sustainable development 20 years on from the ... - JosÃ© Eli da Veiga

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65 Figure I.19 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN: EXPORT VOLUMES OF SELECTED PRODUCTS, 1990-<strong>20</strong>08 a (Millions of tons) 350 16 300 14 250 12 <strong>20</strong>0 10 8 150 6 100 4 50 2 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 <strong>20</strong>00 <strong>20</strong>01 <strong>20</strong>02 <strong>20</strong>03 <strong>20</strong>04 <strong>20</strong>05 <strong>20</strong>06 <strong>20</strong>07 <strong>20</strong>08 0 Iron ore, iron and steel Copper, copper ores and concentrates (right scale) Pulp and paper (right scale) Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of United Nations, Commodity Trade Database (COMTRADE) and Foreign Trade Data Bank for Latin America and the Caribbean (BADECEL). a The product groupings refer to the following codes in the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC), revision 1: Iron ore, iron and steel - 2813, 2814, 6711, 6712, 67131, 67132, 67133, 6714, 6715, 6721, 67231, 67232, 67233, 67251, 67252, 67253, 67271, 67272, 67273, 6729, 67311, 67312, 67313, 67321, 67322, 67323, 67341, 67342, 67343, 67351, 67352, 67353, 67411, 67412, 67413, 67414, 67421, 67422, 67423, 67431, 67432, 67433, 6747, 67481, 67482, 67501, 67502, 67503, 6761, 6762, 67701, 67702, 67703, 6781, 6782, 6783, 6784, 6785, 6791, 6792, 6793; Copper, copper ores and concentrates - 28311, 28312, 68211, 68212, 68213, 68221, 68222, 68223, 68224, 68225, 68226; Pulp and paper - 2511, 2512, 2515, 2516, 25171, 25172, 25181, 25182, 2519. The countries of the region have toughened their environmental laws on mining exploration. Mining companies, for their part, have put management and certification systems into place and, in some cases, have bolstered them with occupational health and safety strategies, introduced cleaner production technologies and developed environmental education and training projects. 15 Various legal loopholes and problems with enforcement remain, however. In addition, existing legislation and regulations on mine closures do not always specify who should shoulder responsibility for the associated environmental liabilities (ECLAC, <strong>20</strong>09). Problems continue to exist in such areas as governments’ capacity for the review of environmental impact assessments, oversight of mining operations and of mine closures and mine abandonment plans, arrangements for dealing with mining operations’ environmental liabilities, the restoration of damaged sites, occupational safety and accidents, and mining companies’ relations with indigenous communities and peoples. Small-scale mining poses a special type of challenge, since such operations are often informal and have little access to sophisticated technology or to financing (ECLAC, 15 See for example the experience of Petrobras in “Petrobrás Meio Ambiente e Sociedade”, [online] http://www.petrobras.com.br/pt/meio-ambiente-e-sociedade/preservando-meio-ambiente/.
66 <strong>20</strong>09). In addition to environmental concerns, there is the fact that few countries have a scheme for the <strong>development</strong> of <strong>sustainable</strong> mining operations that would integrate this industry’s potential into national and community <strong>development</strong> objectives by ensuring the effective participation of the surrounding communities, along with the State and mining companies, in decision-making. Major inter-generational challenges for countries with large mining or drilling industries include the creation of production linkages and the introduction of fiscal mechanisms that will channel the wealth created by these industries (especially in the case of windfall profits) to society and use it to generate sources of economic growth for future generations. Countries that are reaping huge oil profits also have to devise policies for managing and distributing those profits efficiently if they are to avert inflationary shocks and un<strong>sustainable</strong> increases in the value of their currencies, which could hurt their export sectors (Altomonte, <strong>20</strong>08). The boom in mining and oil profits should enable these countries to fully cover the environmental costs and contribute, via fiscal or other means, to national <strong>development</strong>. In order to finance initiatives for expanding their capacity for innovation and technology, the countries of the region have established charges or royalties on metal and non-metal mining, such as the royalty charged in Chile since <strong>20</strong>06 (see chapter V), or to finance infrastructure, as in the case of the new tax system promulgated in Peru in September <strong>20</strong>11. These charges fuel additional tax inflows, which will be used to build facilities such as hospitals, schools and roads in the poorest areas of the country (Ministry of Mining and Energy of Peru, <strong>20</strong>11). Once the importance of preserving sound ecosystems is understood and the value of the services they fulfil is appreciated , these systems may start to compete with natural resource exploration. 16 One interesting case relating to extractive industries (in this instance, oil) and climate change is that of the Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, where the Government has offered to refrain from tapping the oil fields located there in exchange for financial compensation from the international community. 17 (b) Agriculture Agriculture makes a considerable contribution to GDP, export earnings, employment and rural livelihoods throughout the region. The land area devoted to irrigated crop-farming, especially for export commodities, has expanded in the last two decades, and livestock and aquaculture industries have grown as well (ECLAC/FAO/ IICA, <strong>20</strong>10). This expansion has had a considerable impact on changes in land use and on greenhouse gas emissions. The Latin American and Caribbean region is second only to East Asia in terms of emissions generated by the agricultural sector. As in other regions, nitrous oxide emissions are due mainly to the use of fertilizers in the soil and methane emissions are due mainly to enteric fermentation in livestock. With increasingly vast tracts of land being used for agriculture and livestock rearing, the use of nitrogen fertilizers has escalated and cattle herds have grown with an inevitable surge, as already mentioned, in nitrous oxide and methane gas emissions (Smith and others, <strong>20</strong>07). 16 17 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (<strong>20</strong>05) defines ecosystem services as the benefits that human beings obtain from ecosystems: provisioning services such as food, water, timber, fibre and genetic resources; regulating services such as climate, floods, diseases and water quality; cultural services, such as recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits; supporting services, such as soil formation, pollination and nutrient cycling. These services are not developed in this section since, although they are vital for ensuring other types of services, they are not used directly by humans (see [online] http://www.greenfacts.org/en/ecosystems/millenniumassessment-2/2-ecosystem-services.htm#1). See [online] http://yasuni-itt.gob.ec/.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20<
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Alicia Bárcena Executive Secretary
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4 8. Protection of fishery resource
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6 Table II.1 Ratification of multil
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8 Figure V.7 Figure V.8 Figure V.9
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11 FOREWORD In December 20<
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13 INTRODUCTION The United Nations
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Page 18 and 19: 17 Box 2 (concluded) 24 Warfare is
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Page 22 and 23: 21 The dynamic on which these data
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Page 27 and 28: 26 inequality, access to basic serv
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Page 37 and 38: 36 The problem of unreliable servic
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Page 41 and 42: 40 Concerning tenure, certain struc
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Page 51 and 52: 50 Generally speaking, national hea
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Page 57 and 58: 56 patterns in Latin America, with
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Page 73 and 74: 72 C. ENERGY: ENERGY INTENSITY, EFF
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Page 87 and 88: 86 E. STRENGTHENING THE STATE AND A
Page 89 and 90: 88 Bibliography Acquatella, Jean (<
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116 coast and in marine areas, the
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118 Box II.4 CENTRAL AMERICA: BIODI
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120 25 Figure II.1
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122 The valuable assets related to
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124 monitoring have been instrument
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126 Box II.7 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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128 technology transfer is successf
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130 Table II.6 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT
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132 (a) Integrated water resources
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134 concessions, authorizations and
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136 water flows caused by land-use
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138 Climate change will exacerbate
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140 With regard to the safe recover
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142 MERCOSUR countries are implemen
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144 Unlike in the early 1990s, all
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146 Bibliography Acquatella, J. (<s
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148 Li, J. and M. Colombier (<stron
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150 WHO (World Health Organization)
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152 1. Statistics and indicators Si
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154 3. Technology and environmental
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156 2. Citizen participation in env
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158 Reforms that would improve acce
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160 (b) Land ownership Land rights
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162 Box III.3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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164 Box III.4 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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166 Many countries have created ins
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168 Since 1992, municipalities in L
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170 requirements of legislation; 14
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172 8. The science and technology c
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174 9. Farmers Rural households, in
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176 Bibliography Acuña, G. (<stron
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178 Tréllez, E. (20</stron
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180 A. IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIO
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182 strategies, develop mechanisms
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184 participatory process; and nati
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186 issues, which have been incorpo
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188 Furthermore, at the internation
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190 4. Freshwater resources, water
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192 With respect to coastal and mar
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194 Further to the issues identifie
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196 (2006), Challe
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198 (2010b), Towar
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200 As for financi
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202 This assistanc
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204 Regions Table
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206 In addition to
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208 Figure V.5 LAT
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210 Innovative financing mechanisms
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212 8.8 Agricultural support estima
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214 2. Agricultural subsidies Most
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216 (18.9%). 11 Fishery subsidies h
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218 Figure V.9 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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220 1. Science and
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222 Figure V.10 LATIN AMERICA AND T
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224 2. Scientific capacities and te
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226 4. Knowledge plurality Rural po
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228 IDB (Inter-American Development
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231 Chapter VI GUIDELINES FOR ACHIE
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233 B. GUIDELINES FOR THE INTEGRATI
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235 (b) Strengthen policies designe
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237 from these sectors could suffer
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239 (f) Send proper signals to esse
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241 The following actions are sugge
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243 As part of the preparatory proc
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245 Indicators can help to raise aw
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247 All of these initiatives seek t
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249 (a) Reform curricula to include
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251 (ii) Support initiatives to for
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253 (b) For Latin America and the C
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255 initiatives, are intended to no
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This report describes the progress
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