learned that there is an “engineer’s 

myth.” This myth is that engineers are these people who sit in cubicles day in and day 

out, and don’t do much beyond crunching numbers, writing code, and running 

experiments. I quickly learned (even before I completed my bachelor’s degree) that a 

huge part of an engineer’s time is spent in communication. Whether it is in writing 

reports, assembling and delivering presentations, or even crafting proper e-mail 

correspondence, if an engineer is unable to communicate what he or she sees on the 

screen, in the experimental results, or on the scratch pad, those nuggets of wisdom will 

stay there. 

I must admit that this scared me a little bit. I never liked writing, and I hated getting in 

front of a group of people and speaking. However, I found that when I was writing and 

talking about stuff I liked, it wasn’t nearly as difficult. It became easier for me to do, but I 

still needed work. I got plenty of practice in graduate school, since writing and presenting 

are large parts of the graduate experience. It was there that my skills improved markedly, 

mostly because I was given the key to effective writing and speaking. 

When I started working in industry. I was routinely tasked to write reports, make 

presentations, and even proofread others’ work, in addition to my technical duties. I 

strongly believe that my ability to communicate, just as much as my technical prowess, 

was instrumental to not only my advancement, but also to my ability to take on side 

work, and to finally make the transition back to academia. 

If all of this doesn’t convince you of the importance of good communication skills, let 

me tell you the story of Dr. John Houbolt. Dr. Houbolt was an aerospace engineer 

working for NASA back in the early days of manned space exploration. He was an expert 

in rendezvous, the maneuvering of two spacecraft such that they arrive in the same orbit 

and within visual contact. He led committees exploring and studying the different types 

of rendezvous, specifically applied to its usefulness in a manned lunar mission. He and 

his colleagues determined that Lunar Orbit Rendezvous, or LOR (the meeting of two 

spacecraft in lunar orbit) would decrease the required liftoff weight of a lunar mission by 

roughly 50 percent. 

What did Houbolt do? He talked about his discovery, to anyone who would listen. He 

gave several briefings to engineers at NASA and the U. S. Air Force. However, there was 

significant resistance. In addition to the skepticism surrounding the weight savings, 

rendezvous was an issue. While rendezvous in space is something we take for granted 

today, in 1960 it had never been done. In fact, the United States had not even launched a 

human into space yet! If rendezvous in lunar orbit failed, astronauts could be stranded. 

Unfortunately, the skeptics were not even going to check the calculations and see if the 

concept had any merit. It looked like there was enough prejudice against LOR that it 

would be dismissed outright. 

Houbolt was determined to let LOR get a fair shake, and he knew that to do it he 

would have to share the idea with the NASA leadership. In two letters written to the 

NASA Associate Administrator and a two-volume technical report, Houbolt thoroughly 

explained the concept and how it would be able to meet the deadline set by President 


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Kennedy (they had less than a decade to land a man on the moon). It was risky – Houbolt 

knew that going over as many heads as he did could cost him his job. It did pay off 

though, and LOR was given a chance to compete against other types of lunar missions. 

With further presentations and reports, LOR was chosen as the model for the Project 

Apollo missions. 

In the end, it didn’t matter that LOR was the best way to get men to the moon. It did 

matter that the main champion of the concept was able to communicate the idea to the 

right people in order for it to be considered, even in the face of seemingly impossible 

opposition. I hope that this story illustrates the value of good communication skills to all 

of you. 


August 2011 


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Introduction 

Written and oral communication skills are very important in our society. In particular, 

an engineer is frequently called upon to explain his or her work to an audience. The 

audience may be wide-ranging, such as radio or television, a room full of people, or just 

the boss. The ability to write and speak well in these situations often accounts for who 

advances in an organization. Professional presentation needs to be developed in addition 

to proper grammar and fluency of style. Development of professional presentation ability 

is the purpose of this manual. 

In the undergraduate curriculum, instructors regularly require written or oral reports in 

a style that is more formal than the typical homework assignments, tests and class 

participation format. This manual serves as a guide for the preparation of such reports in 

courses offered by the Mechanical Engineering Department. Previous versions of report 

writing manuals were developed for the types of reports and presentations a student may 

be expected to deliver in a given class. However, one important item has been left out: 

how does one write or speak in the proper manner for technical reports and presentations? 

Therefore, this manual not only addresses the proper structure for reports and 

presentations, but also how to write and speak properly. 

Your instructor will expect you to follow the format indicated for reports in all courses 

that require report writing and presentation unless he or she indicates otherwise. Keep 

this manual for reference throughout your undergraduate program, but note that this 

manual is a work in progress (as it should be). Any input, comments or suggestions are 

always welcome. Remember that this manual is to serve you, the student, to introduce 

you to proper technical communication. 

When you commence your working career, pay close attention to the format expected 

of you in a new environment. Know what is expected of you, but hopefully the lessons 

learned here will give you an edge. 


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What Makes Technical Writing Different? 

No doubt, by this time you have written many papers, essays and reports for different 

teachers and professors, both in high school and college. However, this is technical 

writing, and technical writing is a VERY different undertaking than what you have 

probably done to date. The main difference between what you have done in the past and 

good technical writing is that you must be clear, concise, and complete in your reports. 

In industry you will often be called upon to give written and oral reports. Employers 

of engineering graduates around the country fault graduates not for their technical 

knowledge, but for their poor communication skills. If you opt for graduate school and a 

possible career in academia, you will definitely need to know how to write and how to 

speak. Reports, theses, papers, articles, lectures, talks at conferences… you’ll need to do 

them all not to mention a thesis or dissertation and the associated defense. 

There are very important reasons for this style, which no doubt runs counter to what 

you have done in the past. The first reason is that the audience for technical reports is 

very different. In a literature class, for example, the professor is the only one reading your 

paper, and he or she will most likely read it from cover to cover, poring over every word. 

In an engineering firm, on the other hand, several people may be reading what you write, 

and most of them will not read the entire work. 1 Sometimes it is because they only need 

to read the parts most essential to their work. Sometimes it is because they just don’t have 

the time to read every page of every report they need to review. 2 In any event, the 

technical literature reader needs to identify the information most important to them as 

quickly as possible. They need to be able to understand the point you are trying to get 

across, without trying to interpret your data for themselves, they need to do so in 

language they can readily understand, and they need to find the information they need 

where they expect it to be in the report. Put simply; don’t make the reader work harder 

than necessary to get the story you’re trying to tell. An important item that should be 

given a serious consideration in any technical writing is the focus of the report. A 

technical report conveys a point or some points to readers, e.g., make conclusions for a 

lab result or present some analytical model. All arguments in the report should be related 

to the point(s) of the report. The author may go a little off track by discussing some 

related topic but must be careful not to discuss them to the extent that dominates the 

report. For example, if a report is written about results related to the cooling channel in an 

engine the author might write some general description of the engine but this description 

should not overwhelm the focus of the report, which is cooling channels. 

Now think about the textbooks you have read for your various science and engineering 

courses. Do you read them cover to cover, or do you pick and choose the passages you 

need to read? Are the best textbooks written in obscure, obtuse language, or are they 

written plainly and simply? Strive for that level of clarity in your writing. It’s not easy, 

and it takes time, but with effort it is possible. 


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How to Communicate Effectively 

Here are a few suggestions for writing. These tips will help your reports look 

professional, and make them easy to read and understand. 

Structure of an Effective Report 

You must always remember that the key to good technical writing is to tell a good, 

coherent story. The different sections of a report just provide a framework, so that a 

reader can get to the parts most important to him or her in a hurry. The organization of 

these sections grows out of the need to tell a story in order, not the other way around. 

Later on in this manual the details of different types of reports will be discussed. 

However, regardless of the type of report, the order of the story will not change. The 

body of the report (excluding abstract, table of contents, references and appendices – but 

more on those later) will follow this order: 2 

Introduce the Problem 

Your report will most likely address some engineering problem; it can be collection 

and analysis of some experimental data, or possibly the generation of a new design based 

on an objective subject to some constraints. In either event, describing the problem is the 

first thing that needs to be done. Depending on the type of report, you should be 

answering one or more of the following questions: 

Why are these data useful? 

What is your proposed design supposed to do? 

What have other researchers/engineers done in the past to try to solve this problem? 

Is there any underlying theory to better frame and describe the challenges of the 

problem? 

Describe Your Solution 

Now that the problem is framed, tell the reader how you solved it. If it is an 

experimental study, what apparatus did you use? What data did you collect? If it is an 

analytical study, what theory did you develop or utilize to describe the phenomenon? If it 

is a design project, explain the design you developed. 

Tell What You Learned 

This section is an interesting part of a report. Now that you have presented your 

experimental data, you can talk about what they mean. How do they relate to other 

studies performed in the past? Did you see anything unusual? What do you recommend 

for future work in this field? If it’s a design project, what would you have done 

differently based on what you know now? 

Don’t Let Your Story “Bleed” 

We’ve established the parts of a report. It is important that this order be respected. In 

other words, make sure that information that should be in one part of a report doesn’t 

“bleed” into another part. This will disrupt the flow of the story, and could lose the 

reader. In addition, if someone is looking for specific information, having it in the wrong 

part of the report, the reader might not find it. 


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Report Preparation 

All laboratory reports are to be produced using computer software, mainly word 

processors and drawing software – no handwriting or hand drawing is permitted. This 

shouldn’t be a problem, since everybody has a computer, or access to one. Write your 

reports as professional reports (not school exercises); pretend that the work was done to 

examine a specific phenomenon for a customer and write it accordingly. 

When writing any kind of report, unless a style sheet tells you otherwise, start each 

section on a new page, with a clear, e.g., bold, heading title. 

Layout, Grammar, and Usage 

When possible, use templates for ease of formatting. However, if a template is not 

provided, type single spaced, and use an easy-to-read font type and size. Commonly used 

fonts are Times New Roman (serif font) and Arial (sans serif font). Font sizes of 10-12 

points are most appropriate. Number all pages, except the title page. Pages before the 

body of the report (e.g. Abstract, Table of Contents) should be numbered using Roman 

numerals; all other pages should be numbered using Arabic numerals. 

Neatness and clarity, as well as the proper use of the English language, are essential. 

Reports should be correctly assembled before submittal, and the entire report should be 

identically formatted, even though different people may have written different parts. 

Correct spelling is important. Read aloud your report when completed. This may help 

you to correct a passage that is not as clear as it seemed when you wrote it. Do not use 

contractions in a technical report. They are fine in other, less formal documents (e.g. 

this guide). 

Making a Report “Read Well” 

Editing for style is something that some authors prefer to do towards the end of the 

writing process; others are constantly editing for style. Whichever way you prefer, 

remember that a large portion of where many students’ reports fall short is for style. Style 

is one of the things that make a report readable. Here are some things you can do to 

improve style: 1 

Avoid Unnecessary Words 

One of the most common issues seen in technical writing is the use of unnecessary 

words. It’s as if people think that more words automatically mean better technical 

writing! More often than not, the opposite is true. One way to remove unnecessary words 

is to avoid redundancies: 

• Change “the woman had a set of twins” to “the woman had twins.” 

• Change “the fuel-rich flame was green in color” to “the fuel-rich flame was green.” 

• Change “acids tend to be sour tasting” to “acids tend to be sour.” 

A second way is to avoid “inflated phrases.” For instance: 

• Change “the increase in current is due to the fact that the conductor was heated” to 

“the increase in current is because the conductor was heated.” 


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• Change “salt air has a corrosive effect on untreated metal” to “salt air corrodes 

metal.” 

The famous British author George Orwell (1903-1950) had two rules for writing: 

If it is possible to cut a word out, cut it out. 

Never use a long word when a short one will do. 

Granted, one can take this too far (cutting out so many words that the point you are trying 

to get across becomes obscured), but proofreading should catch this. Albert Einstein 

summed it up best: 

Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. 

Strive for clarity, conciseness and accuracy in your writing. 

Voice, Tense, and Use of First Person 

The difference between writing in the active and passive voice is whether the writer 

wishes to emphasize the agent or the object of a given action. In many cases, this means 

that the passive voice is preferred – in an experimental report, for instance, you want to 

emphasize what you did, not the fact that you did it. You should not slavishly adhere to 

this rule though. There are times when a passage is more difficult to read in the passive 

voice. At those times, write in the active voice. Remember, readability is paramount. 

Be sure to use appropriate verb tenses. In general, your text should flow 

chronologically. Remember that you are recounting what was done, not what you are 

doing or what you will do. Therefore, past tense will be used quite extensively. Only use 

the present and future tenses where absolutely required. 

Once you move from the past to the present, stay in the present unless there is a 

compelling reason to use the past tense. First person plural, i.e. “we”, is appropriate in 

many sentences – again, it’s all about making yourself understood. If writing in the first 

person, active voice is the most effective way to get your point across in a particular 

sentence, just go with it. 

Avoid the “Gotchas” 

One point that often gets glossed over is that when you write something, you must be 

prepared to back it up. There are two ways one can back up a statement. The first is by 

citing your own current work: “As seen in Fig. 3, the relationship between Seebeck 

voltage and temperature is linear.” The second is by citing previous work in the field: “In 

Reference 4, dimensional analysis was used to prove that friction factor is a function of 

Reynolds number and relative roughness.” 

Numbers, Calculations, Units, and Equations 

Numbers one through ten are expressed as words; other numbers are expressed as 

numbers. 

Unless your professor tells you otherwise, a good rule of thumb for the number of 

significant figures is the following: Experimental uncertainties should be rounded to one 

significant figure, unless the leading digit in the uncertainty is a 1. In that case the 

uncertainty should be rounded to two significant figures. Then, the last significant figure 


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in a stated value should be of the same order of magnitude as the uncertainty. Even when 

your results have no stated uncertainties, remember that the number of significant figures 

you use is indicative of the uncertainty you expect. In other words, if you state a 

temperature of 100.002°C, you are suggesting that your error is on the order of 0.001°C, 

whether you realize it or not! 3 

Create all equations using an equation editor. Using the Equation button on the Insert 

tab of Microsoft Word (versions 2007 and later) can sometimes result in equations that 

are “compressed” so that symbols which should be the same size are not always done so. 

Here’s an example of an equation created using this tool: 

 

 

(3) 

Note that the symbols in the fraction are smaller than the other symbols in the equation. 

Look at your textbooks – are the equations in these books laid out that way? An easy way 

to get better-looking equations is to use the Object button (it’s just to the left of the 

Equation button on the Insert ribbon). On the pop-up window, select “Microsoft Equation 

3.0” and create your equation using the pull-down menus. Here is the same equation 

created using Microsoft Equation. Note the difference. 

 

x 

 

y 

2 

 

max 

 

xy 

2 

 

(3) 

 

Equations are typically centered on a line. If you are going to refer to back to 

equations you have already provided, these equations should be numbered. Number the 

equations with a number in parentheses to the right of the equation. Equations should be 

numbered in the order in which they appear. Equation numbers should be right-justified 

on the line, as was done in the two examples above. To achieve this effect, you can set up 

a style in Microsoft Word with a center tab stop at the center of the line, and a rightjustified 

tab stop at the right margin. When you refer to equations in the text, they should 

be mentioned by number, e.g., “In Equation (1) we see…”, or “Equations (3)-(5) outline 

the iterative method to determine temperature.” However, sample calculations and 

uncertainty analyses can be done using a mathematical program, such as Mathcad. 

Make sure you format numbers and equations properly, even when they are in the 

body of the text. That means never use the format 46E-4; this should be 46×10 -4 . (Why 

not?) Also, never use the format x^2; this should be x 2 . Formatting of superscripts and 

subscripts, adding italics, etc., in text is relatively easy to do, and finding special 

characters (including Greek letters) is also straightforward. If you don’t know how to do 

it, ask someone. Here are some basic tips for proper formatting of mathematical 

expressions so that your work looks professional: 

Scalar variables indicated by upper and lowercase Latin characters (A, B, C, x, y, z) 

should be italicized. 

Scalar variables indicated by lower case Greek characters (α, β, γ, δ, ε, ω) should be 

italicized. Upper case Greek characters (Δ, Θ, Π, Σ, Φ) are not italicized. 

2 


Page 6


 

 

 

Vectors should either be indicated with an arrow ( x ), or should be bold type without 

italics (x). 

Multiplication of scalar variables should be written as ab, not ab, a·b, or a*b. 

Exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions (exp, ln, sin) should not be 

italicized. 

Make sure there is sufficient space before and after the equation, so it doesn’t look 

crowded. 

It is interesting to note that some of these rules have changed over time, and will 

probably continue to do so. For instance, common dimensionless groups such as 

Reynolds number (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), etc. were never italicized, just like 

functions. However, it has become common to italicize these abbreviations as well. 

All numbers should have appropriate units (unless the number is dimensionless, e.g. 

Reynolds Number – by the way, note the lack of apostrophe on “Reynolds”). Do not mix 

units in a report: select either SI or British units, or provide the secondary unit type in 

parentheses (e.g. 1 in (25.4 mm)). Write units in short hand (e.g. “ft” not “feet”) 

Figures and Tables 

If you provide a figure or table, it MUST be cited in the text. All figures and tables 

need captions. Captions should include numbers, e.g., Figure 1, Table 1, etc. These 

numbers should be in the order in which they are cited in the text. Figure captions are 

below the figures, not above. Table captions, however must be placed above the table. 

Figure and table captions should be descriptive, e.g.: 

Figure 3: Comparison of experimental and theoretical friction factors as a function 

of Reynolds Number. 

Note that you may use the cross-reference capability that is available in most word 

processing software. This feature is useful in case a new figure, table, equation or 

reference is added. The numbers will automatically shift and no manual numbering is 

needed. 

There will be more information about developing effective graphs later in this manual. 

Proofreading: You Still Need To Do It! 

How does a group make sure that all parts are correctly formatted, and that proper use 

is assured? By proofreading! Some people think that in the age of spellcheckers that 

proofreading is no longer necessary. Spellcheckers will identify words that are not in the 

dictionary, not misspelled words. A spellchecker will not be able to tell you when to use 

“they’re,” “there,” or “their.” A spellchecker probably doesn’t know the difference 

between “it’s” and “its” (do you?). Proofreading will not only spot misspelled words, it 

can also correct organizational problems, find unnecessary words, and all of the other 

pitfalls identified above. 

If you are writing a report as part of a group, proofreading will help spot mistakes 

more easily. Getting a fresh set of eyes on the portions of the report you didn’t write can 

help detect mistakes that you aren’t able to see. 


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Proofreading only takes a few minutes, and the payoff is well worth the investment of 

time. 

Organization and Archival 

If you are working on a long-term (one or two semester long) design project, you will 

most likely be publishing several documents regarding the same project; for example, a 

proposal at the outset, periodic progress reports, and culminating with a final report. 

Some of the narrative of earlier reports should be useful in subsequent reports. Therefore, 

be sure to save your reports on for later use. There are now several different options, 

including flash drives, Manhattan College’s remote drive (the “Home Server”), Google 

Docs, Dropbox, and the list goes on. They all have their advantages and disadvantages. If 

you have done a good job on your proposal, the task of writing your progress reports will 

be easier. Likewise good proposals and progress reports lessen the anguish of writing the 

final report, the major written requirement for such a project. 

There are two other very good reasons for organizing and archiving your reports. First, 

saving copies of your reports can provide a good source of information for prospective 

employers. As was stated above, employers want engineers who can communicate. What 

better way to prove this than showing examples of your work? Second, once you get into 

industry, it is very possible that some work you have done will be put on hold for an 

indeterminate length of time – it can be anywhere from weeks to years. If you properly 

document the work you have done via reports, memoranda, etc., and archive those 

reports, you will be able to pick up where you left off more easily than if you have to 

piece material together from memory and sparse notes. 


Page 8


Presentation of Graphical and Tabulated Data 

A report or presentation will typically have several figures and/or tables. Figures and 

tables are invaluable, because they can convey information or ideas in a compact, easyto-understand 

manner. Figures include all photographs, drawings, and graphs. Tables are 

data presented in a row/column format. 

Placement 

Figures and tables are best placed at the top or bottom of a page. Floating text boxes or 

frames in Microsoft Word work well when you want to fix figures or tables in these 

positions while avoiding unnecessary white space on pages. Be sure to keep sufficient 

space (the equivalent of a single line) between the end of the text on a page and a figure 

or table. 

Captions 

All figures and tables must be numbered consecutively and referenced in the narrative 

by that number, i.e. no figure or table should appear without being discussed in the 

narrative. Figures and tables should have their own numerical sequences, i.e., if a report 

has five figures and two tables, the figures will be named “Figure 1” through “Figure 5,” 

and the tables will be named “Table 1” and “Table 2.” Captions should appear below a 

figure, but above a table. 

Captions should be descriptive. For example: “Figure 1. Design of conical-flowderived 

wave rider.” Remember that sometimes figures will be taken out of context, and 

writing a descriptive caption will help to insure that the figure is not misused. Part of a 

descriptive caption includes describing the symbols/lines used in a graph; sometimes the 

legend is insufficient to give all of the information clearly, and the caption can be used to 

clarify things. Captions are not necessary for figures or tables in presentations, since 

you’re talking about the figures or tables and can describe them fully. 

The caption should be in the same font as the rest of the text, but bold or italicized (or 

both) so it stands out from the rest of the text. Captions can be inserted using the Insert 

Caption button found in the References ribbon of Microsoft Word. Using this feature 

allows you to reference the figures in your text using the Cross-Reference feature, and 

automatically updates all figure and table numbers if you insert new figures and/or tables 

in a document. 

Photographs 

Include photographs whenever possible and appropriate. For instance, if you are 

documenting an experimental study, photograph the experimental apparatus. If it is a 

design study, provide photographs of the finished product (if the design was fabricated). 

For clarity, include objects such as rulers or common objects, or people in the photograph 

to provide a sense of scale. Photographs of individuals require their approval. Similarly, 

secure permission to use photographs that are the property of someone else, or at the very 

least cite the source for such images. 


Page 9


COMBUSTION-FIRED 

AIR HEATER 

TEST CABIN 

6 FT. DIA. 

GASL, INC. 

BLOWDOWN LABORATORY 

Figure 1: Sample photograph using text boxes to identify important items. 

Items in the photograph referenced in the text can be identified using text boxes, as 

shown in Figure 1. Remember, the objective is clarity, so anything you can do to explain 

things more clearly is useful. 

Drawings 

Drawings should be computer-generated; they should not be hand drawn. Otherwise, 

use the same guidelines for photographs. An example of a drawing is shown in Figure 2. 

Graphs 

There are several different types of graphs: the most common used in engineering are 

bar, pie, scatter, surface, and contour. Each is used to handle different types of data. To 

understand which types of data belong in different types of graphs, we shall review the 

different types of data: 4 

Types Of Data 

Nominal data are differentiated using some naming system. This naming system could 

be anything; e.g., color, country of origin, fabrication technique, pay grade, etc. The 

naming system could be numerical, but the numbers would not necessarily imply levels 

Figure 2: Sample line drawing. 


Page 10


of importance or any other quantitative property. 

Ordinal Data are placed in some order based on a scale. In general, the scale does not 

allow for any arithmetical operations, but relative relations can be drawn from the scale. 

An example of ordinal data would be finishing processes for a piece of metal, e.g., sawn, 

filed, milled, ground. These processes can be classified, (a sawn surface will be much 

rougher than a ground surface), but arithmetic operations could not be performed. 

Interval Data are measured along an integer scale, i.e., the classifications on the scale 

are equidistant. Certain mathematical operations (addition and subtraction) can be 

performed on these data. 

Ratio Data or Scalable Data can be compared as ratios of one another. Most physical 

measurements fall into this category, e.g. mass, speed and time. 

Pie Graphs 

Pie graphs are most often used to compare nominal or ordinal data. The emphasis is on 

the contribution of each category to a whole; therefore, pie graphs are especially good to 

describe percentages or fractions. 5 For instance, a pie graph would be well-suited to 

display the contributions of different types of energy sources (wind, tidal, coal, oil, 

nuclear) utilized over a fixed time. A partially-exploded graph is sometimes used to focus 

on one of the categories. An example of a pie graph is shown in Figure 3. 

Bar Graphs 

Bar graphs, like pie graphs, are most often used to compare nominal or ordinal data, 

although they are occasionally used to present interval or ratio data. In the latter cases the 

graph is often referred to as a histogram. Bar graphs are often used to plot the frequency 

of a certain type of data; for instance, the number of students receiving various letter 

grades in a course. Bar graphs are more versatile than pie graphs in that several sets of 

data can be compared easily side by side, e.g., the differences in the distribution of grades 

5, 2% 

45, 22% 

85, 42% 

70, 34% 

Gas 

Coal 

Oil 

Trash 

Figure 3: Usage of various energy sources. 


Page 11


for same class taught in different semesters, or the distribution of material hardness from 

samples treated at different facilities. Bar graphs are therefore well suited for drawing 

comparisons. 5 A sample bar graph showing comparisons of different data is shown in 

Figure 4. 

Scatter Plots 

Scatter plots are created by using the abscissa (horizontal axis) to represent an 

independent variable, and the ordinate (vertical axis) as the dependent variable. Each 

datum is then assigned a location on the plot based in the values for the independent and 

dependent variables. This type of plot is probably the most common type found in the 

reports you will be writing. There are some rules you should follow to make sure these 

graphs present the data well. 

First, depending on the range and behavior of the data, you should choose the most 

appropriate way to present your graphs, e.g. linear or logarithmic axes. If you are not 

sure, try them and see which types of scales show the important features of the data best. 

Sometimes, if the range of data covers multiple orders of magnitudes, a logarithmic axis 

may be preferable. If more than one manner is acceptable, keep it as simple as possible. 

In other words, if you can get your point across using either a linear or a logarithmic axis, 

use the linear axis. 

Second, if you are plotting experimental data, you should plot your data as individual 

points. Do NOT connect your data with lines, a spline, or a curve fit; unless there is a 

reason to do so, e.g. a trend is to be drawn between the data. In addition, experimental 

data should have error bars, corresponding to experimental uncertainties. These 

uncertainties should be generated through accepted techniques. Ask your instructor if 

he/she has not shown you how to do so. On the other hand, if theoretical data are to be 

included on a graph for comparison, no points should be shown. Rather, connect the 

points with a smooth curve (NOT a curve fit) and remove the points themselves. An 

300 

Air Auto Train 

250 

People-Miles (Million)) 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1940's '50's '60's '70's '80's '90's 

Figure 4: People-miles traveled by various means of transportation from 1940’s 

through 1990’s. 


Page 12


Dimensionless Temperature 

1.0 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

Rectangle 

Sphere 

Cylinder 

Theoretical Rectangle 

Theoretical Sphere 

Theoretical Cylinder 

0.0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

Fourier Number 

Figure 5: Sample scatter plot showing multiple sets of experimental data (points) 

with error bars, and theoretical data (curves) utilizing different line styles. 

example of this can be seen in Figure 5. In this graph the dimensionless temperatures in 

different hot objects are plotted as a function of Fourier Number (a dimensionless form of 

time). The symbols represent measured quantities, while the curves are theoretical 

predictions based on the equations of heat transfer relevant to the particular problem. 

In some cases theoretical data are developed from some experimental inputs. For 

example, the drag on a body is based on the projected area, which is a measured quantity. 

In that case, the theoretical data should consist of two curves: a lower bound and an upper 

bound based upon the uncertainty in the theoretical value. 

Third, when several sets of data are presented on the same set of axes, a legend 

describing each set should be included. Each set of data points should be distinguished by 

dissimilar symbols on the graph (e.g. squares, diamonds, and so on). If two different 

dependent variables are to be shown, it may make sense to show them on different 

vertical axes (left and right side), like Figure 6. 

Note that the precision of the axes is important for readability. All labels on a given 

axis should have the same precision (same number of decimal places), and this should be 

the minimum necessary to accurately represent all of the labels on that axis. 

Surface and Contour Plots 

Surface and contour plots are useful to show when a dependent variable is a function 

of more than one independent variable. Both plots show a single dependent variable in 

terms of two independent variables. The contour plot shows an X-Y plane, with the 

dependent variable represented by different colors on that plane. A surface plot, on the 

other hand, is a three-dimensional rendering, with the dependent variable represented as a 


Page 13


700 

600 

500 

Power 

Efficiency 

80 

70 

60 

Power (kW) 

400 

300 

50 

40 

30 

Efficiency (%) 

200 

20 

100 

10 

0 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

Engine Speed (1000 rpm) 

Figure 6: Scatter plots showing two sets of experimental data on different axes. 

projecting in the third (Z) dimension. Examples of these plots are shown in Figure 7 and 

Figure 8. 

It should be mentioned that while a program like Excel is capable of generating these 

5 

4 

3 

y 

2 

1 

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 

x 

z 

0.8-1 

0.6-0.8 

0.4-0.6 

0.2-0.4 

0-0.2 

-0.2-0 

-0.4--0.2 

-0.6--0.4 

-0.8--0.6 

-1--0.8 

Figure 7: Sample contour plot of the function f(x, y) = sin (xy/2). 


Page 14


1.0 

0.8 

z 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0.0 

-0.2 

-0.4 

-0.6 

-0.8 

3 

5 

4 

0.8-1 

0.6-0.8 

0.4-0.6 

0.2-0.4 

0-0.2 

-0.2-0 

-0.4--0.2 

-0.6--0.4 

-0.8--0.6 

-1--0.8 

-1.0 

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 1 

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0 

2 

y 

Figure 8: Sample surface plot of the function from Figure 7. 

x 

types of plots, it is not ideal. Dedicated graphing packages, such as SigmaPlot and 

Tecplot, are much better equipped to produce quality contour and surface plots. 

Tables 

Tables should be formatted and planned as carefully as plots – using a table as a “data 

dump” is not advisable, unless the purpose is to document raw data in an appendix of a 

report. The first column of a table is most typically an independent variable, or a list of 

categories. The first row is typically “headings,” or a list of variables. Headings and 

categories are often centered (horizontally and vertically) in their respective cells. 

The format for the data in the table can be a matter of personal taste. Some prefer the 

data to be centered, while others prefer numbers to be right justified, and others may want 

Table 1: Temperature versus time data collected at the center of a brass 

rectangular prism submerged in a water bath. 

Time (s) Temperature (°C) 

0.00.2 301 

10.00.2 351 

20.00.2 411 

30.00.2 451 

40.00.2 471 

50.00.2 501 

60.00.2 521 

70.00.2 521 

80.00.2 521 

90.00.2 521 


Page 15


the data in a single column to have decimal points aligned. Check with the person who is 

evaluating your reports for their thoughts, but above all, clarity is key. A relatively simple 

table with caption is shown in Table 1. 

Avoid using heavy shading in tables whenever possible. While using multiple colors 

may look good on the screen, they might not look as nice (or be as easy to read) when 

printed in black and white. Reproducibility may also be an issue; if you print out a colorshaded 

table, and make a black and white photocopy, you might be left with a completely 

unreadable graph or table. 


Page 16


Guidelines for References 

When writing a report, article, or other technical document, often you will call upon 

work done by other groups, or work you have already published in another document. 

Whenever you are presenting work that is neither new nor original to the authors of the 

document, it MUST be referenced. Note the bold, italic, underlined word in all capital 

letters. What is the reason for the embellishment? If you present work as your own which 

is not yours, you have plagiarized. A new set of rules for dealing with plagiarism has just 

been established across the College, but regardless of the penalty imposed here, 

plagiarism is not tolerated in either industrial or scholarly circles. It is theft, pure and 

simple. Please consult the Student Handbook for the details on the policy. 

The rules are simple: if something you write or present is not your own idea, or your 

own data, or your own analysis, it must be referenced, unless it is “common knowledge.” 

Since the definition of what is common knowledge can be nebulous at times, it is best to 

play it safe and provide a reference. 

Whenever possible, go to the original reference. For example, if you are researching 

something out of a book, but the passage of interest to you was cited from a journal 

article, it is better to acquire the article and reference it in your work. 

Many different formats exist for referencing, and no particular format is superior, but 

certain types of reference formats are more likely to be used in technical literature. In this 

department we will use a particular format for references. There is no excuse for using an 

improper format for references; in fact, publishers will send manuscripts back to authors 

for improper referencing practices – it has happened. The format adopted is that of the 

American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), with some minor 

modifications. Their guidelines can be found online at the AIAA ScholarOne 

Manuscripts Portal. 6 

Referencing of Works in a Document 

When you want to reference an outside work, it will be done using a superscripted 

number, thusly. 1 The superscript is placed after punctuation, e.g., a period, comma, 

semicolon, etc. References are numbered in the order in which they are cited, i.e., the first 

reference cited is 1, the second is 2, and so on. If two works are referenced for the same 

sentence, they should be separated with a comma. 3,4 If three or more sequential works are 

referenced, it should be done in this manner. 5-7 An easy way to insert references in a 

document is to use the Insert Endnote feature in the References ribbon of Microsoft 

Word. You will need to make sure the references are numbers, rather than letters or 

symbols, and you will need to make sure the references appear in the right location of the 

report. A little practice will teach you how to accomplish this. 

If a figure or table contains outside work, the reference is placed in the figure or table 

caption. 

Formats for References 

Here are the formats for the references, with examples of each: 


Page 17


Periodicals 

1 

Vatistas, G. H., Lin, S., and Kwok, C. K., “Reverse Flow Radius in Vortex 

Chambers,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 24, No. 11, 1986, pp. 1872, 1873. 

doi: 10.2514/3.13046 

2 

Dornheim, M. A., “Planetary Flight Surge Faces Budget Realities,” Aviation Week and 

Space Technology, Vol. 145, No. 24, 9 Dec. 1996, pp. 44–46. 

3 

Terster, W., “NASA Considers Switch to Delta 2,” Space News, Vol. 8, No. 2, 13–19 

Jan. 1997, pp. 1, 18. 

All of the preceding information is required. The journal issue number (“No. 11” in 

Ref. 1) is preferred, but the month (Nov.) can be substituted if the issue number is not 

available. Use the complete date for daily and weekly publications. Transactions follow 

the same style as other journals. The DOI (Digital Object Identifier) should be 

incorporated in every reference for which it is available (see Ref. 1 sample); for more 

information on DOIs, visit www.doi.org or www.crossref.org. 

Books 

4 

Peyret, R., and Taylor, T. D., Computational Methods in Fluid Flow, 2 nd ed., Springer- 

Verlag, New York, 1983, Chaps. 7, 14. 

5 

Oates, G. C. (ed.), Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion, 

AIAA Education Series, AIAA, New York, 1984, pp. 19, 136. 

6 

Volpe, R., “Techniques for Collision Prevention, Impact Stability, and Force Control 

by Space Manipulators,” Teleoperation and Robotics in Space, edited by S. B. Skaar 

and C. F. Ruoff, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, AIAA, Washington, DC, 

1994, pp. 175–212. 

Publisher, place, and date of publication are required for all books. No state or country 

is required for major cities: New York, London, Moscow, etc. A differentiation must 

always be made between Cambridge, MA, and Cambridge, England, UK. Note that series 

titles are in Roman type (not italicized). 

Proceedings 

7 

Thompson, C. M., “Spacecraft Thermal Control, Design, and Operation,” AIAA 

Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference, CP849, Vol. 1, AIAA, Washington, 

DC, 1989, pp. 103–115 

8 

Chi, Y. (ed.), Fluid Mechanics Proceedings, NASA SP-255, 1993. 

9 

Morris, J. D., “Convective Heat Transfer in Radially Rotating Ducts,” Proceedings of 

the Annual Heat Transfer Conference, edited by B. Corbell, Vol. 1, Inst. of 

Mechanical Engineering, New York, 1992, pp. 227–234. 

Reports, Theses, and Individual Papers 

10 Chapman, G. T., and Tobak, M., “Nonlinear Problems in Flight Dynamics,” NASA 

TM-85940, 1984. 

11 Steger, J. L., Jr., Nietubicz, C. J., and Heavey, J. E., “A General Curvilinear Grid 

Generation Program for Projectile Configurations,” U.S. Army Ballistic Research 

Lab., Rept. ARBRL-MR03142, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, Oct. 1981. 

12 Tseng, K., “Nonlinear Green’s Function Method for Transonic Potential Flow,” Ph.D. 

Dissertation, Aeronautics and Astronautics Dept., Boston Univ., Cambridge, MA, 

1983. 


Page 18


Government agency reports do not require locations. For reports such as NASA TM- 

85940, neither insert nor delete dashes; leave them as provided. Place of publication 

should be given, although it is not mandatory, for military and company reports. Always 

include a city and state for universities. Papers need only the name of the sponsor; neither 

the sponsor’s location nor the conference name and location is required. Do not confuse 

proceedings references with conference papers. 

Electronic Publications and Web Pages 

CD-ROM publications and regularly issued, dated electronic journals are permitted as 

references. Archived data sets also may be referenced as long as the material is openly 

accessible and the repository is committed to archiving the data indefinitely. References 

to electronic data available only from personal Web sites or commercial, academic, or 

government ones where there is no commitment to archiving the data are not permitted in 

the reference list. 

13 

Richard, J. C., and Fralick, G. C., “Use of Drag Probe in Supersonic Flow,” AIAA 

Meeting Papers on Disc [CD-ROM], Vol. 1, No. 2, AIAA, Reston, VA, 1996. 

14 

Atkins, C. P., and Scantelbury, J. D., “The Activity Coefficient of Sodium Chloride 

in a Simulated Pore Solution Environment,” Journal of Corrosion Science and 

Engineering [online journal], Vol. 1, No. 1, Paper 2, URL: 

http://www.cp/umist.ac.uk/JCSE/vol1/vol1.html [cited 13 April 1998]. 

15 

Vickers, A., “10-110 mm/hr Hypodermic Gravity Design A,” Rainfall Simulation 

Database [online database], URL: http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/bgrg/lab.htm [cited 15 

March 1998]. 

Always include the citation date for online references. Break Web site addresses after 

punctuation, and do not hyphenate at line breaks. 

NEVER CITE WIKIPEDIA FOR ANYTHING. EVER. FOR ANYTHING AT ALL. 

Wikipedia, like old book-form encyclopedias, are a starting point for research. Look into 

the references cited in the articles in Wikipedia, then cite them yourself. 

Computer Software 

16 

TAPP, Thermochemical and Physical Properties, Software Package, Ver. 1.0, E. S. 

Microware, Hamilton, OH, 1992. 

Include a version number and the company name and location of software packages. 

Patents 

Patents appear infrequently. Be sure to include the patent number and date. 

17 

Scherrer, R., Overholster, D., and Watson, K., Lockheed Corp., Burbank, CA, U.S. 

Patent Application for a “Vehicle,” Docket No. P-01-1532, filed 11 Feb. 1979. 

18 

Girlea, F. and Leylegian, J. C., “Apparatus, Systems, Methods for the Production of 

Hydrogen,” U. S. Patent 8,263,027, filed 12 Aug. 2009, granted 11 Sep. 2012. 

Private Communications 

If you receive information directly from a person, which cannot be referenced in an 

article, book, or paper, it is a private communication, whether it is in-person, over the 

telephone, or via email. 

19 

Pritchard, P. J., Private communication, 12 November 2012. 


Page 19


Provide the name of the source and the date(s) over which the communication 

occurred. 

Unpublished Papers and Books 

Unpublished works can be used as references as long as they are being considered for 

publication or can be located by the reader (such as papers that are part of an archival 

collection). If a journal paper or a book is being considered for publication, choose the 

format that reflects the status of the work (depending upon whether it has been accepted 

for publication): 

20 

Doe, J., “Title of Paper,” Name of Journal (to be published). 

21 

Doe, J., “Title of Chapter,” Name of Book, edited by…, Publisher’s name and 

location (to be published). 

22 

Doe, J., “Title of Work,” Name of Archive, Univ. (or organization), City, State, Year 

(unpublished). 

Unpublished works in an archive must include the name of the archive and the name 

and location of the university or other organization where the archive is held. Also 

include any cataloging information that may be provided. 


Page 20


Laboratory and Technical Reports 

Now that we have described how a report should flow, and have discussed effective 

means of communication through graphics, we will get into the actual organization of 

technical documents. There are two main types of technical documents covered in this 

manual. The first are laboratory reports and technical reports. These reports document 

experimental or analytical studies. The sections of these reports are outlined here, with 

the similarities, as well as the differences pointed out. 

Remember, as stated in the Introduction, if an instructor provides alternate guidelines 

on the format of a report, those alternate guidelines supersede the format here. 

Cover Page 

All reports must have a cover page that contains: 

Course and section number. 

Group number (if the work is being performed by a group). 

Name(s) of the student(s) in the group. 

Title. 

Instructor’s name. 

Date experiment performed (if this is a laboratory report). 

Date report handed in. 

A sample cover page is shown in Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets, and an 

electronic version in Word format is available for your use. 

A few words about titles: when someone is reviewing a list of reports or articles for 

documents which need to be read, he or she will start with a list of titles. Make your title 

as descriptive as possible, in order to make sure that the widest audience possible reads 

your report. For instance, “Aerodynamic Characteristics of Two Waverider-Derived 

Hypersonic Cruise Configurations” is a far superior title to “Aerodynamics of High 

Speed Aircraft.” 

Abstract 

Give a brief (only about one paragraph), clear indication of what is in the report along 

with the primary results or final design characteristics. It should state, in simple 

declarative sentences what was attempted and accomplished, how it was accomplished 

only if special techniques were utilized, and what was achieved. That is, it should contain 

the main results and the main conclusions based on the results. Since the abstract is a 

summary of the entire report, you should write your abstract after you have completed all 

other parts of the report. 

The abstract should be written with the expectation that it will be printed separately 

from the report. In fact, technical journals often publish lists of abstracts so that readers 

can quickly determine what articles are of interest to them. Therefore, there should be no 

references to figures or tables in the report, works cited, etc. The abstract should be able 

to stand alone as a clear succinct summary of the work performed, and should allow a 

reader to decide if the work is of sufficient interest to warrant reading the full report. 

Here is an example of a well-written abstract, from the NASA Technical Paper 


Page 21


“Aerodynamic Characteristics of Two Waverider-Derived Hypersonic Cruise 

Configurations:” 7 

An evaluation was made of the effects of integrating the required aircraft 

components with hypersonic high-lift configurations known as waveriders to 

create hypersonic cruise vehicles. Previous studies suggest that waveriders offer 

advantages in aerodynamic performance and propulsion airframe integration 

(PAI) characteristics over conventional non-waverider hypersonic shapes. A 

wind-tunnel model was developed that integrates vehicle components, including 

canopies, engine components, and control surfaces, with two pure waverider 

shapes, both conical-flow-derived waveriders for a design Mach number of 4.0. 

Experimental data and limited computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solutions 

were obtained over a Mach number range of 1.6 to 4.63. The experimental data 

show the component build-up effects and the aerodynamic characteristics of the 

fully integrated configurations, including control surface effectiveness. The 

aerodynamic performance of the fully integrated configurations is not comparable 

to that of the pure waverider shapes, but is comparable to previously tested 

hypersonic vehicle models. Both configurations exhibit good lateral directional 

stability characteristics. 

Note the fact that not only does the abstract provide a description of what was done, it 

also give the reader some specifics on the range of parameters investigated and the results 

obtained. 


This is a list containing the section titles and the page numbers on which the sections 

begin. Microsoft Word has a built-in Table of Contents function, which will automatically 

generate and update your Table of Contents as you assemble your report. Ask your 

instructor about this if you do not know how to use this feature. 

Introduction and Analysis 

These two sections are sometimes written as one; if the information is in a single 

section, it is referred to simply as the “Introduction.” The Introduction is used to provide 

an overview of the problem, and the context within which the problem exists. It also 

gives the reader a background to the problem constraints, and required outcomes. It 

should familiarize and orient your readers. 5 

Introduction 

It is important to realize that the title of this section is totally descriptive of its role. It 

is to introduce the reader to the report in the same way that you would “introduce a friend 

to a third party.” The first element of information is the context of the work, which 

should be done in a way that is important to the reader. What are the origins of your 

interest in the work, and what is the motivation (purpose) for the investigation that has 

been executed? Be fair – don’t overstate or understate the importance of the work being 

done. 5 Given the motivation, the background information can next be developed for the 

reader. It is in this portion of the report that you will introduce material from texts, 

handbooks, journal articles, the laboratory handouts, and other available references. You 


Page 22


should not copy substantial sections of previously printed material (e.g. equations); these 

should be summarized with a reference. 

Following the motivation and background, the material to be found in the subsequent 

sections should be summarized. This will complete the introduction; the reader’s mind 

will be prepared for what is to follow. The Introduction can (and often should) have 

equations in it if they form part of the “background.” However, be careful not to include 

unnecessary background material, or to be repetitive. 

Note that if this is well done, then all subsequent statements can be fit into a rational 

understanding by the reader; if it is not well done, then the reader will expend creative 

energies trying to infer what is going on. Reading a report with a poor introduction is a 

frustrating experience. 

Analysis 

The Analysis will introduce the remaining basic equations (i.e., those not yet presented 

in the Introduction) and (more importantly) manipulate these into the form required to 

interpret and process the experimental data. In some cases, the Analysis Section will 

present the equivalent of a “result of the investigation” in that the analytical results will 

be separately significant in-and-of themselves. The questions of: “what to include and 

what to refer to from previously written materials,” sometimes lead to confusion. In 

general, one can answer this question by observing that the analysis must be conceptually 

complete…the major steps must be shown…but that lengthy and detailed considerations 

are best covered by a reference to their original source. Note that at the conclusion of the 

Analysis Section, the reader will be aware of what basic data are required, and what will 

be calculated from these data. 

Note that “data” is a plural noun; one measurement is a “datum.” Note also that the 

symbols must be clearly defined - it is usually appropriate to make use of defining figures 

– line drawings are usually the most appropriate in this instance (think of your 

textbooks!). All of the symbols to be used should appear in a Nomenclature list (see 

below), or described in the text if no Nomenclature list is included. 

As a general observation, the Introduction and the Analysis sections should be written 

from the perspective that they could have been written before the experiment was 

executed. That is, they will include everything that could have been thought of before the 

work was performed, even if some of it was not realized until the experiment was 

finished. 

The reader now has the information of why the experiment was performed and what 

data were desired. The reader is now ready to appreciate how the experiment was 

configured to provide the data and what procedures were followed to assure the 

correctness of the data. 

Experimental Apparatus and Procedure 

Sometimes this section is not necessary, particularly when the report is not 

documenting an experimental study. In that case, a separate Analysis section (see above) 

describes how you did what you did. 


Page 23


If you performed an experiment, this section should provide a schematic 

representation of the experimental equipment, including detailed views of unusual or 

important components. This information is usually a valuable aid in informing the reader 

about the experiment. The sketch can be used to document pertinent dimensions of the 

apparatus and it can be used to specify the experimental equipment used for the study. If 

the procedure used in the experiment is not an established one, it is necessary to include 

details of the techniques used. However, it should not be a simple protocol (a set of 

instructions). A method section should contain context (“In order to… we…”), and does 

not necessarily be in chronological order, but rather should be in the most logical order 

for the reader to follow. 5 The criterion here is that someone familiar with the general area 

of investigation should be able to reproduce your experiments from the information given 

in this section. 

A common question is whether or not to include equations in the Experimental 

sections, rather than the Intro/Analysis sections. A good rule of thumb is if the equations 

are theoretical in nature, they belong in the Introduction. If they relate to reduction of the 

experimental data based on something specific to your experimental setup, they are more 

appropriate in the Experimental section. 

Results and Discussion 

The next section can be a “Results” or a “Results and Discussion” section; if the 

former, a separate “Discussion” section would follow. The basis of selection between two 

options is the volume of the results to be presented-and/or-the complexity of transforming 

the primitive results into the final form. Experience is useful in making this decision and 

the stylistic tastes of the writer are important in the selection as well. If one-versus-two 

sections are used, then the comments below should be interpreted as applying to the 

combined section. 

Results 

This section is the location of all results of the experiment. The results should be 

introduced with appropriate prose; do not simply list a set of results such as P 1 = 3.5 in. 

of water, T 2 = 50° F, etc. For example: “Figure 3 presents the transient temperature 

distributions at different locations along the aluminum rod” or “Table 2 provides …” It is 

important to differentiate between primitive and processed results; that is, the reader 

should be aware of what was directly observed and what is inferred by calculations based 

upon equations in the Analysis section. It is essential that ALL presented figures or tables 

be referred to in the text, and have numbered, descriptive captions. The numbers must 

follow the sequence in which they are introduced to the reader. 

The results section should focus on presenting the data which answer the questions 

asked in the Introduction of the report. Irrelevant results (e.g. raw data) should not be 

presented here; rather, show them in an Appendix (see below). 5 

It is always appropriate to provide the reader with uncertainties. Their inclusion 

expands the information content beyond that provided by the base numbers themselves. 

At this point in the report, the reader has access to all of the essential and objective 

information that was available to the writer. Beyond this point, the writer has the 

opportunity to inform the reader of the fruits of her/his creative efforts. 


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Discussion 

The major task of this section is to interpret the results, to note what is “as expected”, 

what is unexpected, and what is of technical interest. The interpretation of the results in 

terms of the motivation for the experiment should obviously be focused upon. The 

discussion could contain a comparison with other similar investigations as established in 

the background or an explanation of discrepancies between theoretical and experimental 

values. The strong points of the work should be brought out here along with any 

limitations. If the writer does not point out the limitations of his/her work, someone else 

surely will later. It may also be appropriate to comment on possible future investigations 

or improving the experiment. When discussing the experimental results, do not use vague 

references to the accuracy of the measurements; note the estimated uncertainties and their 

effects on the calculated values. As mentioned above, all graphs and tables should be 

discussed and referred to by their corresponding figure and table numbers. 

An immensely frustrating aspect of critiquing student reports is to read a passage like: 

“It is not possible to form any conclusions from the study since the results are 

inaccurate.” On the contrary, it would be pleasant to read a quantitative interpretation of 

how the estimated uncertainly influences the extraction of the desired information from 

the available measurements. 

Conclusions 

In this section, present the appropriate conclusions which can be drawn from your 

work; relate your findings to the original objectives; point out special features of your 

work; mention limitations and discrepancies; and demonstrate how closely you have 

achieved the objectives. A useful style is to start with a reiteration of the objective of the 

study. Following this introductory sentence, the major conclusions can be presented in 

the form of simple declarative sentences. The conclusions will follow from the items 

developed in (an implied by) the material in the previous sections. 

No new information (results or interpretation thereof) should appear in this section, 

with the exception with recommendations for related future projects. It should serve 

primarily as a summary of the major points of the work. 

References 

In general a list of references used should be included in any report. Great care should 

be taken to follow the specified format of the organization for which the report is being 

written (for example a research center may have different guidelines than a for-profit 

business). In this project, all references used during the preparation of the report, or 

during the design process, should be listed in the format given in the section Guidelines 

for References. 

Microsoft Word has a built-in Endnote function, which will automatically number and 

re-number references. Ask your instructor about this if you do not know how to use this 

feature. 

Appendices 

Sample or lengthy calculations, or side issues that are peripheral to the main theme of 

the report should be placed in an appendix. This could include computer calculations, 


Page 25


sample calculations, extra graphs, extra tables, or extra figures. Appendices should be 

referred to in the text and should therefore be labeled and have a title (e.g. Appendix A: 

Motor Performance). 

A criterion for deciding whether or not to put something in an appendix is to ask the 

question “Does its inclusion in the main body of the report detract from the smooth flow 

of the presentation?” If the answer is affirmative, and if the material contributes to the 

information content of the report, then it should be presented as a separate unit. Each 

appendix should be lettered; Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Each appendix should be 

cited in the body of the report (if you don’t mention it, how does the reader know it’s 

there?), and the appendices should be ordered based on the order of their citation 

(Appendix A must be the first appendix cited in the report). 

Some of the most common items to be found in an Appendix are: 

Data Sheets 

The original data sheet must be submitted. This may be copied or reproduced for 

clarity, in which case the original should still be submitted. 

Sample Calculations 

This section should include examples of each type of calculation performed in the 

experiment. Typically, the first and last set of data in a run should be used for sample 

calculations. Each calculation should be identified by describing the part of the 

experiment that it is from (or the appropriate run number), what is being calculated, and 

the specific data that is being analyzed. If a number of calculations are to be performed 

on the same data the run analyzed should remain the same. All units must be included, 

and numerical values should have an appropriate number of significant figures. The 

calculations should also be presented in an understandable manner so that the logical 

connection between adjacent calculations can be seen. 

Uncertainty Analysis 

It is always appropriate to provide the reader with uncertainty estimates of the results. 

The experimentalist is, of course, in the best position to perform such estimates. Perform 

this procedure on the sample calculations. 

Optional Sections 

Some types of reports may need additional sections. Examples of these sections are 

given here. 

Nomenclature Listing 

The Nomenclature listing, if included, is normally right before the Introduction. As the 

name suggests, it lists and define all symbols used in the report. Note that the symbols in 

the nomenclature should be arranged in alphabetical order and that Greek symbols (also 

in alphabetical order) should follow after the Latin symbols. Common subscripts and 

superscripts should be listed separately. Where possible, refer to an equation which 

defines the symbol. Also proofread your report to ensure that all symbols are defined. 


Page 26



Be sure to thank the people who helped you in a meaningful way, for example the 

members of the technical services staff of Manhattan College, fellow students, 

instructors, outside experts, and any benefactors (sources of material or funding). When 

mentioning the name of someone you are thanking, also give his or her affiliation. 

Acknowledgments are usually placed after the Conclusions. An example of an 

Acknowledgments section is provided below: 

This work was supported by the National Science Foundation and the Air 

Force Office of Scientific Research. We would like to thank Professor Hai Wang 

of the University of Southern California and Professor J. W. Bozzelli of the New 

Jersey Institute of Technology for their helpful discussions. 


Page 27


Format for Short Laboratory Reports 

Occasionally, a professor will ask for a “short format” laboratory report. The idea for 

such a report is a documentation of the study, with primary focus on the collection and 

interpretation of the data, without significant underlying theory. 

As the name suggests, this type of report is to be short, but prepared according to good 

engineering practices. A short form report would contain the following sections: 

Abstract 

Data Sheets 

Sample Calculations 

Uncertainty Analysis 

Results 

Discussion of Results 

Conclusions 

References 

Appendices 


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Design Project Reports - General Instructions 

Now we will discuss the second major type of technical documents, related to design 

projects. There are three types of design project reports – Proposals, Progress Reports and 

Final Reports. The next three sections of this manual will discuss the format of each in 

turn. 

Remember, as stated in the Introduction, if an instructor provides alternate guidelines 

on the format of a report, those alternate guidelines supersede the format here. 


Page 29


Format for Design Project Proposals 

The first document to be written for a design project is the proposal, which outlines 

what you set out to do in your project, and how long it will take. All proposals shall 

contain the following sections with proper headings as indicated: 

Cover Page 

A sample cover page is given in Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets, and an 



This is a list containing the section titles and the page numbers on which the sections 

begin. 

Introduction 

The Introduction is a brief discussion that introduces the reader to the project and 

prepares the reader to understand the project as described more fully in the MAIN 

BODY. It could have background information that describes why the project is 

undertaken and other information that establishes the importance of the project in the 

context of the course. It should have no equations and refer to no figures. 

Proposal 

The Proposal is the principal narrative section. It should contain the project goals, the 

accomplishments and remaining tasks. Figures presented are discussed in this section. 

Expenses, if any, are reported in this section. 

Schedule 

The Schedule refers to a Gantt chart presented as a figure that plans the project from 

proposal to completion with specific dates. Discuss the principal features of the Gantt 

chart in this section. 


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Format for Design Project Progress Reports 

Prepare this report for the reader who has not seen your proposal and is otherwise not 

familiar with your project. All progress reports shall contain the following sections with 

proper headings as indicated: 

Cover Page 




The Table of Contents lists the sections with page numbers on which the section 

begins. 

Introduction 

The Introduction repeats and corrects, if necessary, the information in your proposal 

introduction and otherwise summarizes developments through the proposal stage. The 

final sentence(s) of this section introduces the reader to the discussion of the PROGRESS 

TO DATE, i.e., the next section. No figures are to be presented in this section. 

Progress to Date 

The Progress to Date discusses in detail the progress you have made since submitting 

the proposal. Explain the present state of your design with drawings and photographs as 

appropriate. Discuss your calculations if included. Remember to refer to all figures in this 

narrative and number the figures in the order in which you refer to them. Report expenses 

to date and indicate any updates to your budget. 

Schedule 

The Schedule reviews your schedule of work presented in your proposal. Indicate 

whether you are progressing rapidly enough at this stage. Indicate any changes in your 

schedule as a reflection of your experience to date. Update your Gantt chart if necessary 

and discuss the updates in this section. 

Calculations (If necessary) 

The Calculations section presents all calculations in an orderly fashion. Identify the 

nature of each calculation and discuss the calculation in your PROGRESS TO DATE 

section. All units must be included, and numerical values should have an appropriate 

number of significant figures. 


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Format for Design Project Final Reports 

Prepare this report for the reader who has not seen your proposal and progress report 

and is otherwise not familiar with your project. All final reports shall contain the 

following sections with proper headings as indicated: 

Cover Page 




Present as in previous reports. 

Executive Summary 

In two pages or less, state what you accomplished in narrative form, i.e. no equations 

and no figures. State the name and address of any cooperating facility. Briefly state the 

accomplishments of both your project. This section serves one type of important reader, 

perhaps the chief executive of a company, who only wants to know what you 

accomplished and its significance. He or she may read only this section of your report 

and scan the section with figures. You want to be sure that person receives the message. 

[Your Project Title] 

This is the main body of the report. Briefly discuss the background to supplement the 

executive summary, any design constraints and success metrics for this particular 

problem, and then present your final design in detail with drawings and photographs 

presented as figures. Be sure to refer to all figures in the order you place them. Present a 

Bill of Materials which includes sources of supplies. Give a selling price for the product. 

For guidelines, double the cost of materials if it is a production item, more if it is custommade. 

In addition, the item in most cases should be better, cost less, or be both, than 

competitive products. 

Reflections 

Discuss whether you accomplished your goals, where you fell short, and how you 

might modify the design if you were to start again knowing what you now know. 

Describe problems you encountered. Describe obstacles you overcame. 

Calculations 

This section presents all calculations in an orderly fashion. Identify the nature of each 

calculation and discuss the calculation in your main body of the report. All units must be 

included, and numerical values should have an appropriate number of significant figures 


Be sure to thank the people who helped you in a meaningful way, for example the 

members of the technical services staff of Manhattan College, fellow students, 

instructors, outside experts, and any benefactors (sources of material or funding). When 

mentioning the name of someone you are thanking, also give his or her affiliation. 


Page 32


References 

In general a list of references used should be included in any report. Great care should 

be taken to follow the specified format of the organization for which the report is being 

written (for example a research center may have different guidelines than a for-profit 

business). In this project, all references used during the preparation of the report, or 

during the design process, should be listed in the format given in the section Guidelines 

for References. 

Microsoft Word has a built-in Endnote function, which will automatically number and 

re-number references. Ask your instructor about this if you do not know how to use this 

feature. 

Appendices 

Sample or lengthy calculations, or side issues that are peripheral to the main theme of 

the report should be placed in an appendix. This could include computer calculations, 

sample calculations, extra graphs, extra tables, or extra figures. Appendices should be 

referred to in the text and should therefore be labeled and have a title (e.g. Appendix A: 

Motor Performance). 

Sample or lengthy calculations, error analyses, lengthy derivations, or side issues that 

are not really in the main theme of the report should be placed in an Appendix. A 

criterion for deciding whether or not to put something in an appendix is to ask the 

question “Does its inclusion in the main body of the report detract from the smooth flow 

of the presentation?” If the answer is affirmative, and if the material contributes to the 

information content of the report, then it should be presented as a separate unit. Each 

appendix should be lettered; Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Each appendix should be 

cited in the body of the report (if you don’t mention it, how does the reader know it’s 

there?), and the appendices should be ordered based on the order of their citation 

(Appendix A must be the first appendix cited in the report). 


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General Guidelines for Oral Presentations 

Communication is key to being a successful engineer – unless you can write reports 

and give presentations to share your findings with colleagues, managers, and others, your 

findings may end up being ignored. However, you must know your audience and be able 

to keep their attention. One key to keeping a group’s attention is to tell a coherent story. 

A second key is brevity. Keep your talk short, simple, and to the point. Nothing makes 

for an uncomfortable presentation like a long-winded, meandering story. Certain things 

can be done to maintain brevity and a coherent story. 

Initial Considerations 

When planning an oral presentation the presenter must have a clear idea of what has to 

be presented. To achieve this, a summary of key topics should be identified. Also, the 

presentation should be designed to suit the background and expectations of the audience. 

Finally, the presentation should be designed to fit into the allotted time for the 

presentation. At technical conferences presentations typically last 20 – 30 minutes, 

however, a status report presentation might some can be as short as 10 minutes while a 

thesis presentation or an invited talk may be as long as 45 minutes. All of these aspects 

associated with the creation of the presentation are time consuming therefore the 

presenter should not underestimate the time that it takes to put together a good 

presentation. A general rule of thumb is that you should spend, in average, about oneand-a-half 

minutes per slide. Rushing through slides is not a good practice. You should 

give enough time for audience to absorb the material that you want to convey. 

Preparation Guidelines 

As mentioned above, you should use no more than two slides per three minutes of 

presentation time. That would mean that for a 20-minute presentation, you should have 

no more than 14 slides, and for a half hour presentation, you should have a maximum of 

20 slides. This slide count includes the title slide. Don’t look at any of the slides and 

think “I can get through this slide in only a few seconds.” If you can do that, there must 

not be much information on the slide and you can merge it with the slide before or the 

slide after. Remember that the first thing the audience is going to do when a new slide is 

put up is look at the slide – they will not be listening to you. If you only keep the slide up 

“for a few seconds,” they will barely get a chance to look at the slide, and they will not 

have heard anything you have said. 

Prior to the actual talk the presentation should be practiced to gauge its length, and to 

ensure smooth transitions between speakers if multiple speakers are involved. In fact, it 

may do you well to script your presentation. This does not mean that you should know 

your presentation word for word; it does mean that you know exactly what points need to 

be conveyed, and (more importantly) in what order. Know what you are going to say is 

the best way to avoid (or at least minimize) the “aahs” and “umms” that are peppered in 

many presentations. 8 Also, prepare for anticipated questions, and in a group environment 

ensure that team members do not interrupt or contradict each other when responding to 

questions. 


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Slide Design and Creation 

When creating the slides for the presentation, choose a slide design that is bright, 

simple, and easy to print out. This prevents the audience from being distracted by the 

graphics, and allows anyone to obtain copies of the slides. Also, ensure that the slides are 

not too crowded, and use large visual elements to allow the slide information to be read 

by audience members distant from the screen. There should be minimal text content and 

what exists should be in the form of bulleted items (use the oral part of the presentation to 

convey most of the word content). In general, if large amounts of information, such as 

graphs, tables, etc., have to be conveyed use multiple slides. Keep in mind if you make a 

slide too crowded with lots of text the audience will start reading the slides, and not pay 

attention to your talk. Finally, if presentation software is being used, make sure that 

backup overhead projector slides exist in case there is a problem with the projection 

system. 

Examples of slides for different types of presentations can be seen in Appendix B: 

Sample Presentations. 

To Outline or Not to Outline? That is the Question 

The outline slide is a source of contention among people who regularly give 

presentations, because people either love them or hate them. You professor will most 

likely have an opinion, and it is not the purpose of this manual to offer an opinion. 

However, the arguments for and against will be provided for the benefit of the student. 

Before we get into the pros and cons, just remember that the outline of the 

presentation should mimic the outline of a written report. For instance, if you are 

presenting the material which would go into a laboratory report, your presentation should 

have the following order: 

• Introduction 

• Analysis 

• Experimental Apparatus and Methodology 

• Results 

• Discussion 

• Conclusions 

Do not prepare a slide with references. References should go at the bottom of the slides 

where the information is presented. There’s a good reason for this. When you read a 

paper, having all of the references at the end of the paper gives you an efficient, 

organized way of accessing sources cited in the work. You can flip back and forth as you 

read the paper and check the references as you go. You do not have this luxury in a 

presentation, and so to understand which material is from various outside sources, the 

references must be on the individual slides. 

The reasons why the sections of the presentation should follow the sections of the 

report is simple. The sections of a report are set up to provide a compelling story that is 

easy to follow. Why should a presentation be any different? A good presentation should 


Page 35


have both an easy-to-follow story, and a focus. Without these points, you’ll lose your 

audience. 8 

Okay, on to the outline versus no outline debate… 

Outlines are good to generate, because they are indispensable for organization 

purposes. The Outline Slide presents the audience with the path that your presentation 

will follow. The slide provides the first step in a three pronged approach of giving a 

presentation, “say what you are going to say, say it and say what you’ve said.” This 

approach reinforces the main points of the presentation to your audience. 

However, since you are aiming for brevity, an outline slide can disrupt the flow of the 

story. By all means, you should have an outline worked out when you develop your 

presentation, but do you want to waste a slide telling the audience about the story you’re 

about to tell? Just get to the story. Instead of an outline slide, your first slide after the title 

slide can outline the problem, i.e., this slide can inform the audience of the objective of 

the study. If you explain what you’ve set out to do, there will be no question why you’ve 

done anything that you show on subsequent slides. 

So what should you do? For now, you should include one if your professor says so, or 

not if he/she is against them. However, you should decide what works better for you once 

you start presenting in the “real world.” 

Use of Graphics 

Use pictures (schematics, graphs, etc.) as the “anchors” of your slides. Keep the words 

on the slides to a minimum; it will prevent you from reading directly from the slides, and 

keeps the slides from being cluttered. Equations can be good, but do not go through 

derivations in a presentation. Show the basic equations, followed by the final equations 

used in the reduction of the data. Skip the intermediate steps, but you can mention in a 

general sense how you get from the start to the finish. 

Make sure that any text on the slides is large enough to be seen (this includes 

equations). Here’s a good rule of thumb: Print the slides out, place them on the floor, and 

stand over them. If you can read the printouts from that height (5-6 feet), the audience 

should have no problem reading the slides when projected on a screen. 

Presentation Issues 

There are also several issues that have to be considered at the time when a presentation 

is given. The first involves the presentation equipment itself. Before giving a 

presentation, the equipment should be inspected for its physical arrangement and 

condition to ensure that any necessary adjustments or accommodations can be made. 

Remember that YOU ARE THE FOCUS DURING A PRESENTATION. The slides 

are there as visual aids to help explain what you have done. There was a professor at 

Princeton named Irv Glassman who, at conferences, would routinely turn off the 

overhead projector (this was before laptops and Power Point presentations) after being 

introduced. He would talk for a minute or two about the motivation for the research he 

was presenting, and then turn on the projector again and continue. Moreover, he would 

have all of his students do the same thing when they were presenting at conferences or 

dissertation defenses. While the projector was off there was nothing to focus on but the 


Page 36


speaker. This practice would establish the speaker, rather than the slides, as the central 

concern of the audience. This is a rather radical practice, and few people would be brave 

enough to try something like this without significant coaching, but the logic behind the 

practice is undeniable. 

Before starting your presentation, remember that you are the expert on the material 

you are presenting. It may be difficult to remember this at first, especially when you are a 

student being evaluated on the quality of your presentation. However, when you leave 

and start presenting you work in your career, this expertise will become more evident, 

and therefore it will be easier for you to remember. It will probably be most evident in the 

way questions are asked. In school, questions are asked by the professor to test your 

knowledge. After school, colleagues will ask questions because they are interested in 

what you have to say, and they want to know more. It’s an empowering feeling, and you 

need to cultivate it. 

When giving the actual presentation a rapport with the audience should be maintained. 

This can be accomplished by working through the slide material rather than from notes; it 

creates a more cohesive presentation and shows the audience that the presenter is very 

familiar with the material. In fact, don’t even bring notes up to the podium with you. 

They’ll serve you no purpose. The speaker should also maintain eye contact with the 

audience by facing them at all times, while making sure that the projected image is not 

obscured. The presenter should also talk slowly, clearly and loudly enough to allow the 

audience to hear what is being said, and use a pointing device (either a telescoping 

pointer or a laser pointer) to call attention to salient features on the slides. Also, slides 

should not be removed too quickly, since the audience needs time to absorb the 

information being presented. 

Care should also be taken to ensure that the presenter creates a good impression. This 

can be achieved by being presentable, neat, and well dressed. In addition, the presenter 

should never chew gum, wear a hat, put his or her hands in pockets, or use fills such as 

“um,” “ah,” etc. Introduce yourselves to the audience, if you haven’t already been 

introduced. 

Keep looking at the audience – pick individual people to focus on, but occasionally 

shift to different people. Do not let your eyes stay fixed on the screen, since then you’ll 

be talking away from the audience! 

Do not get rattled by interruptions. They happen. In class, if you’re interrupted, it’s 

done in order to improve your presentation style (to make sure you know what you’re 

talking about). In other situations, if you’re interrupted, it’s probably because the person 

is very interested in what you’re talking about and wants to know more. 


Page 37


General Guidelines for Electronic Mail 

Electronic mail (email) has become a common way to communicate with peers, 

colleagues, superiors, employees, etc. This mode of communication has, in the past ten to 

fifteen years, largely replaced the memorandum as a form of communication within an 

organization, just as it has replaced the paper letter as the form of communication with 

entities outside an organization. Why are emails so useful? 

Complex messages can be transmitted efficiently. Simple messages can be 

transmitted via telephone or face-to-face meetings. For something a more 

involved, an email is better. 1 

They provide a written history. Electronic communications allow for traceability 

of information transfer between entities, and thanks to modern technology, are 

automatically archived “in the cloud.” 1 

They potentially eliminate meetings. If you can provide updates on information 

that only needs to be transmitted one way, sending a memo-type email allows 

users to read information at their leisure, keeping schedules free for other items. 9 

You will probably be writing more emails than any other type of document, and so it 

pays to know how to write them in a way that gets your point across in a clear, succinct 

manner. 

Just Because It’s Fast Doesn’t Mean It Should Be Informal 

Many people treat emails in the same way they treat text messages; it’s a quick and 

easy way to send a message to someone. This treatment of email is certainly fine in a 

more familiar environment (with friends and family), but such an approach really is not 

the most appropriate for business communication. Here are two emails recently sent to 

me, which serve as examples of what not to do (the names have been removed to protect 

the not-so-innocent): 

from: Cxxxxx 

to: "john.leylegian@manhattan.edu" 

date: Fri, Feb 8, 2013 at 8:20 AM 

subject: Class Absence 

mailed-by: manhattan.edu 

Hello professor 

I will be unable to make it to class today due to inclement weather. Can u email 

me the topics to be covered in class today? Thank you and stay safe. 

From, 

Cxxxxx 

Sent from my iPhone 


Page 38


from: Mxxxxx 

to: "john.leylegian@manhattan.edu" 

date: Fri, Apr 26, 2013 at 8:00 AM 

subject: Hey professor 

mailed-by: me.com 

Hey Professor, 

I will not be coming into class this morning , I have an early appointment with 

the passport bureau to get my passport for my upcoming France trip. 

Thank You 

Mxxxxx 

Both of these email messages exhibit a level of familiarity not appropriate for business 

email messages. In the first, the student wrote the email as if it were a text message, 

complete with a “u” where a “you” belonged. The second message has a subject line not 

indicative of the subject of the message, and an overly familiar greeting. 

TAKE YOUR TIME… and it doesn’t have to be a lot of time. When you write an 

email that is in a professional capacity, write it as if it were going to be read by a 

potential employer, since it very well might, but more on that in the next section. 

Who Will Be Reading Your Email? 

Who are you writing to? The short answer is: More people than you think. You might 

have an initial distribution for your email (people who you are sending to, then others 

who are carbon copy (cc:) or blind carbon copy (bcc:) recipients), but forwarding an 

email only takes a single click. Recipients of your email may think it should have a wider 

distribution; so for better or worse, your email may end up in the inbox of almost anyone. 

This fact makes it imperative that you put your best face forward. 

When replying to an email the question of distribution is just as important. You should 

know the difference between “Reply” and “Reply All.” There are two reasons for taking 

care with distribution for replies. First, you do not want to be the person who needlessly 

clutters other people’s Inboxes with information that does not apply to them. Second, if a 

message is sensitive in nature, it is important to make sure only the people who need 

information are getting it. 

If only the sender needs to see your response, make sure you “Reply” rather than 

“Reply All.” Remember: you can always re-send an email to a larger audience, you can’t 

“unsend” though. 

Subject Line 

The subject line is the first thing your recipients will see. Therefore, it should be a 

clear, very concise description of what is to follow. Remember that if you do not your 

email may not be given the attention it deserves. 


Page 39


Another important thing to remember about subject lines: some anti-spam filters may 

block a legitimate email you’re trying to send because a subject line is vague, misspelled, 

or some other “red flag” is raised. Normally the best way to keep people’s emails out of 

your spam folder is to make sure they are in your Address Book. You should also check 

your Spam folder regularly to make sure important messages are not being inadvertently 

ignored. 

Keep the Length Appropriate 

An email should not be more than one or two pages in length. If you find that it needs 

to be longer, perhaps you should consider writing a report to convey your ideas. 

Format 

There are many different formats for memos which could apply to email 

communications. They can be informational or instructional in nature, and more 

information on these formats may be found in References 1 and 9. The important thing to 

remember is, like in reports, to tell a clear, coherent story. 

Write an Initial Draft, Then Revise! 

When you start to write an email, you may write in a “stream of consciousness” 

manner; that is, you will just start to write as ideas pop into your head. This type of 

writing is okay to articulate your thoughts, but they typically do not come out in a 

reasonable order. Therefore, once you have your ideas out, they need to be organized into 

a more logical manner to the reader. 10 

Use the first draft to get your ideas down in writing. The next one or two drafts should 

be used to fit your thoughts into a coherent format. Finally, polish up what you want to 

say in the final draft. 

Attachments 

There are three main issues when dealing with attachments. 

First, don’t forget them! If you have attachments for your email, they should be 

included as soon as you think they are necessary. If you don’t include them right away, 

you might forget them altogether. At this point, you’ll need to write the sheepish mea 

culpa: “Sorry, forgot to include the attachment(s).” Avoid this mistake at all costs! 

Second, try to keep attachments in formats that you know your recipients can read. 

Things like text files, pdfs, Word documents, Excel workbooks, etc. are best. Files in 

other formats should not be sent unless you know that the recipient has the correct 

application. 

Third, be aware of limitations on overall attachment size for emails. You might not be 

able to send very large files, and your recipients may not be able to receive them. In this 

case, offer a link to the file accessible on the cloud. Applications like Google Drive, 

Dropbox, or internal network drives can be used for this purpose. 

Proofreading, You Still STILL Need to Do It! 

Before you hit “Send,” take a last look at it. Make sure everything is spelled correctly, 

grammar and punctuation are correct, the flow of the story is correct, and any attachments 


Page 40


are included. If it’s really important, ask a colleague, and be sure to return the favor if 

he/she asks you. 

One consultor once said at one of our meetings, “If someone sends me an email 

riddled with grammatical and/or spelling errors, would I want him or her designing a new 

airplane, or a car, or even a coffee maker?” Remember, you only get one chance for a 

good first impression. 

Don’t Hit Send in Anger 

An important thing to always remember about emails and SMS messages: subtle clues 

about intonation, body language, etc., are non-existent. In addition, we all at one time or 

another have gotten heavily invested in the work we have done, and a result is 

hypersensitivity. A seemingly innocuous message could easily set someone off if it is 

misread. Therefore, we offer two pieces of advice: 

First, when sending emails, refrain from any type of language which could easily be 

misconstrued as hostile. Leave tongue-in-cheek comments, sarcasm, and the like for inperson 

exchanges, where they may go over better. If you’re not sure, ask someone to read 

your email before you send it. 

Second, if someone has overblown a comment you made in an email, nip it in the bud. 

Calmly apologize, and try not to make the same mistake again. Business emails are not 

the correct setting for a flame war. No one wins. 

Closing and Signatures 

An email is a letter, and therefore should have a closing. The most common closing in 

business emails uses a pre-composed signature, but any closing used in business letters, 

e.g., Sincerely, Regards, etc. are appropriate as well. Sometimes both the closing and the 

signature are used together. 

Signatures, if your company uses them, should be standard. Usually if you are a new 

hire, guidelines for communications are laid out and expected of all employees. A big 

reason for uniformity is branding. Try to keep uniform between computer and mobile 

devices. For example, here is the standard signature used by Manhattan College: 

----------------------- 

John C. Leylegian, PhD 

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering 

Riverdale, NY 10471 

Phone: 718-862-7279 

Fax: 718-862-7163 

john.leylegian@manhattan.edu 

www.manhattan.edu 


Page 41


The font, including the color, bold face/italicization, etc., was standardized by the 

College. On the other hand, if you frequently send emails from a smart phone you might 

not be able to have an elaborate signature set up on your smartphone. In that case, use a 

plain text version, such as: 

-- 


Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering 

Manhattan College 

Riverdale, NY 10471 

Phone: 718-862-7279 

Fax: 718-862-7163 

john.leylegian@manhattan.edu 

www.manhattan.edu 

---------------------------- 

Sent from my DROID 

If you can apply the rules for good technical writing to your approach to emails, you 

will be a great deal ahead of your peers when you find yourself in the business world. 

Emails versus SMS (Text) Messages 

Text messages were mentioned earlier, as an example of what not to do in an email. 

Text messages were originally limited to 160 characters, because this was considered the 

maximum length necessary to concisely express a thought. 11 For this reason, SMS is not 

really the best way to communicate complex ideas, and you should probably avoid it 

whenever possible. 

If you need to send business messages via SMS, remember that the rules for email 

should still apply. Conduct yourself professionally, avoid abbreviations and emoticons, 

and be clear and concise in your communication. 


Page 42


General Guidelines for Voicemail 

When you work you will often need to leave voice mail messages for colleagues, or 

people who you would like to be potential colleagues. Voicemail differs slightly from 

email since voicemails aren’t necessarily editable (some voicemail systems allow you to 

re-record a voicemail, but this feature is far from ubiquitous). Therefore, here are some 

simple guidelines when you want to leave a voicemail message for someone: 12 

Plan out what you’d like to say before you call. Write out a few key notes to help 

you. This way, you don’t lose your train of thought or fill your message with 

awkward pauses. 

Begin by clearly stating your name and a contact number. 

State your purpose for calling. Be specific and eliminate any confusion. Avoid 

rambling. 

End your message with a plan to call again on a specific day. This lets the 

recipient off the hook if they are unable to call back, and ensures you’re not 

waiting around for a return phone call. 


Page 43


References 

1 Eisenberg, A., Effective Technical Communication, 2 nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 

1992, Chaps 2-5, 12. 

2 Longuski, J., Advice to Rocket Scientists, American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics, Reston, VA, 2003, Chaps 21-24. 

3 Course materials for 2.272 Project Laboratory, Spring 2009. MIT OpenCourseWare, 

URL: http://ocw.mit.edu, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [cited 24 June 2011]. 

4 

Straker, D., Types of Data, Changing Minds Website, Syque, URL: 

http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/measurement/types_data.htm [cited 6 

April 2008]. 

5 Belcher, A., Endy, D., Kuldell, and Stachowiak, A., Course materials for 20.109 

Laboratory Fundamentals in Biological Engineering, Fall 2007. MIT OpenCourseWare, 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology http://ocw.mit.edu [cited 24 June 2011]. 

6 

AIAA ScholarOne Manuscripts Page, American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/aiaa [cited 19 December 2012]. 

7 Cockrell, C. E. Jr., Huebner, L. D., and Finley, D. B., “Aerodynamic Characteristics of 

TwoWaverider-Derived Hypersonic Cruise Configurations” NASA TP-3559, Jul 1996. 

8 Daum, K., “5 Tips for Giving Really Amazing Presentations,” Roaring or Boring, 3 July 

2013, Inc. URL: http://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/5-tips-for-giving-really-amazingpresentations.html 

[cited 8 July 2013]. 

9 Connor, P., Business Memos, Writing@CSU, Colorado State University, URL: 

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=73 [cited 19 June 2013]. 

10 Mias, C. and Zinn, M., Personal Communication, 4 April 2013. 

11 Milian, M., “Why text messages are limited to 160 characters,” Technology Blog, 3 

May 2009, Los Angeles Times URL: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/ 

2009/05/invented-text-messaging.html [cited 26 June 2013]. 

12 McClain, A., “How to Leave a Good Voicemail Message,” eHow Tech, URL: 

http://www.ehow.com/how_7516281_leave-good-voicemail-message.html [cited 26 June 

2013]. 


Page 44


Appendix A: Format for Cover Sheets 

The following pages provide some cover sheets for different types of reports. These 

cover sheets can be found in files on the Mechanical Engineering Department Blackboard 

site for your use. Just be sure to replace all of the pertinent information. 


Page 45


MECH 405 (02) 

Thermal/Fluids Laboratory 

Experiment No. 4 

Forced Convection 

Report Submitted to 

Dr. Mohammad Naraghi 

Group 3 

John Aquino Experiment Performed: 14 April 2003 

James Knapp Report Submitted: 28 April 2003 

Richard Thomas 

Mechanical Engineering Department 



Page 46


MECH 211-01 

Introduction to Design 

DESIGN PROJECT 

Proposal 

Group A 

Eric Clegg 

Philip Ng 

Thomas Langowski 

September 22, 2004 




Page 47


MECH 401 (01) 

Mechanical Engineering Design 

Progress Report 

Project: Easy Rider Cart 

Report submitted to 

Dr. Daniel Haines 

20 October 2002 

Group B 

Twisted Minds Inc. 

Charles Dickens 

Mary Murphy 

James Patterson 




Page 48


MECH 401 (01) 

Mechanical Engineering Design 

Final Report 

Project: Easy Rider Cart 

Report submitted to 

Dr. Daniel Haines 

10 December 2002 

Group B 

Twisted Minds Inc. 

Charles Dickens 

Mary Murphy 

James Patterson 




Page 49


Appendix B: Sample Presentations 

In general, there are only three types of oral presentations that are associated with the 

engineering field: design presentations, presentations of experimental or theoretical work, 

and presentations describing state-of-the-art material. On the following pages there are 

frameworks for the first two types. It should be noted that these are only guidelines, and 

depending on the situation more than one slide may be needed to cover a specific issue, 

some slides may not be necessary, or a specific topic may be missing altogether. 


Page 50


Experimental Study Slides 

Slide 1 

Experimental Study Title 

Names of Group Members 

Course Number 

Slide 2 

Introduction 

Use bullets to outline the objective of the 

project in question 

Use a slide design that is bright and easy 

to print out. 

Provide a background to the problem 

Discuss the State-of-the-Art 

Slide 3 

Theory and/or Hypothesis 

The basic principles 


Page 51


Slide 4 

Experimental Design 

Discuss full or partial factorial design 

chosen 

Discuss the use of any confounding or 

blocking 

Slide 5 

Test Equipment Setup 

Use text, pictures, 

and/or diagrams 

Clearly annotate the 

pictures 

Describe the 

methodology 

Slide 6 

Data Measured 

? Present a sample of the raw data when 

appropriate, i.e., when data processing 

involves more than simple algebra 


Page 52


Slide 7 

Statistical Analysis 

Present the statistical analyses 

ANOVA 

Regressions 

Confidence intervals 

Chi squared test 

Slide 8 

Tables/Graphs of Data 

Slide 9 

Discussion of the Results 

Discuss salient features of the data and 

trends observed 

Discuss any anomalies 


Page 53


Slide 10 

Conclusion 

Present the conclusions that can be drawn 

from the experiment 


Page 54


Design Study Slides 

Slide 1 

Design Study Title 

Names of Group Members 

Course Number 

Slide 2 

Introduction 

Use bullets to outline the objective of the 

project in question 

Use a slide design that is bright and easy 

to print out. 

Objective of Project 

Slide 3 

Specifications 

Present requirements and constraints 

State the what’s that needed to be done 

Present and Quality Function Deployment 

(QFD) analysis 


Page 55


Slide 4 

Conceptual Designs 

Present the fours conceptual designs that 

were examined 

Use text, pictures, and/or diagrams 

Slide 5 

Design Selection Matrix 

Slide 6 

Detailed Design 

Design Analysis (assumptions, sample 

calculation, and results) 

Use text, pictures, and/or diagrams 

Present material selection process 

Reliability analysis 


Page 56


Slide 7 

Prototype Performance 

Present performance data and graphs 

Slide 8 

Manufacturing Issues 

Processes to be used 

Slide 9 

Economic Analysis 

Part costing 

Manufacturing costing 


Page 57


Slide 10 

Conclusion 

Present the salient features of the design 


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