sustainable development 20 years on from the ... - José Eli da Veiga

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With respect to coastal and marine resources, the Barbados Programme of Action discusses the
<strong>development</strong> of a proposal by Caribbean countries to seek international recognition of the Caribbean Sea
as a special area in the context of <strong>sustainable</strong> <strong>development</strong> (Insanally, <strong>20</strong>07). This was addressed by the
Association of Caribbean States pursuant to General Assembly resolution 63/214, adopted on
19 December <strong>20</strong>08 (United Nations, <strong>20</strong>09), and was reported on in August <strong>20</strong>10 to the General Assembly
regarding possible legal and financial implications of the Caribbean Sea concept. Progress to date
includes the creation of three subcommissions within the Caribbean Sea Commission (which was
established in <strong>20</strong>06 to promote coordinated governance of the Caribbean Sea). Support of the proposal is
crucial to the ongoing regional initiative for securing this special designation (United Nations, <strong>20</strong>10b).
Marine and coastal resources are under tremendous pressure, which is only increasing with
climate change effects. Warming and acidifying oceans will result in more frequent bleaching and
possible destruction of coral reefs in the Caribbean, which are nurseries for an estimated 65% of all fish
species in the basin (UNDP, <strong>20</strong>10). Coral reefs also provide natural protection against storm surges and
are a critical tourism asset (World Bank, <strong>20</strong>10); an estimated 7% of the world’s coral reefs are in the
Caribbean subregion (UNEP, <strong>20</strong>10). The combined impacts of ocean acidification and warmer sea
temperatures make tropical coral reef systems vulnerable to collapse. 13 When the bleaching impact of
warmer water combines with other human-induced stresses, reefs increasingly become algae-dominated,
leading to a catastrophic loss of biodiversity (CBD, <strong>20</strong>10) Additional threats include discharged
wastewater, as approximately 36% of the coral reefs in the Caribbean are found within 2 kilometres of the
coast and are therefore vulnerable to coastal activities (UNEP, <strong>20</strong>10); tourism; land degradation and
subsequent soil erosion and sediment transport to coastal waters; fishing; hurricanes/natural disasters and
pollution from the sea all endanger coral reefs as well as the coastal habitats that are so important to this
subregion (UNEP, <strong>20</strong>10).
7. Natural disaster threats
Extreme events such as hurricanes, cyclones, flooding, drought and earthquakes are particularly common
in the region due to its geographical and geophysical make-up. Climate change has increased the severity
and frequency of such events and heightened their impact, potentially delaying what was already a fraught
<strong>development</strong> process in the region, as economic, structural, ecological and human losses have combined.
In the period 1975-<strong>20</strong>07, the region experienced over 7,650 fatalities and natural disasters affected over 5
million people, with an average yearly loss that exceeded US$ 1.114 billion at <strong>20</strong>07 prices (Zapata and
Madrigal, <strong>20</strong>09). The potential economic impact can be quite severe, as in the Cayman Islands after
Hurricane Ivan in <strong>20</strong>04, when losses were estimated at 138% of GDP (ECLAC, <strong>20</strong>04).
Countries with small and vulnerable economies, such as SIDS, not only suffer higher levels of
economic loss but are also characterized by low resilience to loss that could lead to major setbacks in
their economic <strong>development</strong> (UNISDR, <strong>20</strong>09). The gravity of future impact of physical hazards will
therefore depend mainly on the region’s ability to reduce its vulnerability and strengthen risk
governance capacities.
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More acidic water, the result of higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, decreases the
availability of the carbonate ions required to build coral skeletons. At atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations
of 450 parts per million (ppm), the growth of calcifying organisms is inhibited in nearly all tropical and
subtropical coral reefs. At 550 ppm, coral reefs dissolve (CBD, <strong>20</strong>10).