sustainable development 20 years on from the ... - JosÃ© Eli da Veiga

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219 The benefits for environmental sustainability of a multilateral, regional or bilateral system of intellectual-property protection are not automatic, but will depend on a balanced consideration of environmental, social and economic interests. In response to environmentally harmful products or processes, the <strong>development</strong> of more environmentally benign alternatives will generate corresponding intellectual property rights. That is to say, insofar as the answer to environmental problems lies in technological innovation, the current structure of the intellectual property regime and international trade rules can provide significant opportunities to innovators, by guaranteeing them the right to capture a proportion of the rents arising from improved environmental performance (United Nations, <strong>20</strong>10b). Nonetheless, the dissemination of new technologies is in practice limited by the expanding scope of the international intellectual property regime and lengthening of the period of protection specified in bilateral free-trade agreements on this issue. In fact, trade provisions on intellectual property restrict traditional methods of reverse engineering and other forms of imitative innovation; restrict exceptions to patentability, which particularly affects pharmaceutical and food products; and reduces forms of compulsory licensing (Schaper, <strong>20</strong>07). All of this could obstruct efforts by Latin American and Caribbean countries to improve their technological <strong>development</strong> levels, and to modernize and promote a <strong>sustainable</strong> <strong>development</strong> process. At the same time, insofar as some developing countries gradually start to produce more innovation and scientific research with commercial applications, they could also benefit from higher levels of protection for their creations. At the Latin American and Caribbean Regional Meeting Preparatory to the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+<strong>20</strong>), the countries indicated the need for commitments to achieve “effective access to and transfer of safe and appropriate technologies, without conditionalities and on preferential terms for developing countries” and “the promotion of a global intellectual property rights regime that facilitates the transfer of such technologies, in keeping with the commitments undertaken by each country” (ECLAC, <strong>20</strong>11b). C. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER After the Earth Summit in 1992, the World Conference on Science (WCS) was held in Budapest in 1999, convened by UNESCO and the International Council for Science (ICSU). The two final documents produced by the conference laid foundations for formulating a new social contract for science. First, the Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge focuses on solving problems within science, technology and society. Second, the Science Agenda: Framework for Action is a guide to promoting joint activities in science and technology to further <strong>sustainable</strong> human <strong>development</strong>, in harmony with the natural environment. Both documents were adopted by consensus among all participants at the World Science Conference, and also by the General Conference of UNESCO and the International Council for Science. Participation by Latin American and Caribbean countries in the World Conference on Science was based on the Santo Domingo Declaration: Science for the Twenty-first Century: A New Vision and a Framework for Action (UNESCO, 1999). This stated the need to strengthen support for science and technology; break down barriers between the natural sciences and social science; and improve education on science and technology to integrate them into general culture and strengthen international scientific cooperation. The Declaration explicitly states the need to formulate a new social contract for science and technology. 15 15 See the Santo Domingo Declaration [online] http://www.unesco.org/science/wcs/meetings/lac_santo_domingo_s_99.
2<strong>20</strong> 1. Science and technology in Latin America and the Caribbean More than a decade on from Budapest, many of the targets proposed in the WCS documents are still far from being attained, as shown by consultations between UNESCO member States and associate members in Latin America and the Caribbean. The generation and absorption of scientific-technological knowledge remain almost exclusively concentrated in developed countries, and the technological gap separating them from developing countries has widened. The intensification of globalized relations and the internationalization of scientific and technological production continues to be hampered by restrictions on the circulation and dissemination of the knowledge produced. The Latin American and Caribbean technological innovation system underwent a transformational change in the 1990s, as a result of common macroeconomic policies implemented throughout the region and the consequent changes (see chapter I). The barriers to national technological <strong>development</strong> increased as a result of the adoption of foreign technological packages, an increase in FDI, a reduction in the importance of public enterprises and their research and <strong>development</strong> departments, and an increase in the market share of foreign firms. At the same time, the gap between regional technological processes and achievements at the innovation frontier is widening in many cases, as a result of rapid progress worldwide in the fields of biotechnology, new materials, energy sources, information technology and telecommunications. In Latin America and the Caribbean, investment in science and technology and in research and <strong>development</strong> is generally small, heavily concentrated in the larger countries and mainly dependent on the public sector (see figure V.10). The challenges facing technological <strong>development</strong> include insufficient financing and poor links between the productive sector and academic institutions operating with public funds (ECLAC, <strong>20</strong>10b; UNESCO, <strong>20</strong>10a). Nonetheless, in recent <strong>years</strong> policies and strategies have been implemented to overcome these difficulties. These instruments place great importance on environmental issues (see box V.1). The gap between developed and developing countries in terms of expenditure on research and <strong>development</strong> (R&D) remains wide. Moreover, technological achievements vary greatly between developing countries themselves and even between different sectors of activity within each country. The challenge of closing this gap is becoming increasingly demanding, because the region does not invest enough in innovation or use all of its resources efficiently. Although R&D investment in the region has grown, it is still inadequate to needs. In <strong>20</strong>07, R&D investment amounted to approximately US$ 19 billion at constant <strong>20</strong>00 prices, almost triple the 1990 level, and constituted just over 2% of the global total (UNESCO, <strong>20</strong>10a). With the exception of Brazil, Latin American and Caribbean countries invest less in R&D than other countries of similar income levels (UNESCO, <strong>20</strong>10a), which partly explains their low total productivity, compared to the “Asian tigers” for example. If R&D is measured as a percentage of GDP, not even the most advanced countries in the region have attained the level of European countries, the United States or Japan, which range from 2% to 3.6% of GDP (ECLAC, <strong>20</strong>10b), compared to no more than 0.5% of GDP in many Latin American countries.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20<
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Alicia Bárcena Executive Secretary
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4 8. Protection of fishery resource
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6 Table II.1 Ratification of multil
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8 Figure V.7 Figure V.8 Figure V.9
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11 FOREWORD In December 20<
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13 INTRODUCTION The United Nations
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15 The Rio Declaration contains 27
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17 Box 2 (concluded) 24 Warfare is
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19 this regard, the International C
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21 The dynamic on which these data
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23 Bibliography Acquatella, J. and
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26 inequality, access to basic serv
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28 Figure I.3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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30 air (see the section on health),
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36 The problem of unreliable servic
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38 Figure I.11 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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40 Concerning tenure, certain struc
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42 Thanks to the improvements in wa
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44 One of the greatest health risks
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46 In Latin America and the Caribbe
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48 Figure I.14 UNDERNUTRITION AND O
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50 Generally speaking, national hea
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52 covered by existing retirement s
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54 Box I.3 MAINSTREAMING DISASTER-R
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56 patterns in Latin America, with
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58 In fact, despite achievements ma
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60 The second productivity feature
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62 for groups that are usually bypa
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64 Figure I.18 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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66 2009). In addit
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68 production will, however, height
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70 Lastly, climate factors are also
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72 C. ENERGY: ENERGY INTENSITY, EFF
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74 Fuel subsidies for private vehic
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76 Table I.9 LAWS FOR THE PROMOTION
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78 reduction must also be mainstrea
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80 Box I.7 URBAN SUSTAINABILITY IN
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82 Box I.8 THE ECO-EFFICIENCY OF UR
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84 Figure I.21 SELECTED COUNTRIES:
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86 E. STRENGTHENING THE STATE AND A
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88 Bibliography Acquatella, Jean (<
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90 Fresco, Louise (20</stro
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92 Perroti, D.E. and R. Sánchez (<
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94 (2010b), Achiev
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96 Table II.1 RATIFICATION OF MULTI
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98 Box II.1 (concluded) Union of So
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100 Table II.3 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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102 The same applies to the incenti
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104 Figure II.1 LATIN AMERICA AND T
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106 Box II.2 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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108 Figure II.3 SHARE OF GLOBAL GRE
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110 Figure II.7 PER CAPITA CO 2 EMI
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112 Figure II.10 CARBON INTENSITY O
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114 Table II.4 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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116 coast and in marine areas, the
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118 Box II.4 CENTRAL AMERICA: BIODI
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120 25 Figure II.1
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122 The valuable assets related to
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124 monitoring have been instrument
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126 Box II.7 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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128 technology transfer is successf
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130 Table II.6 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT
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132 (a) Integrated water resources
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134 concessions, authorizations and
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136 water flows caused by land-use
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138 Climate change will exacerbate
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140 With regard to the safe recover
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142 MERCOSUR countries are implemen
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144 Unlike in the early 1990s, all
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146 Bibliography Acquatella, J. (<s
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148 Li, J. and M. Colombier (<stron
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150 WHO (World Health Organization)
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152 1. Statistics and indicators Si
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154 3. Technology and environmental
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156 2. Citizen participation in env
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158 Reforms that would improve acce
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160 (b) Land ownership Land rights
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162 Box III.3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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164 Box III.4 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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166 Many countries have created ins
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Page 177 and 178: 176 Bibliography Acuña, G. (<stron
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Page 181 and 182: 180 A. IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIO
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Page 232 and 233: 231 Chapter VI GUIDELINES FOR ACHIE
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Page 258: This report describes the progress
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