What is a coast and its importance - Iczmpwb.org

Coast and its importance 

Dr. C. Raghunathan 

Officer-in-Charge 

Government of India 

Ministry of Environment and Forests 

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 

Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre 

Port Blair-744 102, A & N Islands

Coast 

Coasts are dynamic interface zones 

of the atmosphere, land and 

sea. 

About 50% of the world’s population 

lives in within 200km of the 

shoreline. 

Seacoast attracts for their moderate 

climate, seafood, recreational 

opportunities, transportation, 

commercial establishments, 

trade, tourism etc. 

Vishakhapatnam coast 

Chennai coast

Top 10 largest coastal cities of the world 

1. Tokyo, Japan - Coastal 

2. Mexico City, Mexico – Inland 

3. Mumbai, India – Coastal 

4. Sao Paulo, Brazil – Inland 

5. New York, USA – Coastal 

6. Shanghai, China – Coastal 

7. Lagos, Nigeria – Costal 

8. Los Angeles, USA – Coastal 

9. Kolkata, India – Coastal 

10. Buenos Aires, Argentina - Coastal 

Coastal city - Chennai

Coastal Terminology 

Shore: Zone lies between the lowest tide level and the coastline 

Foreshore: Portion of area exposed at low-tide and submerged at 

high-tide (= intertidal zone) 

Backshore: Extends beyond normal high tide to the coastline 

Nearshore: Region between the low-tide shore and breakers 

Offshore: Region beyond the low-tide breakers 

Beach: Sediment deposit on the shore area

Terminology of coastal regions

Zones which influence the coastal and marine gamut 

Inland areas: Affects the ocean 

mainly via rivers and streams 

Coastal lands: Wetlands, marshes, 

and place where human activity 

is concentrated and directly 

affects adjacent waters 

Coastal waters: Generally estuaries, 

lagoons, backwaters, shallow 

waters etc. where the effects of 

land based activities are 

dominant. 

Offshore waters: Mainly to the edge 

of national jurisdiction i.e. 200 

nautical miles 

High Seas: Sea beyond the 

offshore waters 

Offshore waters of Chennai

Tides 

Definition: The periodic rise and fall of the 

level of the sea over a given time 

interval is called tide. 

Diurnal tides: Locations having single low 

and high tides per day 

Semi-diurnal tides: Those with two high 

and low tides per day. 

Mixed tides: The height of the low and high 

tides varies from day to day as the 

positions of the sun and moon change 

relatively each other. 

Spring tides: Tides with a large range occur 

in lunar days. 

Neap tides: Tides with a small range that 

occur when the moon is in quarter

Coastal environment of India 

Coastline: 7600 km long with maritime states viz. Gujarat, 

Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry 

(UT), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Islands of 

Andaman & Nicobar; and Lakshadweep. 

Coastal Belt: Out of the total landmass of 3.28 million sq.km., nearly 

0.15 million sq.km. is coastal belt. 

Rivers: 14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor rivers that discharge 

15,66,000 million cubic metres of freshwater in to the sea. 

Among the 14 major rivers, 9 debouches in to Bay of Bengal and 5 

confluence in Arabian Sea.

Coastal Environment of India – Contd. 

Coastal population: 212.5 × 10 6 

Territorial waters: 0.13 million sq.km. 

EEZ: 2.015 million sq. km. 

Mangroves: 4639 sq.km. 

Estuaries: 3900 sq.km. 

Mudflat: 2961 sq.km. 

Coastal dunes: 2509 sq. km. 

Saltpans: 1617 sq. km. 

Lagoon and Backwaters: 2132 sq.km. 

River runoff: 1545 cubic km. per day 

No. of major coastal industries: 450 (West coast – 232; East coast – 218)

Indian coastal facilities 

Ports and Harbors 

• Major ports: 11 

• Intermediate ports: 16 

• Minor Ports: 78 

• Ship visit: 10,000 per year 

Fishing Harbors 

• Major: 6 

• Minor: 35 

• Fish landing centres: 135

Types of Shores 

• Rocky Shore 

• Sandy Shore 

• Muddy Shore

Rocky Shore 

• Intertidal area of seacoast where 

solid rocks predominates. 

• Biologically rich environment. 

Zonation 

• Supra-littoral fringe, Mid-littoral 

Zone, Infra-littoral fringe (Sublittoral 

zone) 

Factors affecting animals 

• Wave action – sessile, filter 

feeding (barnacles, mussel, oyster 

etc.) 

• Desiccation & Water loss – 

Operculum (gastropods) and 

valves (oysters and mussels) 

• Temperature and Salinity – Hard 

Shells to tolerate heat (molluscs), 

hide in crevices of rock (crab, 

sponges)

Rocky shore animals 

Sea urchin 

Turbo 

Zoanthid 

Rock oyster

Sandy Shore 

• A sandy beach is made up of minute 

grains of sand or crushed shells and 

rock. 

• Sandy shores are exciting places with 

life in and underneath the water. 

Factors affecting animals 

• Wave action – Organisms burrow deeply 

and live in it – bivalves, shore crabs, 

annelids etc. 

• Sand dollars (echinoderm) accumulates 

iron compounds in a special area of 

their digestive tract and the iron serves 

as a weight belt to keep them down in 

the presence of wave action. 

• Animals buried themselves during day 

time in order to avoid heat.

Sandy shore Molluscs 

Oliva 

Donax 

Dentallium 

Cypraea

Sandy shore habitat in intertidal zone

Adaptation of animals in sandy shore

Sandy shore animals

Zonation in Sandy Shore

Muddy Shore 

• Muddy shores, with their finer 

sediment, have smaller interstitial 

spaces and these trap organic 

matter. 

• Smaller spaces means that drainage 

when the tide drops is less and so 

muddy shores hold on to their 

water. 

• Anaerobic condition in the muddy 

shore prevails as the exchange of 

interstitial water is very poor due to 

vey fine particle size of the sand 

grain. 

• Due to the growth of bacteria, 

complete depletion of oxygen in the 

interstitial area. 

• Supra-littoral zone of muddy shore 

normally mangroves could be seen

Grain size in muddy shore

Water flow circulation in muddy shore sediment

Adaptation of animals in muddy shore 

• Burrowing into the mud and 

feeds through long siphonal 

canal – Cockles and Clams 

• Making ‘U’ shaped burrow – 

Arenicola and other polychaetes. 

One arm of U is remained open 

for deposit feeding. 

• Muddy shore animals are mud 

crabs, fiddler crabs, oysters, 

bivalves, 

gastropods 

(Telescopium, Cerithium etc.) 

annelid worms, fishes-mud 

skipper and mud snapper etc.

Muddy shore animals 

Epifauna and infauna

Coastal Ecosystems 

• Estuarine ecosystem 

• Lagoon ecosystem 

• Sand dune ecosystem 

• Salt marsh ecosystem 

• Seagrass and seaweed ecosystems 

• Mangrove ecosystem 

• Coral reef ecosystems

Estuarine ecosystem 

• Estuaries are semi-enclosed area 

where freshwater and seawater 

meet and mix. 

• Estuaries are subject to wide 

fluctuations in salinity 

• Normally salinity of estuary ranges 

from 0 to 35 ppt. 

Adyar estuary 

• Major estuaries in India are 

Hoogly, Mahanadhi, Godavari, 

Krishna, Coleroon, Vellar on the 

east coast and Narmada, Tapi, 

Mandovi and Zuari estuaries on 

the west coast

Profile of an ideal estuary

Adaptations of an estuarine animals 

• Euryhaline: Species can 

tolerate wide range of 

salinity 

• Stenohaline: species 

can tolerate only 

narrow range of salinity 

• Migration: Anadromus 

(salmon, smelts, shad) 

and Catadromous (Eel) 

for spawning purposes

Importance of Estuaries 

• Provides a nursery for the larval forms of some marine fish species, and shelter and food for 

many young and adult fish and shellfish. 

• Provides rich feeding grounds for shore birds 

• Serving as important habitats for wildlife 

• Estuarine plants also can absorb tide and storm surges, providing ideal habitats for wildlife 

• This natural buffer helps to prevent erosion and stabilize the coast 

• Yields commercially important fishery including prawns and crabs. 

• Provide safe habours for shipping 

• Tourism

Seagrass and Seaweed Ecosystems 

Seagrass 

• Seagrasses occur in the shallow subtidal 

regions of sheltered localities of the sea, 

gulf, bays, backwaters and lagoon. 

• Grow in mud flats and sandy regions. 

• They are submerged monocotyledonous 

plants adapted to marine environment for 

completion of their life cycle under water. 

• They occur along the east and west coast of 

Indian peninsula and Andaman and Nicobar 

Islands. 

• Occur along 5-15m depth in Indian coast 

• However, they can grow at more than 32 

meters depth. In clear water condition, they 

even grow at the depth of 65 meters 

Seagrass meadow, Andaman 

Dugong dugon

Diversity of seagrass 

• Global composition ranges from 0.1 to 0.2% of 

the aquatic flora 

• 60 species described from world oceans 

• 14 species reported from India (Cymodacea rotundata, 

Cymodocea serrulata, Enhalus acoroides, Halodule pinifolia, H. uninervis, 

H. whitii, H. beccarii, H. decipiens, H. ovalis, H. ovata, H. stipulacea, 

Syringodium isoetifolium and Thalassia hermprichi) 

• Gulf of Mannar – 13 species 

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands – 9 species

Significance of seagrass 

• Provide a habitat for Dugong dugon, only herbivorous marine mammal exist. 

• Also provide habitats for a wide variety of marine organisms, both plant and 

animal; these include meiofauna and flora, benthic flora and fauna, epiphytic 

organisms, plankton and fish, not to mention microbial and parasitic organisms. 

• Feeding ground for dugongs, turtles, fishes and sea urchins 

• Extraordinarily high rate of primary production. 

• Serve as a fishing ground, wave protection, oxygen production and protection 

against coastal erosion. 

• Seagrass meadows account for 15% of the ocean’s total carbon storage. The ocean 

currently absorbs 25% of global carbon emissions 

• It is estimated that seagrasses per square meter are capable of binding about 

1000grams of carbon, every year.

Threats to seagrass ecosystem 

Natural threat 

• Damage to seagrass groups is mostly due to climatic changes, global warming which in turn refers 

to changes in oceans salinity levels, shift in water quality, increase in sea surface temperatures, 

frequency of natural disasters, and more. 

• Seagrasses are in global decline, with some 30,000 km 2 (12,000 sq mi) lost during recent decades. 

Anthropogenic threat 

• Coastal activities such as ports, harbours, construction, garbage dumps, urban pollution, industrial 

dumps, terrestrial erosion, coastal development, breakwaters, fish farming, aquaculture, 

eutrophication, siltation, dredging, anchoring, are taking heavy toll on the fragile plants. 

Pollution 

• Excessive input of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) is directly toxic to seagrasses, but most 

importantly, it stimulates the growth of epiphytic and free-floating macro- and micro-algae. This 

weakens the sunlight, reducing the photosynthesis that nourishes the seagrass and the primary 

production results

Seaweeds 

• Seaweeds or marine algae prefer 

flat and rocky coast gradually 

slope towards the sea with a 

marked tidal effect. 

• Distributed from intertidal to 

subtidal region of lagoons, bay, 

rock pools, creeks of the coast. 

• India, seaweeds are distributed in 

west coast, Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep 

and in east coast (abundant in 

Chilka and Gulf of Mannar) 

Gracillaria sp. 

Turbinaria sp. 

• 559 species of seaweeds are 

reported from India

Seaweed resources in Indian Coast 

State 

Annual yield (in 

tonnes) 

Gujarat 19,000 to 1,00,000 

Maharashtra 20,000 

Goa 2,000 

Tamil Nadu 28,550 

Lakshadweep 3645-7589

Importance of seaweeds 

Food 

• Seaweeds are consumed by coastal people, particularly in Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan, Phillippines, 

Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, South Africa, Indonesia, Peru, Chile, Scandinavia, Ireland and Scotland. 

• Seaweeds are also harvested or cultivated for the extraction of alginate, agar and carrageenan 

• Agar is used in foods such as confectionery, meat and poultry products, desserts and beverages and 

moulded foods. 

• Carrageenan is used in salad dressings and sauces, dietetic foods, and as a preservative in meat and fish products, 

dairy items and baked goods. 

Medicine 

• Alginates are used in wound dressings, and production of dental moulds. 

• Agar is extensively used as culture medium. 

• Carrageenans, alginates and agaroses (the latter are prepared from agar by purification), together with 

other lesser-known macroalgal polysaccharides, also have several important biological activities or 

applications in biomedicine. 

• Seaweed is a source of iodine, necessary for thyroid function and to prevent goitre. 

• Seaweeds may have curative properties for tuberculosis, arthritis, colds and influenza, worm infestations 

and even tumors. 

• Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills. Other seaweed pills exploit the same effect as gastric banding, 

expanding in the stomach to make the body feel more full.

Mangrove Ecosystem 

• Mangroves are tidal forest. 

• 100 species of true mangroves 

have been described from the 

world. 

• Mangrove vegetation 

represents trees, shrubs, 

herbs, climbers, epiphytes and 

parasites. 

Mangroves, A&N Islands 

• Mangroves occur 112 

countries mainly in the tropical 

region of the world with an 

area of 1,89,399 sq.km.

Region-wise distribution 

of mangroves 

Sl. 

No. 

Region 

Area 

(Sq. Km.) 

1. Southeast Asia 75,172 41.4 

2. America 45,096 27.1 

3. West Africa 27,995 15.4 

4. Australia 18,788 10.4 

5. East Africa and 

Middle East 

10,348 5.7 

Total 1,81,399 100 

% 

Mangroves, A&N Islands

Sl. 

No. 

State-wise status of mangroves in India 

State Area (Sq. Km.) No. of species 

1. Andhra Pradesh 353 31 

2. Goa 17 

3. Gujarat and 

Daman &Diu 

1047 12 

4. Karnataka 3 29 

5. Kerala 5 27 

6. Maharashtra 186 26 

7. Orissa 221 60 

8. Tamil Nadu & 

Pondicherry 

39 24 

9. West Bengal 2152 57 

10. Andaman and 

Nicobar 

Total 4639 

615 44

Diversity of mangroves in India 

No. of species reported: 69 species 

under 42 genera and 27 families 

• East coast: 63 species 

• West Coast: 37 species 

• A & N Islands: 44 species 

Sonneratia alba 

Rhizopora apiculata

Mangrove fauna of India 

(2359 species) 

• Prawn: 55 species 

• Crabs: 138 species 

• Molluscs: 308 species 

• Insects: 711 species 

• Fishes: 546 species 

• Amphibians: 13 

species 

• Reptiles: 85 species 

• Birds: 433 species 

• Mammals: 70 species 

Mangrove trail, A&N Islands

Threatened species of fishes in mangrove ecosystems of India 

Sl. 

No. 

Species Family IUCN Status 

1. Arius subrostratus Ariidae Vulnerable 

2. Boleophthalmus boddarti Gobiidae Vulnerable 

3. Boleophthalmus 

dussumieri 

Gobiidae 

Endangered 

4. Scartelaos viridis Gobiidae Endangered 

5. Peripthalmus koelreuteri Gobiidae Vulnerable 

6. Dasyatis uarnak Trygonidae Vulnerable 

7. Elops machnata Elopidae Vulnerable 

8. Leiognathus splendens Leiognathidae Vulnerable 

9. Muraenichthys schultzei Muraenidae Vulnerable 

10. Psammaperca waigiensis Centropomidae Vulnerable 

11. Secutor ruconius Leiognathidae Vulnerable

Threatened invertebrates in mangrove ecosystems of India 

Sl. 

No. 

Species Family IUCN Status 

1. Cardisoma carnifex Gecarcinidae Critically 

endangered 

2. Gelonia erosa Gelonidae Endangered 

3. Macrophthalmus convexus Ocypodidae Endangered 

4. Meretrix casta Veneridae Vulnerable 

5. Penaeus canaliculatus Palaemonidae Vulnerable 

6. Penaeus japonicus Palaemonidae Vulnerable 

7. Pilodius nigrocrinitus Xanthidae Endangered 

8. Sesarma taeniolata Grapsidae Vulnerable 

9. Uca tetragonon Ocypodidae Endangered

Rare, endemic and restricted mangrove species in India 

1. Acanthus ebracteatus: Restricted to A&N 

2. Aegialitis rotundifolia: Confined to W.B., Orissa and AP 

3. Aglaia cuculata: Restricted to W.B. and Orissa 

4. Brownlowia tersa: Restricted to W.B., Orissa and AP 

5. Heritiera fomes: Restricted to W.B. and Orissa 

6. Heritiera kanikensis: Endemic to Bhitarkanika 

7. Lumnitzera littorea: Restricted to A & N 

8. Merope angulata: Confined to W.B. and Orissa 

9. Nypa fruticans: Restricted to W.B. and A&N 

10. Phoenix paludosa: Restricted to A&N and AP 

11. Rhizophora annamalayana: Endemic to Pitchavaram 

12. Rhizophora stylosa: Confined to Orissa 

13. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea: Restricted to A&N and AP 

14. Sonneratia apetala: Rare in several areas 

15. Sonneratia griffithii: Restricted to W.B, Orissa and A&N 

16. Tylophora tenuis: Restricted to W.B. and Orissa 

17. Urochondra setulosa: Endemic to Gujarat 

18. Thespesia pipulneoides: Restricted to West Bengal and Orissa 

19. Xylocarpus makongensis: Restricted to W.B., Orissa, A&N 

20. Xylocarpus mollucensis: Restricted to A&N

Threats to Mangroves 

1. Cattle grazing: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat 

2. Exploitation for fire wood and wood: 

TN, GUJ 

3. Urbanization: Mumbai 

4. Reclamation for Agriculture: W.B, 

Orissa, AP, Kerala 

5. Aquaculture: WB, AP 

6. Construction of bridges: WB, TN, AP, 

GUJ, MH 

7. Port and Harbour development: GUJ, 

WB, MH 

8. Hyper salinity: GUJ, TN, WB 

9. Siltation and Sedimentation: River and 

land run-off 

10. Natural calamities: Cyclone, Tidal 

waves (Tsunami) 

11. Pollution: industrial, pesticide, oil

Coral Reef Ecosystem

Acropora monticulosa 

Coral Reef Ecosystem 

• Restricted to warm seas, essentially between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, where 

minimum water temperature do not fall below 20ºC 

• Their occurrence limited to 0.2% of the ocean area on the earth’s surface, have globally 

important implication for their amazing marine biodiversity 

• Providing critical habitats to approximately 25% of marine organisms 

• Although various types of corals can be found from the water's surface to depths of 6,000 m, 

reef- building corals are generally found at depths of less than 46 m, where sunlight penetrates. 

• Massive corals grow from 0.5 cm to 2 cm per year. However, under favourable conditions (high 

light exposure, consistent temperature, moderate wave action), some species can grow as 

much as 4.5 cm per year. In contrast to the massive species, branching colonies can grow 

vertically by as much as 10 cm per year.

Global Distribution of Coral Reefs 

Coral reef cover of the world is estimated as 600,000 km 2 (Smith, 1978; 

Klepays, 1997) 

Mediterranean Indian Ocean: 54% , Pacific Ocean: 25%, Atlantic Ocean: 6% 

Caribbean Sea: 9%, Red Sea: 4%, Persian Gulf: 2%

Distribution of Coral Reefs in India 

Estimated coral cover in India is 5730 km 2 

Major reef areas are A&N Islands, 

Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Katchchh, 

Lakshadweep , Malvan coast and Orissa coast.

Diversity of Scleractinian Corals in A&N Islands and other reefs of India 

Sl No. Family A & N Islands Gulf of Mannar Lakshadweep 

Islands 

Gulf of Katchchh 

1. Astrocoeniidae 03 (02) 1(1) - - 

2. Pocilloporidae 14 (03) 3(1) 5(2) - 

3. Acroporidae 146 (04) 31(3) 28(3) 7 (2) 

4. Poritidae 39 (03) 10(2) 9 (3) 6(2) 

5. Siderasteridae 12 (04) 3(3) 4(1) 4(4) 

6. Agariciidae 28 (05) 5(2) 4(2) - 

7. Fungiidae 44 (11) 1(1) 6(4) - 

8. Oculinidae 04 (01) 2(1) 2(1) - 

9. Pectinidae 13 (04) 1(1) - 1(1) 

10. Mussidae 21 (05) 1(1) 3(3) 2(2) 

11. Merulinidae 08 (03) 2(2) 2(2) 1(1) 

12. Faviidae 82 (16) 20(9) 26(11) 13(7) 

13. Euphyllidae 07 (03) - 1(1) - 

14. Dendrophyllidae 08 (02) 2(1) 1(1) 2(1) 

15. Meandrinidae 01 (01) - - - 

16. Trachyphylliidae 01 (01) - - - 

17. Rhizangiidae - - - - 

18. Caryphyllidae 02 (02) - - - 

TOTAL 433 (72) 117(28) 104(34) 36(20)

Diversity of Corals in A&N Islands in comparison with global report 

Sl. No 

Family 

World A&N Islands Approx. Depth 

(m) 

Genus Species Genus Species 

1 Acroporidae 4 275 4 146 2-35 

2 Astrocoeniidae 4 14 2 03 3-4 

3 Pocilloporidae 3 31 3 14 0.5-15 

4 Euphyllidae 5 16 3 07 5-18 

5 Oculinidae 4 15 1 04 0.5-20 

6 Meandrinidae 7 9 1 01 3-8 

7 Siderastreidae 6 29 4 12 4-13 

8 Agariciidae 6 45 5 28 2-15 

9 Fungiidae 13 56 11 44 1-25 

10 Rhizangiidae 2 2 - - - 

11 Pectiniidae 5 30 4 13 4-28 

12 Merulinidae 5 12 3 8 3-12 

13 Dendrophyllidae 5 18 2 8 2-15 

14 Caryphylliidae 1 1 1 2 3-9 

15 Mussidae 13 56 5 21 2-15 

16 Faviidae 24 132 16 82 0.5-30 

17 Trachyphylliidae 1 1 1 01 8-18 

18 Poritidae 5 84 3 39 0.5-20 

Total 112 828 72 433

Types of Reefs in A&N Islands 

Fringing Reef: Form along the edges of continental shelf around islands, close to 

the shore. 

Barrier Reef: Form along the edges of continental shelf and are separated from 

island or mainland by a wide and deep lagoon.

TYPES OF CORAL GROWTH FORMS 

Digitate: Colony, which has 

short tapper or dome 

shaped thick branches with 

uniform height. Usually the 

branches produced from a 

common thick basal plate. 

Eg: Acropora monticulosa 

Branching: A descriptive 

term for a branch is, with 

compact radial subbranches. 

Eg: Acropora 

aspera 

Bottle brush: The 

arborescent branches have 

numerous and uniformly 

elongate radial and axial 

corallites, hence colony 

looks like a bottle brush 

shape Eg: Acropora 

subglabra 

Table: the colony will 

grow horizontal with 

fused and small upturned 

braches, forming porous 

or thick plates. Often 

they will not produce in 

down side. Eg: Acropora 

hyacinthus 

Corymbose: Colonies 

forms thin upright 

branches without basal 

plate. Eg: Acropora 

nasuta 

Sub massive: Colonies 

which form small 

columns, knobs, mounds 

or wedges. Eg. Stylophora 

pistillata

Massive: Colonies are solid, boulder or helmets shaped 

and are typically hermatypical, 60% A&N Islands reefs 

covered by massive corals. Eg: Porites lutea 

Encrusting: Coral colonies which are form a thin 

layer or crust over underlying substratum. Eg: 

Montipora sp. 

Solitary: Corals composed of single 

individual and some coral can move little 

distance. Eg: Fungia sp. 

Foliose: Coral colonies attached at one or 

more points, leaf-life or plate like in 

appearance. Eg: Echinopora sp.

TYPES OF CORALLITES 

Ceroid: Adjacent corallites 

share the same wall. Eg: 

Favites 

Meandroid: In massive 

colonies that have corallite 

mouths aligned in valleys, 

these valleys separate by 

reticulated walls and there 

are no individual polyps. Eg: 

Symphyllia 

Placoid: Each corallite has its 

own separate wall. Eg: Favia 

Hydnophoroid: Septa fusing 

to form monticules or mould 

like structures. Eg: 

Hydnophora 

Phaceloid: Coral that have 

corallite of uniform height 

adjoined towards their base. 

Eg: Dendrophyllia

Diplostrea heliopora (Lamarck, 1816) 

Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus, 1767) 

Favia matthaii Vaughan, 1918 

Favia maxima Veron and Pichon, 1977 Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier, 1971 

Platygyra sinensis 

(Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849)

Location marks of Permanent Monitoring Plots 

1. North reef Island 

Ritchie's archipelago 

2. Outram Island 

3. Henry Lawrence Island 

4. John Lawrence Island 

5. North Bay 

Mahatma Gandhi Marine 

National Park 

6. Grub island 

7. Tarmugli Island 

8. Jolly buoy Island 

9. Hut Bay 

10. Great Nicobar Biosphere reserve

Permanent Plots for Coral Reef Monitoring 

Ten plots (100 x 100m area for each plot) were selected for the permanent monitoring of 

corals in A& N Islands 

Parameters under observation 

1. Live coral cover 

2. Diversity and distribution 

3. Primary and secondary productivities 

4. Growth rate 

5. Water quality parameters

Percentage 

Live coral cover(%) in A&N Islands 

30.38 - 57.63% 

70 

Live coral 

60 

57.63 

50 

53.34 

50.46 

47.68 

40 

30 

41.29 

30.38 

35.86 

38.86 

20 

10 

0 

South Andaman Little Andaman 

Ritchie's 

Archipelago 

Middle 

Andaman 

North Andaman 

Car Nicobar 

Island 

Nancowry Island Great Nicobar 

Island

Density of Corals in A& N Islands (Colonies./10 sq.m.) 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

23.45 

20.31 

28.93 

19.38 

21.5 

19.32 

22.58 23.33

Corals of Great Nicobar Island 

Acropora hyacinthus 

Plerogyra sinuosa 

Acropora polystoma 

Acropora monticulosa Montipora danae Tubastraea daiphana 

Acropora humilis 

Fungia scabra 

Pocillopora varrucosa

Corals of Rutland Island 

Acropora cerealis 

Acropora fastigata Oulophyllia crispa Pocillopora damicornis 

Ctenactis echinata 

Seriatopora hystrix 

Acropora digitifera 

Acropora tenuis 

Lobophyllia hemprichii 

Acropora insignis 

Pocillopora meandrina 

Montipora informis

Corals of Rutland Island 

Seriatopora hystrix Dana, 

1846 

Lobophyllia hemprichii 

(Ehrenberg, 1834) 

Leptoria irregularis* 

Veron, 1990 

Leptoria phrygia 

(Ellis and Solander, 1786) 

Pectinia lactuca 

(Pallas, 1766) 

Hydnophora microconus 

(Lamarck, 1816) 

Hydnophora rigida 

(Dana,1846) 

Echinopora lamellosa 

(Esper,1795) 

Favia matthaii Vaughan, 1918 

Favia speciosa Dana, 

1846 

Favia pallida 

(Dana, 1846) 

Symphyllia agaricia 

Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849

Corals of Little Nicobar Island 

Pocillopora kelleheri 

Veron, 2000 

Porites myrmidoensis 

Veron, 1985 

Seriatopora aculeata 

Quelch, 1886 

Tubastraea faulkneri 

(Wells, 1982) 

Porites annae 

Crossland, 1952 

Tubastrea daiphana 

(Dana, 1846) 

Porites eridani 

Umbgrove, 1940 

Fungia taiwanensis 

Hoeksema and Dai,1991

Corals of RJMNP 

Favia matthaii 

Platygyra pini 

Porites lobata 

Fungia rependa Favites abdita Diploastrea heliopora

Coral reef cover in selected Islands of A&N Islands 

(Satellite data) 

Island Coral reef Area (sq. km .) 

North Reef Island 15.53 

Rani Jhansi Marine 

National Park 

(John Lawrence, 

Henry Lawrence 

and Outram 

Islands) 

27.15 

Cinque Island 6.78 

Little Andaman 


Great Nicobar 


58.29 

30.81

Coral Reef cover in North Reef Island 

North Reef Island (Area in Sq Km) 

15.53 

2.58 

0.14 

1.11 

Forest Mud Flat Sandy area Reef area

Cinque Island 

4.55 

Cinque Island (Area in Sq Km) 

6.78 

0.86 0.67 

0.058 

0.62

Coral reef cover in RJMNP 

Rani Janshi Marine National Park 

(Area in Sq Km) 

86.13 

18.89 

7.45 

27.15 

Forest Mangrove Sandy area Reef area

Little Andaman Island 

Little Andaman Island 

(Area in Sq Km) 

618.75 

39.05 7.27 58.29 2.46 0.16 11.25 4.45

Great Nicobar Island 

Great Nicobar Island (Area in Sq Km) 

935.21 

16.86 10.25 30.81 0.17 0.25 0.09

Coral Associated 

Organisms

Coral Associate: Echinoderm diversity in A&N Islands 

Species composition: 

World: 7000 species, India: 765 species 

A&N Is.: 432 species, 244 genera and 86 families 

Zone Family Genera Species Sp. Diversity(H’) 

South Andaman 19 36 58 4.17 

Little Andaman 7 15 28 3.12 

Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

14 25 47 3.64 

Middle Andaman 5 18 35 3.45 

North Andaman 4 20 42 3.60 

Car Nicobar Island 5 14 22 2.86 

Nancowry Islands 8 18 34 3.19 

Great Nicobar Is. 9 22 39 3.50 

TOTAL 51 159 340 4.37

Density (No./10 sq.m.) of Echinoderms in A&N Islands 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

57.32 

44.42 

54.28 

40.13 

36.2 

21.03 

32.72 

21.33 

10 

0

Echinoderms - Holothurians 

Actinopyga lecanora Actinopyga mauritiana Actinopyga miliaris 

Bahadschia argus 

Bahadschia marmorata 

Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) 

coluber 

Euapta godreffroyi 

Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis 

Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis 

Stichopus chloronotus 

Stichopus vastus 

Stichoupus hermani 

Holothuria pervicax 

Synapta maculata 

Thelenota ananas 

Holothuria pyxis Selenka

Echinoderms – Asteroids, Ophiuroids and Crinoids 

Culcita schmideliana Linckia guildingi Gray Linckia guildingi Gray 

Ophiarachna incrassta 

Ophiocoma valenciae 

Opiothrix spiculata 

Asterina seasini (de Lorid) 

Ophianastix annulosa 

Coenometra emendatrix (Bell) 

Anthenea tuberculosa Gray, 1847 

Astropecten indicus Doderlein 

Coenometra emendatrix (Bell)

Echinoderms of RJMNP 

Prionocidaris verticillata 

Echinothrix diadema 

Arbacia punctulata 

Echinothirx mathaei 

Tripneustes gratilla 

Diadema savignyi 

Mespilia globulus 

Stomopneustes variolaris

Echinoderms of Great Nicobar Island 

Oxycomanthus bennetti Oxycomanthus benneti Comanthus parvicirrus 

Comanthina nobilis 

Acanthaster planci

Coral Associate: Molluscan diversity in A&N Islands 


World: 56235 species, India: 3271 species, 591 genera and 220 families 





Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

50 96 275 4.15 






TOTAL 66 156 387 4.15

Density (No./10sq.m) of Molluscs in A&N Islands 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

36.57 

32.75 

40.38 39.13 

35.5 

23.04 

37.33

Molluscs of South Andaman 

Bursa granularis 

Mentellum hains Gmelin 

Lambis (Harpago) chiragra chiragra 

Pleuroploca filamentosa 

Tridacna gigas 

Conus geographus 

Cypraea (Mauritia) mauritiana regina 

Turbo (Marmarostoma) crassus 

Tridacna gigas

Molluscs of Great Nicobar Island 

Conus eburneus Linnaues, 1758 Acanthopleura spiniger (Sowerby, 1840) Bursa granularis (Roding, 1798) 

Conus ebraeus Linnaeus, 1758 Conus mutabilis Reeve, 1844 Conus nussatella Linnaeus, 1758 

Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica 

(Linnaeus, 1758) 

Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica 

(Linnaeus, 1758) 

Cypraea moneta (Linnaeus, 1758)

Molluscs of North Andaman 

Cypraea (Monetaria) moneta 

Cypraea erosa 

Cypraea errones 

Conus capitaneus Conus episcopus Conus striatus 

Haliotis asiana 

Thais hippocastanum 

Morula nodicostata

Molluscs of RJMNP 

Cypraea erosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Cypraea isabella Linnaeus, 1758 Cypraea mappa (Linnaeus, 1758) 

Nautilus pompilius Linnaeus, 1758 Nerita maxima Linnaeus, 1791 Angaria delphinus nodosa (Reeve,1846) 

Trochus niloticus (Linnaeus, 1767) Calpurnus verrucosus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bulla ampula Linnaeus, 1758 

Nerita albicilla albicilla Linnaeus,1758 Naticarius onca (Roeding, 1798) Bursa granularis (Roeding, 1798)

Molluscs of RJMNP 

Cassis cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 

Conus pennaceus Born, 1778 

Conus striolatus Kiener, 1845 

Murex trapa Roeding, 1798 

Gemmula unedo(Kiener, 1840) Lambis lambis (Linnaeus, 1758) 

Hebra subspinosa (Lamarck, 1822) Nassarius nodifer Powys, 1835 Cerithium Columna (Sowerby, 1834)

Diversity of Nudibranchs in A&N Islands 


World: 4000 species, India: 320 species 

A&N Is.: 240 species 




Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

10 24 55 2.01 






TOTAL 45 73 240 3.19

Nudibranchs - RJMNP 

Aldisa erwinkoehleri Perrone, 

2000 

Bornella anguilla Johnson, 

1984 

Bornella stellifer (Adams and 

Reeve in Adams, 1848 ) 

Chelidonura hirundinina 

(Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) 

Chromodoris hintuanensis 

Gosliner & Behrens, 1998 

Chromodoris geometrica 

Risbec, 1928 

Chromodoris conchyliata 

Yonow, 1984 

Chromodoris colemani 

Rudman, 1982 

Chromodoris sinensis 

Rudman, 1985 

Chromodoris strigata 

Rudman, 1982 

Dermatobranchus cf 

semistriatus Baba, 1949 

Durvilledoris pusilla (Bergh, 

1874)

Nudibranchs 

Hypselodoris maridadilus 

Rudman, 1977 

Hypselodoris infucata 

(Ruppell & Leuckart, 1828) 

Glossodoris pallida (Ruppell 

and Leuckart, 1830) 

Flabellina rubrolineata 

(O'Donoghue, 1929) 

Phyllidia elegans Bergh, 1869 

Phyllaplysia engeli Marcus, 

1955 

Phidiana indica (Bergh, 1896) Okenia kendi Gosliner, 2004 

Phyllidiopsis annae 

Brunckhorst, 1993 

Phyllidiopsis krempfi Pruvot- 

Fol, 1957 

Sebadoris nubilosa (Pease, 

1871) 

Tambja morosa (Bergh, 1877)

Nudibranchs of Ritchie’s Archipelago 

Phyllidia ocellata Flabellina exoptata Gymnodoris striata Nembrotha lineolata 

Glossodoris hikuerensis Glossodoris cincta Hypselodoris krakatoa Chromodoris geminus 

Hypselodoris sagamiensis Hypselodoris zebrina Mexichromis multituberculata Phidiana militaris

Nudibranchs of South Andaman 

Philinopsis pilsbryi 

Chelidoneura sandrana Berthella martensi Chromodoris elizabethina 

Philinopsis speciosa Syphonota geographica Elysia ornata Halgerda stricklandi 

Micromelo guamensis 

Halgerda balacusia 

Halgerda tesselata 

Ceratosoma trilobatum

Nudibranchs of Middle Andaman 

Phyllidiella zeylanica 

(Kelaart, 1859) 

Chromodoris striatella 

Bergh, 1876 

Hypselodoris maculosa 

(Pease, 1871) 

Cerberilla annulata 

(Quoy & Gaimard, 1832) 

Phyllidia coelestis 

Bergh, 1905 

Phyllidia madangensis 


Phyllidiella cooraburrama 


Phyllidiopsis phiphiensis 


Risbecia pulchella 

(Ruppell & Leuckart, 1828) 

Glossodoris atromarginata 

(Cuvier, 1804) 

Jorunna rubescens 

Bergh, 1876 

Gymnodoris rubropapulosa 

(Bergh, 1905)

Polyclads - 31 species 

Pseudoceros goslineri 

Newman and Cannon, 1994. 

Phrikoceros mopsus (Marcus, 

1952) 

Pseudoceros gamblei 

Laidlaw, 1903. 

Pseudobiceros uniarborensis 

Newman and Cannon, 1994 

Pseudoceros concinnus 

(Collingwood, 1867) 

Pseudobiceros stellae 

Newman and Cannon, 1994 

Pseudobiceros damawan 

Newman and Cannon, 1994. 

Pseudoceros bifurcus 

Prudhoe, 1989. 

Cycloporus venetus Newman 

and Cannon, 2002 

Pseudobiceros flavocanthus 

Newman and Cannon, 1994

Diversity of Sponges in A&N Islands 


World: 8343 species, 668 genera and 131 families 

India: 454 species, 172 genera and 65 families 





Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

9 14 15 1.74 






TOTAL 12 16 53 3.12

Sponges in Inglis Island 

Cinachyra australiensis 

Xestospongia sp. 

Ananchora sp. 

Chalinula nematifera 

Stylotella sp 

Hyrtios erecta 

Stylissa sp. 

Liosina paradoxa 

Paratetilla bacca

Sponges of Car Nicobar Island 

Acanthella klethra Pulitzer- 

Finali, 1982 

Depth: 3-25m 

Ircinia strobilina (Lamark, 1816) 

Depth: 5-15m 

Gelliodes fibulatus (Carter, 

1881) 

Depth: 5-20m 

Crella (Grayella) cyathophora 

Carter, 1869 

Depth: 0.5-4m 

Carteriospongia foliascens 

(Pallas, 1776) 

Depth: 1-15m 

Chalinula nematifera (de 

Laubenfels, 1954) 

Depth: 1-15m 

Lamellodysidae herbacea 

(Keller, 1889) 

Depth: 0.5-10m 

Liosina paradoxa Thiele, 1899 

Depth: 1-6m 

Ecionemia acervus Bowerbank 

1864 

Depth: 0.5-2m

Sponges of RJMNP 

Stylissa carteri (Dendy, 1889) 

Depth: 2-20m 

Rhabdastrella globostellata 

(Carter, 1883) 

Depth: 4-10m 

Xestospongia testudinaria 

Lamark, 1815 

Depth: 5-30m 

Oceanapia sagittaria (Sollas, 

1902) 

Depth: 1-5m 

Pseudoceratina purpurea (Carter, 

1880) 

Depth: 0.5-2m 

Paratetilla bacca (Selenka, 1867) 

Depth: 0.5-10m 

Scopalina ruetzleri 

(Wiedenmayer, 1977) 

Depth: 5-15m 

Tethya repens Schmidt, 1870 

Depth: Intertidal 

Hyrtios erectus 

(Keller, 1889) 

Depth: 0.5-5m 

Monanchora arbuscula 

(Duchassaing and 

Michelotti, 1864) 

Depth: 3-8m

Diversity of Gorgonians in A&N Islands 


World: 408 species, 229 genera and 29 families 

India: 89 species, 37 genera and 11 families 





Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

8 14 14 1.58 






TOTAL 12 29 58 2.68

Gorgonids of Ritchie’s Archipelago 

Menella sp. 

Menella sp 

Euplexaura sp. 

Isis sp. 

Isis sp. 

Rumphella sp. 

Nicella sp. 

Echinogorgia sp. 

Ellisella sp.

Gorgonids in RJMP 

Rumphella antipathies (Linnaeus 1758) Echinogorgia flora Nutting, 1910 Junceella juncea (Pallas, 1766) 

Menella indica Gray, 1870 

Nicella flabellata (Whitelegge, 1897) 

Menella sp

Diversity of Soft Corals in A&N Islands 


India: 221species 

A&N Is.: 221species 

Zone Family Genera Species 

South Andaman 3 6 6 

Little Andaman 3 6 6 

Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

2 3 3 

Middle Andaman 2 2 3 

North Andaman 2 3 3 

Car Nicobar Island 2 3 3 

Nancowry Islands 2 4 4 

Great Nicobar Is. 2 3 3 

TOTAL 3 8 18

) 

Parisis sp. (Verrill, 1864) Wrightella sp. (Gray, 1870) 

Lobophytum sp. (Marenzeller, 1886) 

Cladiella sp. (Gray, 1869) 

Annella sp. (Gray, 1858) 

Sarcophyton sp. (Lesson, 1834), 

Soft corals of A&N Is. 

Rhytisma sp.(Alderslade, 2000) 

Dendronephthya sp. (Kukenthal, 1905)

Alcyonaceans (Soft Corals) of RJMNP - 17 species / 8 genera 

Lobophytum sp. Lobophytum sp Sartophyton sp. 

Sinularia sp. Sartophyton sp. Sartophyton sp.

Diversity of Fishes in A&N Islands 


World: 22200 species 

India: 2546 species 

A&N Is.: 1463 species, 600 genera, 176 families 




Ritchie’s 

Archipelago 

38 93 216 2.45 






TOTAL 46 119 469 4.87

Reef Fishes of South Andaman 

Pterois antennata 

(Bloch,1787) 

Thalassoma lunare 

(Linnaeus,1758) 

Scolopsis lineatus 

Quoy & Gaimard,1824 

Stegastes nigricans 

(Lacepede,1802) 

Pomacanthus semicirculatus 

(Cuvier,1831) 

Plectorhinchus flavomaculatus 

(Cuvier,1830) 

Pomacentrus moluccensis 

Bleeker,1853 

Upeneus vittatus 

(Forsskal,1775) 

Apogon leptacanthus 

Bleeker, 1856 

Apogon cyanosoma 

Bleeker,1853 

Amphiprion ocellaris 

Cuvier,1830 

Amphiprion akallopisos 

Bleeker,1853.

Reef Fishes of Great Nicobar Island 

Eviota albolineata 

Jewett & Lachner, 1983 

Eviota prasina (Klunzinger, 

1871) 

Eviota sebreei 

Jordan & Seale, 1906 

Exallias brevis 

(Kner, 1868) 

Helcogramma striatum Hansen, 

1986 

Heniochus pleurotaenia 

Ahl, 1923 

Naso elegans 

(Rüppell, 1829) 

Plagiotremus phenax 

Smith-Vaniz, 1976 

Plectorhinchus albovittatus 

(Ruppell,1838) 

Pomacentrus lepidogenys Fowler 

& Ball, 1928 

Priolepis compita 

Winterbottom, 1985 

Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828)

54 

52 

50 

48 

46 

44 

42 

Phytoplankton Diversity 

77 species 

51 

47 

45 

Cell Count: 58.52 to 115.03 × 10 2 L -1 

Sp. Diversity: 2.02 – 2. 97 

54 

40 

South & Little 

Andaman 

Ritchie's 

Archipelago 

Middle & North 

Andaman 

Nicobar Islands

Phytoplankton of A&N Islands 

Ceratium macroceros 

Ballarochea malleus 

Cossinodiscus centralis 

Triceratium alternans 

Triceratium pentacranium 

Hemidiscus hardmanian 

Cheatoceras indicus 

Rhoicosigma robustum 

Nitzschia longissima

Zooplankton Diversity 

96 species 

Fresh wt.: 2180 - 3450 mg/100m 3 

Dry wt. : 567 - 935 mg/100m 3 

Volume : 5.3 - 8.1 ml/100m 3 

Sp. Diversity: 1.18 -2.89 

80 

60 

65 

65 

80 

67 

40 

20 

0 

South & Little 

Andaman 

Ritchie's 

Archipelago 

Middle & 

North 

Andaman 

Nicobar 

Islands

Amphipods 

Annelid larvae 

Appendicularians 

Chaetognaths 

Cladocerans 

Copepods 

Crustacean larva 

Doliolids 

Echionoderm… 

Foraminiferans 

Isopods 

Leptomedusae 

Molluscs 

Ophisthobranchs 

Ostractods 

Pisces 

Radiolarians 

Salpids 

Siphonophores 

40 

Zooplankton Species Composition in A&N Is. 

S 

p 

e 

c 

i 

e 

s 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

2 2 1 

8 

3 

37 

4 1 2 

19 

1 1 5 1 3 1 1 2 2

Zooplankton of A&N Islands 

Microsetella norvegica 

Euterpina acutiferans 

Macrosetella occulata 

Sphaerogypsina globules 

Planispirenella exiquta 

Nauplii 

Mugil cephalus 

Chirocentrus dorab 

Carangoides malabaricus

Other Coral Associated faunal groups of A&N Islands 

• Crustaceans - 830 sp. 

• Ascidians – 9 sp. 

• Polychaetes – 48 sp. 

• Sea anemones - 24 

sp. 

Bispira brunnea 

Didemnum molle 

Clavinella moluccensis

Threats to Coral Reefs of A & N Islands 

Natural Threats 

• Rise in surface seawater temperature (El Nino) triggered the coral bleaching 

• Sedimentation due to land and river run off increasing the turbidity of the 

water column which prevents the symbiotic algae from capturing sunlight, 

which is the coral’s primary source of energy and nutrition. 

• Coral diseases caused by microbes leads to the mortality of corals 

• Earthquakes and tidal waves (tsunami) damages the reefs 

• Predation by ‘Crown-of-Thorn ‘ Sea star Acanthaster planci 

Anthropogenic Threats 

• Marine Pollution caused by domestic and municipal sewages etc. 

• Oil pollution and oil spillages 

• Pesticide pollution due to agricultural activities 

• Indiscriminate fishing in the coral reef zone by operating trawl and gill nets 

• Damages due to anchorage of vessels 

• Unorganized tourism

Natural Threats 

1. Impact of Earthquake cum Tsunami on Coral Reefs of A&N 

• A massive earthquake cum tsunami struck on 26 th December 

2004 caused heavy destruction to the coral reefs of A&N 

Islands 

Impact 

The islands of North and Middle Andaman are uplifted 1m 

above sea level permanently 

The Islands of Nicobar group submerged and sea level raised 

about 1.9m. 

Damages due to tsunami are 

• 1. Total erosion or breaking up of reefs in Andaman Islands 

• 2. Deposition of sand, mud and detritus on reefs in Nicobar 

Islands

Sea level raise in Katchall Island, Nicobar

Uplifted Coral Reefs in North Andaman - Landfall Island

Loss of Coral Reef 

• A total loss of coral reefs in Andaman Islands was 

22978ha and in Nicobar Islands it was 17180ha 

(SAC, 2005) 

• North and Middle Andaman reefs are uplifted about 1 

metre and exposed permanently due to earthquake 

leads to 30% loss of coral cover (ZSI, 2006) 

• 20% loss of coral reefs found in South Andaman (ZSI, 

2006)

Percentage 

Coral Bleaching (April to May 2010) : 45-78%. 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

45 

52.13 

64.21 

78 

73.25 

64 

54.27 

57.94

Coral Bleaching in Rutland Island 

Acropora microphthalma (Verrill, 1859) Acropora nobilis (Dana 1846) Stylophora pistillata (Esper,1797) 

Porites solida (Forskal, 1775) 

Symphyllia radians Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849 Lobophyllia hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834)

Coral Bleaching in Great Nicobar Island 

Acropora formosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Porites solida (Forskal, 1775) 

Stylophora pistillata (Esper,1797) Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier,1971 Pocillopora eydouxi

Predation by Butterfly fishes & Parrot fishes (66 species in A&N Is.)

Predation by Crown-of-Thorn Starfish Acanthester planci

Coral Diseases 

White plague 

White Pox 

Pink spot 

White band

Anthropogenic Threats 

1. Fishing 

2. Debris 

2. Tourism

Coastal Fisheries 

Of the 13,200 known species of 

marine fishes, 80% are coastal 

• Marine Fishery Potential of EEZ 

is 3.934 million tonnes 

• Demersal – 20.17 lakh tonnes 

• Pelagic – 16.73 lakh tonnes 

• Oceanic - 2.44 lakh tonnes 

• Deep sea – 1.01 lakh tonnes

• Fishing villages: 3638 

Fish production in India 

• Fish landing centres: 2251 

• Fishermen population: 5.8 million 

• Total marine fish production: 2.692 million 

tonnes/yr. 

• West coast: 68% contribution 

• East coast: 32% contribution

Coastal Tourism 

• West Bengal – Digha Beach 

• Orissa – Gopalpur, Chandipur, Konark, 

Paradip, Puri, 

• Karnataka – Karwar, Malpe Maravanthe, 

Murudeshwar, Bhatkal 

• Tamil Nadu – Marina, Mahaballipuram, 

Rameswaram, Covelong, Kanyakumari 

• Pondicherry – Serenity Beach, Paradise Beach 

• Goa - 13 beaches 

• Kerala – Kovalam, Kumarokom beach, 

Alappuzha, Fort Kochi Beach 

• Gujarat – Gopnath, Somnath, Veraval, 

Ahmedpur Mandvi, Beyt Dwarka, Chorward 

• Maharashtra – Mumbai 

• Andaman & Nicobar – Havelock, Karmatang, 

Corbyn’s 

• Lakshadweep 

• Andhra Pradesh – Vishakhapatnam, Nellore, 

Mypad, Vodarevu 

Andaman & Nicobar

Ecological significance of coast in maritime 

states of India 

State Coastline Ecologically Sensitive areas 

Tamil Nadu 860 km Coral reefs (Gulf of Mannar), Mangroves (Pitchavaram, 

Muthupet), 

Pearl oyster beds (Tuticorin) 

Andhra Pradesh 930 km Lagoon (Pulicat), Mangroves (Krishna, Godavari) 

Orissa 450 km Turtle nesting beaches, Crocodile sanctuary, Lagoon (Chilka), 

Living fossil - Horse-shoe crabs, Coral Reef 

West Bengal 220 km Sunderban mangroves, swamp and backwaters 

Kerala 560 km Backwaters, Asthamudi and Vembanad lakes 

Karnataka 290 km Wildlife and Mangroves 

Maharashtra 720 km Marine Sanctuary at Malvan 

Gujarat 1663 km Coral reefs, Mangroves in Gulf of Katchchh, Rann of Katchchh 

A& N Islands 1926 km 572 islands, coral reefs, mangroves, 96 wildlife sanctuaries, 9 

national parks, 1 biosphere reserve 

Lakshadweep 192 km Coral Reefs, Atolls

Human uses of Coastal Zone 

Zone Coastal features Uses 

Offshore Continental Shelf Fishing, Oil exploration, Mining, Dumping of 

wastes, sewage outfalls. 

Coral reefs 

Tourism, Fishing, Quarrying 

Nearshore Beaches Recreation, sand, gravel mining, resorts, 

Backshore 

Zone 

Wetlands 

Shore platform 

Dunes 

Cliffs 

Aquaculture, Reclamation, Grazing 

Seafood hunting, quarrying 

Recreation, Golf courses, Building, water 

extraction 

Shore protection, Building, Mining 

Inshore Coastline Ports and harbours, Marinas, Housing, 

Industry, Agriculture, Tourism

Coastal Industries and waste generation 

Issues East Coast West Coast Total 

No. of industries (large and medium) 75 233 308 

No. of aquaculture farms 138 - 138 

Industrial effluents (in million cubic m./day) 0.50 0.85 1.35 

Waste generated from aquaculture farms 

(in million cubic m./day) 

2.37 - 2.37 

Industrial solid waste (tonnes/day) 19,834 14,642 34,476 

(Source: Roy and Ghosh, 2009)

State-wise industries and waste generation 

Issue Guj MH Goa Kar Kera TN Pon AP Oris WB 

No. of 

industries 

(large 

and 

medium) 

35 167 2 3 26 30 4 30 4 7 

No. of 

aquacultu 

re farms 

Industrial 

effluents 

(in million 

cubic 

m./day) 

Waste 

generated 

from 

aquacultur 

e farms (in 

million 

cubic 

m./day) 

- - - - - 20 - 88 20 10 

0.566 0.08 0.012 0.043 0.151 0.125 0.006 0.35 0.001 0.022 

- - - - - 0.253 - 2.116 - - 

Industrial 

solid 

waste 

(tonnes/d 

ay) 

9506 2628 1.4 76 2431 9112 1.25 7191 3505 25 

(Source: Roy and Ghosh, 2009)

Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) 

CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas such as national parks, marine parks, 

sanctuary, reserve forests, mangroves, coral reefs, areas close to breeding 

and spawning ground of fishes and historical heritage areas inundated due 

to sea level rise and global warming. 

• Area between low tide line and high tide line 

CRZ-II: The areas that have already been developed up to and close to the 

shoreline. 

CRZ-III: The area that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not 

belong to either category of CRZ-I or CRZ-II 

CRZ-IV: Coastal stretches in A&N Islands, Lakshadweep and small islands 

except those designated as CRZ-I, CRZ-II and CRZ-III

Prohibited Activities under CRZ 

• Setting up of new industry and its expansion 

• Manufacture, handling, storage and/or disposal of hazardous 

substances 

• Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including 

warehousing 

• Setting up and expansion of units for disposal of wastes and 

effluents except facilities required for disposal of treated effluents 

• Discharges of untreated sewage, effluents from industries, cities or 

towns. 

• Dumping of solid waste 

• Land reclamation 

• Mining of sand and rocks 

• Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas

Permissible activities under CRZ 

• Activities that need waterfront and foreshore 

• Activities that need environmental clearance from MoEF 

• Construction activities related to defense requirements needing 

foreshore 

• Operational construction for ports, harbours, lighthouses requiring 

water frontage, jetties, shipways, wharves, docks etc. 

• Thermal power plants 

• All other activities with investments exceeding Rs.50 million

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