sustainable development 20 years on from the ... - JosÃ© Eli da Veiga

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217 environment, and are thus more affected by any regulations to combat climate change. A number of OECD countries are adopting climate-change measures that have trade impacts, such as border adjustment measures, subsidies and technical standards or regulations. With a view to creating a favourable global economic and trade framework for combating climate change and ensuring global economic growth and welfare, it is necessary to avoid conflict between the international-trade and climate-change agendas; and for that purpose it is essential to design climatechange actions that are consistent with the rules of the multilateral trading system. Otherwise, disputes over climate change will proliferate in the WTO, which will weaken the international cooperation needed in climate-change policies. The most immediate risk in initiatives affecting exports is the increasing tendency of the private sector to demand products with a low environmental impact, which in some sectors is also an opportunity to place clean products on markets. Life-cycle analysis of tradable products and services would require life-cycle emissions of products and services to be included in their carbon footprint, for which there is not yet an international standard or single methodology. For Latin America and the Caribbean, the outcome is very important, because the region’s exports may gain or lose competitiveness in relation to other regions, depending on the methodology used. As consumers become more environmentally aware, and firms strive to become more energy efficient and enhance their environmental profiles, private initiatives to measure the carbon footprint and other parameters of environmental impact have proliferated. One study discovered over 330 eco-labels of various levels of complexity, covering 40 industrial sectors in 211 countries (WRI/Big Room Inc., <strong>20</strong>10). Examples of firms now requiring some form of eco-labelling in their products are Patagonia, Timberland, Tesco, Wal-Mart and Casino (Brenton, Edwards-Jones and Friis, <strong>20</strong>09; Ball, <strong>20</strong>09). The process of “reprimarization” of the region’s export basket has been ongoing since the late 1990s, largely owing to the rise in international commodity prices fuelled by burgeoning global demand (see figure V.9), and is accentuating the risk of greater regulation of trade on environmental grounds, because commodities and natural-resource-based manufactures largely coincide with products defined as environmentally sensitive. The best way to reduce the risk that industrialized countries will adopt unilateral measures is to reach a sound multilateral agreement that distinguishes between <strong>development</strong> levels and links the commitments of developing countries to the provision of financial assistance and technology transfer. The key challenge is preparedness to meet the challenges of a new low-carbon global economy. Governments in the region need to coordinate their position on these issues as soon as possible in the various forums that discuss the nexus between trade and <strong>sustainable</strong> <strong>development</strong>; and they should take steps to apply the principles promoted in international forums at the national and regional levels. Regional cooperation has broad scope for progress on these issues; but if each country in the region addresses these issues in isolation, collaboration synergies and economies of scale will be lost. It is essential to act regionally and on a coordinated basis in this area, based on specific and adequately financed projects. at the three-digit level) which incur the highest pollution reduction and control costs (over 1% of their total sales), including the following: iron and steel; non-ferrous metals; industrial chemicals; wood pulp and paper, and non-metallic minerals. In addition to being highly polluting, these industries make intensive use of capital, energy and land (Murillo, <strong>20</strong>07, pp. 27-28; Low and Yeats, 1992).
218 Figure V.9 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN: STRUCTURE OF GLOBAL EXPORTS SINCE THE EARLY 1980s (Percentages of the total by value) 100 90 80 70 60 25.5 25.0 50 40 23.5 21.7 19.3 <strong>20</strong>.2 18.4 16.6 30 <strong>20</strong> 10 51.5 48.4 39.5 32.5 26.7 27.6 35.1 38.8 0 1981-1982 1985-1986 1991-1992 1995-1996 1998-1999 <strong>20</strong>01-<strong>20</strong>02 <strong>20</strong>05-<strong>20</strong>06 <strong>20</strong>08-<strong>20</strong>09 High technology Medium technology Low technology Raw materials Natural-resource-based manufactures Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Latin America and the Caribbean in the World Economy, <strong>20</strong>09-<strong>20</strong>10 (LC/G.2467-P), Santiago, Chile, <strong>20</strong>10. United Nations publication, Sales No. E.10.II.G.5. 6. Property rights and trade rules In the two decades since the Rio Conference, the protection of intellectual property rights has firmly claimed its place on the international-trade agenda. In 1995, as a result of the GATT Uruguay Round, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement) entered into force. This is the most important multilateral agreement negotiated on this subject to date, and introduces the concept of minimum protection standards for different categories of intellectual property (trademarks, patents, copyrights, industrial designs, and so forth). Since then, industrialized countries have systematically included intellectual property on the agenda of their free-trade agreements, including those signed with developing countries. These agreements usually involve even greater protection levels than those established in the TRIPS Agreement itself (Roffe and Santa Cruz, <strong>20</strong>10). The inclusion of intellectual property in international trade rules mainly serves the interests of certain knowledge-intensive industries (such as the chemical, pharmaceutical, entertainment and information technology industries) in developed countries. Nonetheless, the issue is not entirely straightforward. Many countries that are industrialized today used intellectual-property protection systems in the past that included exceptions to patentability. This enabled them to develop their industry locally, by facilitating imitation, adaptation and reverse engineering (practices that are now restricted by multilateral rules) (United Nations, <strong>20</strong>10b).
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20<
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Alicia Bárcena Executive Secretary
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4 8. Protection of fishery resource
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6 Table II.1 Ratification of multil
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8 Figure V.7 Figure V.8 Figure V.9
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11 FOREWORD In December 20<
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13 INTRODUCTION The United Nations
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15 The Rio Declaration contains 27
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17 Box 2 (concluded) 24 Warfare is
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19 this regard, the International C
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21 The dynamic on which these data
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23 Bibliography Acquatella, J. and
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26 inequality, access to basic serv
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28 Figure I.3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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30 air (see the section on health),
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36 The problem of unreliable servic
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38 Figure I.11 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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40 Concerning tenure, certain struc
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42 Thanks to the improvements in wa
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44 One of the greatest health risks
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46 In Latin America and the Caribbe
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48 Figure I.14 UNDERNUTRITION AND O
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50 Generally speaking, national hea
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52 covered by existing retirement s
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54 Box I.3 MAINSTREAMING DISASTER-R
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56 patterns in Latin America, with
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58 In fact, despite achievements ma
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60 The second productivity feature
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62 for groups that are usually bypa
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64 Figure I.18 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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66 2009). In addit
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68 production will, however, height
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70 Lastly, climate factors are also
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72 C. ENERGY: ENERGY INTENSITY, EFF
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74 Fuel subsidies for private vehic
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76 Table I.9 LAWS FOR THE PROMOTION
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78 reduction must also be mainstrea
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80 Box I.7 URBAN SUSTAINABILITY IN
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82 Box I.8 THE ECO-EFFICIENCY OF UR
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84 Figure I.21 SELECTED COUNTRIES:
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86 E. STRENGTHENING THE STATE AND A
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88 Bibliography Acquatella, Jean (<
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90 Fresco, Louise (20</stro
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92 Perroti, D.E. and R. Sánchez (<
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94 (2010b), Achiev
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96 Table II.1 RATIFICATION OF MULTI
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98 Box II.1 (concluded) Union of So
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100 Table II.3 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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102 The same applies to the incenti
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104 Figure II.1 LATIN AMERICA AND T
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106 Box II.2 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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108 Figure II.3 SHARE OF GLOBAL GRE
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110 Figure II.7 PER CAPITA CO 2 EMI
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112 Figure II.10 CARBON INTENSITY O
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114 Table II.4 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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116 coast and in marine areas, the
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118 Box II.4 CENTRAL AMERICA: BIODI
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120 25 Figure II.1
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122 The valuable assets related to
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124 monitoring have been instrument
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126 Box II.7 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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128 technology transfer is successf
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130 Table II.6 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT
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132 (a) Integrated water resources
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134 concessions, authorizations and
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136 water flows caused by land-use
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138 Climate change will exacerbate
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140 With regard to the safe recover
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142 MERCOSUR countries are implemen
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144 Unlike in the early 1990s, all
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146 Bibliography Acquatella, J. (<s
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148 Li, J. and M. Colombier (<stron
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150 WHO (World Health Organization)
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152 1. Statistics and indicators Si
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154 3. Technology and environmental
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156 2. Citizen participation in env
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158 Reforms that would improve acce
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160 (b) Land ownership Land rights
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162 Box III.3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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164 Box III.4 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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Page 177 and 178: 176 Bibliography Acuña, G. (<stron
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Page 181 and 182: 180 A. IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIO
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Page 232 and 233: 231 Chapter VI GUIDELINES FOR ACHIE
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Page 244 and 245: 243 As part of the preparatory proc
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Page 248 and 249: 247 All of these initiatives seek t
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Page 252 and 253: 251 (ii) Support initiatives to for
Page 254 and 255: 253 (b) For Latin America and the C
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