sustainable development 20 years on from the ... - JosÃ© Eli da Veiga

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213 The high proportion of Latin American and Caribbean exports entering developed-country markets duty-free mainly reflects the fact that the main products exported by the region to those countries are raw materials or natural resource-based manufactures, although there are pockets of protection in sectors of special interest for the region. Since <strong>20</strong>00, preferential tariffs have trended downwards more sharply in all of these sectors, partly owing to the trade agreements signed between developed and developing countries (see figure V.8). Figure V.8 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN (SELECTED COUNTRIES): AGRICULTURAL, TEXTILE AND CLOTHING PRODUCTS SUBJECT TO AVERAGE CUSTOMS DUTIES, MOST-FAVOURED-NATION (MFN) TREATMENT AND PREFERENTIAL TARIFFS APPLIED BY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, 1996-<strong>20</strong>08 (Percentages) A. Agricultural products B. Textiles and clothing <strong>20</strong> 14 12 15 10 10 8 6 5 4 2 0 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 <strong>20</strong>00 <strong>20</strong>01 <strong>20</strong>02 <strong>20</strong>03 <strong>20</strong>04 <strong>20</strong>05 <strong>20</strong>06 <strong>20</strong>07 <strong>20</strong>08 1996 1997 1998 1999 <strong>20</strong>00 <strong>20</strong>01 <strong>20</strong>02 <strong>20</strong>03 <strong>20</strong>04 <strong>20</strong>05 <strong>20</strong>06 <strong>20</strong>07 <strong>20</strong>08 Developing countries (MFN) Developing countries (preferential) Latin America and the Caribbean (MFN) Latin America and the Caribbean (preferential) Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures from the International Trade Centre (ICT)/United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)/World Trade Organization (WTO) database [online] http://www.mdg-trade.org. Comparing the situation of the region with that of developing countries as a whole, average tariffs are very similar in the case of agriculture, (see figure V.8). In contrast, the region has a much greater margin of preference than developing countries generally in the case of textile products and garments. This is because the latter group includes major exporters in those sectors, mainly Asian countries (for example China, India, Pakistan and Indonesia). As exports from those countries represent direct competition in certain segments (generally those of lesser value-added) of the textile and garment industries in industrialized countries, they face higher tariffs than Latin America and the Caribbean in those markets. The region still relies on a small group of products as a stable source of export earnings, and thus faces the challenge of developing a long-term strategy to diversify both its export basket and destination markets, to reduce dependency on, and vulnerability to, fluctuating export earnings (ECLAC/FAO/IICA, <strong>20</strong>10).
214 2. Agricultural subsidies Most agricultural subsidies in industrialized countries are price-support programmes and payments related to output levels or the use of certain inputs. All subsidies of this type generate incentives for the overproduction of various crops, pushing down their international prices and making it more difficult for farmers in developing countries to compete. For that reason, the World Trade Organization (WTO) considers them trade distorting, and their reduction is currently being negotiated in the framework of the Doha Round (see section 4). The total assistance granted by developed countries to the agriculture sector, including protection through tariffs, quotas and other barriers declined from 1.2% of GDP in <strong>20</strong>00 to 0.9% of GDP in <strong>20</strong>09. Nonetheless, this assistance remains at high levels, worth over US$ 350 billion per year since <strong>20</strong>04, and in <strong>20</strong>09 represented three times the total amount of <strong>development</strong> assistance provided by those same countries. Apart from their impact on agricultural trade, subsidies linked to prices, output levels and input use have been classified by the OECD as having the greatest negative impact on the environment, among the different types of agricultural subsidy (OECD, <strong>20</strong>02). Such impacts can occur through various channels, including: incentives for greater use of fertilizers and pesticides, with consequent damage to soils and water; the incorporation of land that could be used for conservation purposes into cultivation areas, and reductions in biodiversity stemming from subsidies to plant certain crops rather than others that do not receive subsidies. A reduction of distorting agricultural subsidies in industrialized countries would create a more level playing field for developing-country producers, and reduce incentives for overproduction in the industrialized countries themselves, with consequent environmental benefits for them. It is harder to predict the environmental effect of such reductions in developing countries. The net impact on the environment will be different in each country, depending on the individual impacts of the expansion of certain crops and the contraction of others, in response to new price signals generated by a reduction of subsidies in industrialized countries. In this context, it becomes extremely important for developing countries to implement national agricultural sustainability programmes, irrespective of the outcome of the current negotiations in the WTO (La Vina and others, <strong>20</strong>06). 3. Aid for trade Latin American and Caribbean countries still face significant internal constraints that prevent them from participating more competitively in international trade flows. These include the following: lack of information on trade opportunities; excessive export/import formalities; inadequate financing for SMEs and infrastructure problems. It is therefore very important for the region to fully exploit the opportunities provided by aid for trade, such as those of the Aid for Trade Initiative launched during the Ministerial Conference of WTO in Hong Kong (Special Administrative Region of China) in December <strong>20</strong>05. (OECD/WTO, <strong>20</strong>10). Nonetheless, the region receives a small proportion of aid-for-trade flows: roughly 7%, which nevertheless accounts for slightly more than a fifth of the ODA flowing into Latin America and the Caribbean during the second half of the <strong>20</strong>00s. The countries of the region could increase their share of aid-for-trade flows by defining priorities, and identifying and presenting relevant projects that enable them to obtain new resource flows, in accordance with the principles of additionality, sustainability and aid effectiveness. In addition, priority should be given to securing funds for projects that involve several countries and include a clear tradefacilitation component. A greater flow of funds to the region could not only help improve its international participation but also contribute to its <strong>sustainable</strong> <strong>development</strong> by incorporating specific actions.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20<
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Alicia Bárcena Executive Secretary
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4 8. Protection of fishery resource
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6 Table II.1 Ratification of multil
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8 Figure V.7 Figure V.8 Figure V.9
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11 FOREWORD In December 20<
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13 INTRODUCTION The United Nations
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15 The Rio Declaration contains 27
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17 Box 2 (concluded) 24 Warfare is
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19 this regard, the International C
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21 The dynamic on which these data
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23 Bibliography Acquatella, J. and
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26 inequality, access to basic serv
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28 Figure I.3 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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30 air (see the section on health),
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36 The problem of unreliable servic
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38 Figure I.11 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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40 Concerning tenure, certain struc
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42 Thanks to the improvements in wa
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44 One of the greatest health risks
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46 In Latin America and the Caribbe
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48 Figure I.14 UNDERNUTRITION AND O
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50 Generally speaking, national hea
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52 covered by existing retirement s
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54 Box I.3 MAINSTREAMING DISASTER-R
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56 patterns in Latin America, with
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58 In fact, despite achievements ma
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60 The second productivity feature
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62 for groups that are usually bypa
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64 Figure I.18 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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66 2009). In addit
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68 production will, however, height
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70 Lastly, climate factors are also
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72 C. ENERGY: ENERGY INTENSITY, EFF
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74 Fuel subsidies for private vehic
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76 Table I.9 LAWS FOR THE PROMOTION
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78 reduction must also be mainstrea
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80 Box I.7 URBAN SUSTAINABILITY IN
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82 Box I.8 THE ECO-EFFICIENCY OF UR
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84 Figure I.21 SELECTED COUNTRIES:
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86 E. STRENGTHENING THE STATE AND A
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88 Bibliography Acquatella, Jean (<
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90 Fresco, Louise (20</stro
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92 Perroti, D.E. and R. Sánchez (<
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94 (2010b), Achiev
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96 Table II.1 RATIFICATION OF MULTI
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98 Box II.1 (concluded) Union of So
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100 Table II.3 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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102 The same applies to the incenti
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104 Figure II.1 LATIN AMERICA AND T
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106 Box II.2 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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108 Figure II.3 SHARE OF GLOBAL GRE
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110 Figure II.7 PER CAPITA CO 2 EMI
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112 Figure II.10 CARBON INTENSITY O
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114 Table II.4 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
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116 coast and in marine areas, the
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118 Box II.4 CENTRAL AMERICA: BIODI
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120 25 Figure II.1
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122 The valuable assets related to
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124 monitoring have been instrument
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126 Box II.7 LATIN AMERICA AND THE
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128 technology transfer is successf
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130 Table II.6 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT
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132 (a) Integrated water resources
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134 concessions, authorizations and
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136 water flows caused by land-use
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138 Climate change will exacerbate
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140 With regard to the safe recover
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142 MERCOSUR countries are implemen
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144 Unlike in the early 1990s, all
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146 Bibliography Acquatella, J. (<s
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148 Li, J. and M. Colombier (<stron
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150 WHO (World Health Organization)
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152 1. Statistics and indicators Si
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154 3. Technology and environmental
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156 2. Citizen participation in env
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158 Reforms that would improve acce
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160 (b) Land ownership Land rights
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Page 171 and 172: 170 requirements of legislation; 14
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Page 175 and 176: 174 9. Farmers Rural households, in
Page 177 and 178: 176 Bibliography Acuña, G. (<stron
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Page 181 and 182: 180 A. IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIO
Page 183 and 184: 182 strategies, develop mechanisms
Page 185 and 186: 184 participatory process; and nati
Page 187 and 188: 186 issues, which have been incorpo
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Page 191 and 192: 190 4. Freshwater resources, water
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Page 195 and 196: 194 Further to the issues identifie
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Page 207 and 208: 206 In addition to
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Page 217 and 218: 216 (18.9%). 11 Fishery subsidies h
Page 219 and 220: 218 Figure V.9 LATIN AMERICA AND TH
Page 221 and 222: 220 1. Science and
Page 223 and 224: 222 Figure V.10 LATIN AMERICA AND T
Page 225 and 226: 224 2. Scientific capacities and te
Page 227 and 228: 226 4. Knowledge plurality Rural po
Page 229 and 230: 228 IDB (Inter-American Development
Page 232 and 233: 231 Chapter VI GUIDELINES FOR ACHIE
Page 234 and 235: 233 B. GUIDELINES FOR THE INTEGRATI
Page 236 and 237: 235 (b) Strengthen policies designe
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Page 240 and 241: 239 (f) Send proper signals to esse
Page 242 and 243: 241 The following actions are sugge
Page 244 and 245: 243 As part of the preparatory proc
Page 246 and 247: 245 Indicators can help to raise aw
Page 248 and 249: 247 All of these initiatives seek t
Page 250 and 251: 249 (a) Reform curricula to include
Page 252 and 253: 251 (ii) Support initiatives to for
Page 254 and 255: 253 (b) For Latin America and the C
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Page 258: This report describes the progress
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