Biodiversity in Central Asia - ZOI
Biodiversity in Central Asia - ZOI
Biodiversity in Central Asia - ZOI
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<strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
A Visual Synthesis
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>:<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
based on official country <strong>in</strong>formation to the Convention on Biological Diversity, scientific papers and news<br />
The publication has been supported by the Swiss Federal Office<br />
for the Environment (FOEN).<br />
The publication aims to contribute to the Aichi <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Targets<br />
1 and 19 by shar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation and improv<strong>in</strong>g public knowledge<br />
of biodiversity values, functions, status and trends, ma<strong>in</strong><br />
threats and societal responses.<br />
© Zoï Environment Network 2011<br />
This publication may be reproduced <strong>in</strong> whole or <strong>in</strong> part <strong>in</strong> any<br />
form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission<br />
from the copyright holders, provided acknowledgement<br />
of the source is made. Zoï Environment Network would appreciate<br />
receiv<strong>in</strong>g a copy of any material that uses this publication as<br />
a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or<br />
for any commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission<br />
<strong>in</strong> written form from the copyright holders. The use of <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
from this publication concern<strong>in</strong>g proprietary products for advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is not permitted.<br />
The views expressed <strong>in</strong> this document are those of the authors<br />
and do not necessarily reflect views of the partner organizations<br />
and governments.<br />
The designations employed and the presentation of the material<br />
<strong>in</strong> this publication do not imply the expression of any op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
whatsoever concern<strong>in</strong>g the legal status of any country, territory,<br />
city or area or of its authorities, or concern<strong>in</strong>g delimitation of its<br />
frontiers or boundaries. Mention of a commercial company or<br />
product does not imply endorsement by the cooperat<strong>in</strong>g partners.<br />
We regret any errors or omissions that may unwitt<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
have been made.<br />
Concept:<br />
Viktor Novikov, Otto Simonett<br />
Maps and graphics:<br />
Matthias Beilste<strong>in</strong>, Viktor Novikov<br />
Text:<br />
Alex Kirby<br />
Design and layout:<br />
Carolyne Daniel<br />
Contributors:<br />
Neimatullo Safarov, Tatiana Novikova, Ilia Domashev,<br />
Asem Sadykova, Gulmira Kabanbayeva, Jakhan Annachariyeva,<br />
L<strong>in</strong>a Valdshmit, David Duthie, Mart<strong>in</strong>e Rohn-Brossard,<br />
Andreas Obrecht, Yann Demont, Geoff Hughes
Contents<br />
08<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
30<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
50<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Services and Products<br />
56<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
70<br />
Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
Foreword<br />
A profusion of high mounta<strong>in</strong> ranges rise from the vast flatlands of deserts and steppes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and host<br />
a rich variety of <strong>in</strong>digenous and endemic flora and fauna <strong>in</strong> a range of vibrant ecosystems. Arctic, Mediterranean<br />
and Indo-Eurasian species meet and <strong>in</strong>teract <strong>in</strong> the same East–West crossroads where culture and trade <strong>in</strong>tersect.<br />
This hotbed of diversity is an important global treasure and one we must protect. Fortunately, <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />
nations participate <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational conventions related to the issue. All <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n countries are<br />
members of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the UNESCO World Heritage Convention and the Ramsar<br />
Convention on Wetlands, and most are members of the Convention on Migratory Species, the Convention on<br />
International Trade <strong>in</strong> Endangered Species and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.<br />
However, progress toward meet<strong>in</strong>g the objectives of these conventions has been uneven, and the 2010 global<br />
biodiversity targets were not achieved. Meet<strong>in</strong>g the 2020 Aichi <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Targets will require a coord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
effort to implement the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan for <strong>Biodiversity</strong> and the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit<br />
Shar<strong>in</strong>g. Close cooperation and coord<strong>in</strong>ation between relevant multilateral environment agreements and <strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />
will be crucial. In this way biodiversity management can benefit from <strong>in</strong>creased synergies, as experience <strong>in</strong><br />
other areas such as chemical and waste management has shown. With this <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d, this report provides a synthesis<br />
of biodiversity <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> prepared by experts to communicate the challenges of biodiversity<br />
protection to global and national audiences. Importantly, the <strong>in</strong>formation is presented primarily <strong>in</strong> a visual format<br />
<strong>in</strong>tended to help educators and decision-makers <strong>in</strong> agriculture, forestry and fisheries understand the scale and<br />
complexities of the task ahead.<br />
Regional biodiversity problems became apparent 50 years ago with the disappearance of tigers, and a number of<br />
alarm<strong>in</strong>g trends have followed. The Aral Sea ecosystem has essentially died, and Issyk-Kul Lake <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
has experienced a collapse of its fisheries over the past 10 years, and is highly endangered. The teresken bush<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Tajik Pamirs, an important food source for both wild and domestic animals, faces eradication as a result of<br />
overgraz<strong>in</strong>g and fuelwood harvest<strong>in</strong>g. Overexploitation of this k<strong>in</strong>d is one of five pressures on biodiversity highlighted<br />
<strong>in</strong> this report. The other four are climate change, pollution, habitat fragmentation and <strong>in</strong>vasive species.
In spite of the missed targets and negative trends, there is much to celebrate – the twentieth anniversaries of<br />
national <strong>in</strong>dependence of the <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n countries, the Rio Conventions and the Global Environment Facility<br />
(GEF). This jo<strong>in</strong>t anniversary is more than symbolic. Cooperation between the GEF and <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n countries<br />
has <strong>in</strong>cluded projects cover<strong>in</strong>g a range of ecosystems from deserts to seas to high mounta<strong>in</strong>s, and <strong>in</strong>terventions<br />
from policy development to education to demonstration projects and many small improvements and <strong>in</strong>novations.<br />
These efforts have produced <strong>in</strong>stances of transboundary cooperation and the jo<strong>in</strong>t plann<strong>in</strong>g of nature reserves,<br />
ecosystem corridors and the protection of natural areas.<br />
Foreign support has also been important <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. For example, Switzerland has been active there for more than<br />
15 years, provid<strong>in</strong>g support for water management, forestry and susta<strong>in</strong>able mounta<strong>in</strong> development <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pasture management, organic agriculture and biodiversity services. A recent example of Swiss assistance is the<br />
development of mechanisms for payments for ecosystem services. Switzerland and the <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n countries<br />
are members of the same GEF group, and with their history of bilateral support, the Swiss are well positioned to<br />
represent <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>in</strong> discussions with the GEF, the World Bank and other prospective donors.<br />
Overall, there is much to look forward to when it comes to preserv<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity both globally and <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
As the 2011-2020 UN Decade on <strong>Biodiversity</strong> unfolds, this volume will undoubtedly make a key contribution to<br />
those efforts.<br />
Bern - Montreal - Geneva 10 January 2012<br />
Franz Perrez<br />
Ambassador, Head of International Affairs Division,<br />
Swiss Federal Office for the Environment<br />
Ahmed Djoghlaf<br />
Executive Secretary<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity<br />
Otto Simonett<br />
Director<br />
Zoi Environment Network
Indicators Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan<br />
Population growth and pressure on ecosystems<br />
Habitat fragmentation and pollution<br />
Climate change impacts<br />
Over-exploitation of biodiversity<br />
Challenges of alien <strong>in</strong>vasive species and biosafety<br />
Ecological footpr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Forest and other wooded land, area<br />
Change <strong>in</strong> status of threatened species<br />
Fish resources and catch: mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Fish resources and catch: freshwater<br />
Genetic resources of agrobiodiversity (domestic animals, plants)<br />
Food production<br />
Agricultural and forest areas under susta<strong>in</strong>able management<br />
Protected areas (number, coverage): terrestrial<br />
Protected areas (number, coverage): aquatic<br />
Protected areas and ecological corridors: cross-border cooperation<br />
Protected areas: management and conservation efficiency<br />
Afforestation efforts, forest fires and diseases control<br />
Botanical gardens, zoos, nurseries, ex-situ conservation<br />
Policies and measures on biodiversity: plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Policies and measures on biodiversity: implementation progress<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g, forest <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />
Sources of <strong>in</strong>formation: the latest country biodiversity reports to the CBD,<br />
the latest UNECE environmental performance reviews, expert <strong>in</strong>terviews.<br />
This table was distributed at the Istanbul regional workshop on biodiversity<br />
(17-20 October 2011, Turkey) to catalyse discussions on gaps, priorities and<br />
lessons for biodiversity conservation.<br />
Positive or stable trends:<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease, improvement<br />
no negative changes<br />
reduction of pressures<br />
Negative trends: Mixed trends:<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g pressures<br />
deteriorat<strong>in</strong>g capacities<br />
or effeciency<br />
no data
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
R U S S I A<br />
Forest cover per person<br />
Arable land per person<br />
AZR<br />
I R A N<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
UZBEKISTAN<br />
TURKMENISTAN<br />
TAJIKISTAN<br />
AFGHANISTAN<br />
KYRGYZSTAN<br />
PAKISTAN<br />
INDIA<br />
C H I N A<br />
hectares per person<br />
0.9<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
0.8<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
0.7<br />
0.6<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
0.3<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
0.2<br />
Tajikistan<br />
0.1<br />
0<br />
hectares per person<br />
1.6<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
1.4<br />
1.2<br />
1.0<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
0.8<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
0.6<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
0.4<br />
Tajikistan<br />
0.2<br />
0<br />
Source: FAOSTAT (faostat.fao.org), data for 2010<br />
Source: FAOSTAT (faostat.fao.org), data for 2010<br />
Current U.S. dollars per capita, thousand<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
Gross National Income per person<br />
Gross Domestic Product<br />
<strong>in</strong>puts by sectors<br />
per cent<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
Agriculture<br />
6<br />
5<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
Industry<br />
4<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
40<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
1992 1994 1996<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Services<br />
KAZ UZB KYR<br />
TKM TJK<br />
Source: World Development Indicators (data.worldbank.org/<strong>in</strong>dicator)<br />
Source: World Development Indicators, data for 2009<br />
10<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Age group, years<br />
75-79<br />
65-69<br />
55-59<br />
45-49<br />
35-39<br />
25-29<br />
15-19<br />
10-14<br />
Population pyramids: <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n nations <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
0-4<br />
Population, millions 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 0.5<br />
0.5 0 0.5 0.25 0 0.25 0.25 0 0.25<br />
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (www.census.gov/population/<strong>in</strong>ternational/data/idb/), data for 2010<br />
Population, million<br />
35<br />
Population growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
30<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
25<br />
20<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
15<br />
10<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
5<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
0<br />
1951 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020<br />
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (www.census.gov/population/<strong>in</strong>ternational/data/idb/), data for 2010<br />
11
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
AZR<br />
R U S S I A<br />
Baku<br />
I R A N<br />
Teheran<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Bishkek<br />
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN<br />
UZBEKISTAN<br />
C H I N A<br />
TURKMENISTAN Dushanbe<br />
Ashgabat<br />
TAJIKISTAN<br />
AFGHANISTAN<br />
Astana<br />
PAKISTAN<br />
INDIA<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Range Desert and semi-desert Steppe<br />
Rural population<br />
per cent of total<br />
100<br />
90<br />
Tajikistan<br />
80<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
70<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
60<br />
Turkm.<br />
50<br />
Kaz.<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Source: World Development Indicators, data for 2010<br />
0.1%<br />
Land use<br />
8.4%<br />
68.8%<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
22.9%<br />
6.7% 0.4%<br />
48.9%<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
44%<br />
5.3%<br />
1%<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is a largely arid region consist<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly of steppes, deserts and mounta<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
though with some more fertile parts, like the Ferghana Valley, which is shared<br />
by Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (the two other countries of the region are<br />
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan). It stretches from the borders of Ch<strong>in</strong>a to the shores of<br />
the Caspian Sea, and from Russia to Afghanistan. Traversed by the ancient trade routes<br />
known as the Silk Road which l<strong>in</strong>ked Ch<strong>in</strong>a and <strong>Asia</strong> M<strong>in</strong>or, the region earned a reputation<br />
as a crossroads through which goods, people and ideas passed between the furthest<br />
reaches of <strong>Asia</strong> and the whole of Europe. <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> was formerly under Soviet rule,<br />
and 2011 marks the twentieth anniversary of <strong>in</strong>dependence of all five countries.<br />
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have the most extensive pastures of the five, and specialize<br />
as well <strong>in</strong> the m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and extraction sectors. Uzbekistan, the most populous country,<br />
has a variety of <strong>in</strong>dustries, although many of its people work <strong>in</strong> agriculture. It is among<br />
the world’s lead<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> cotton production. The mounta<strong>in</strong> states of Kyrgyzstan<br />
and Tajikistan have huge potential hydropower reserves, but still have too little fossil fuel<br />
energy for their needs. A large part of the rural population of both countries has migrated<br />
abroad <strong>in</strong> search of work.<br />
Despite difficult times immediately after the Soviet collapse, the <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n economies<br />
have grown rapidly <strong>in</strong> the past decade, and poverty has been reduced, although grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
numbers of people mean there is less land, forest and water available per head (the<br />
region is home to more than 60 million people).<br />
27.6%<br />
Tajikistan<br />
66.1%<br />
3.9% 0.1%<br />
65.3%<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
30.6%<br />
0.8%<br />
10.1%<br />
51.7%<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
37.4%<br />
Pastures<br />
Arable land<br />
Permanent crops Other land<br />
Source: FAOSTAT (faostat.fao.org), data for 2010<br />
12<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> possesses unique importance for the Earth’s<br />
biodiversity. It is <strong>in</strong> the heart of the Eurasian landmass, it<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s a very wide variety of landscapes and climates,<br />
and the ecosystems and different species it harbours are<br />
immensely varied. Many of them are of global as well as<br />
regional importance. Both the historical record of impacts<br />
on its ecosystems and current trends <strong>in</strong> the changes<br />
affect<strong>in</strong>g them today show that <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>’s water<br />
ecosystems and those affected by agriculture, together<br />
with forests, are the features most vulnerable to a mix of<br />
human <strong>in</strong>fluences.<br />
Some of the most important of these are climate change,<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasive species, the degradation of habitats, over-use<br />
of resources, and pollution. Many of the most harmful of<br />
the human impacts on <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
decades of Soviet rule: one example is the treatment of the<br />
Aral Sea which straddles the border between Kazakhstan<br />
and Uzbekistan. The Aral Sea bas<strong>in</strong> was designated by<br />
Moscow for grow<strong>in</strong>g cotton and now suffers the effects<br />
of massive loss of water caused by ill-judged irrigation<br />
projects, saturation by pesticide overload, high sal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
levels and severe problems for human health.<br />
There has been a direct impact on many of <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong>’s most dist<strong>in</strong>ctive species. The snow leopard is now<br />
extremely rare throughout most of its range. The last<br />
tigers <strong>in</strong> the region are thought to have been killed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1950s. The Caspian’s sturgeons and seals have been<br />
severely over-exploited and the saiga antelope is critically<br />
endangered.<br />
Relative importance of impacts on ecosystems and trends<br />
Evergreen forests<br />
Wild fruit and nut forests<br />
Desert forests<br />
Tugai and riparian forests<br />
Deserts and semi-deserts<br />
Steppes<br />
High mounta<strong>in</strong>s (>2500 m)<br />
Rivers, lakes, reservoirs<br />
Aral and Caspian Seas<br />
Agroecosystems<br />
Habitat<br />
change<br />
Historical impacts s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1950s:<br />
High Moderate Low<br />
Climate<br />
Pollution Overuse<br />
change<br />
Invasive<br />
species<br />
Current and ongo<strong>in</strong>g trends:<br />
Increas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
impact<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />
impact<br />
Decreas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
impact<br />
Sources of <strong>in</strong>formation: the latest country biodiversity reports to the CBD, the latest UNECE environmental<br />
performance reviews and expert <strong>in</strong>terviews. This table was distributed at the Istanbul regional<br />
workshop on biodiversity (17-20 October 2011, Turkey) to catalyse discussions on gaps and priorities<br />
for biodiversity conservation. The regional situation may differ from country level. The authors hope<br />
that <strong>in</strong> the new generation of the national biodiversity strategies and action plans countries will report<br />
their specific situations <strong>in</strong> similar fashion.<br />
13
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Global Liv<strong>in</strong>g Planet Index<br />
1970 = 1<br />
1.6<br />
1.4<br />
1.2<br />
1.0<br />
0.8<br />
0.6<br />
0.4<br />
0.2<br />
0<br />
1970 1980 1990 2000 2007 Source: Ecological Footpr<strong>in</strong>t Atlas 2010<br />
Source: WWF Liv<strong>in</strong>g Planet Report 2010<br />
Ecological Footpr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Number of Earths<br />
2<br />
The Liv<strong>in</strong>g Planet Index assesses the state of biological diversity<br />
by measur<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> global populations of vertebrates.<br />
The Index was developed by the conservation group WWF<br />
with the UN Environment Programme’s World Conservation<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Centre: WWF is now work<strong>in</strong>g with the Zoological<br />
Society of London. Between 1970 and 2007 the <strong>in</strong>dex fell<br />
by 28%, suggest<strong>in</strong>g to scientists that humans are degrad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ecosystems faster than ever before.<br />
Ecological Footpr<strong>in</strong>t and Biocapacity<br />
Global hectares per person<br />
8<br />
United<br />
States of<br />
America<br />
← Biocapacity<br />
7<br />
1<br />
6<br />
Switzerland<br />
0<br />
1970 1980 1990 2000 2007<br />
1.5<br />
0.5<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
Russian<br />
Federation<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Nepal<br />
Brazil<br />
WORLD<br />
The ecological footpr<strong>in</strong>t measures human demands on planetary<br />
ecosystems. It represents how much biologically productive<br />
land and sea is needed to supply human consumption and to<br />
cope with the result<strong>in</strong>g waste. So it is possible to estimate how<br />
much of the Earth is needed to support the entire human population<br />
at a particular lifestyle. In 2007 the footpr<strong>in</strong>t was estimated<br />
at 1.5 Earths, mean<strong>in</strong>g humans were consum<strong>in</strong>g resources 1.5<br />
times faster than the planet could renew them.<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
India<br />
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have the highest ecological<br />
footpr<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, more than the world average, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
due to their high carbon footpr<strong>in</strong>ts (greenhouse gas emissions).<br />
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have the lowest footpr<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
Of all the <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n states, only Kyrgyzstan’s footpr<strong>in</strong>t lies<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the country’s biological capacity.<br />
0<br />
Carbon Footpr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Graz<strong>in</strong>g Land<br />
Forest Land<br />
Fish<strong>in</strong>g Grounds<br />
Cropland<br />
Built-up Land<br />
Biocapacity:<br />
biologically<br />
productive land<br />
and productivity<br />
Source: Ecological Footpr<strong>in</strong>t Atlas 2010, data for 2007<br />
14<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Saratov<br />
7<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
8 Zhezkazgan<br />
20<br />
Northerne<br />
Balkhash<br />
Lake L Alakol Karamayam<br />
Aral SeaS<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Baikonur<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
9<br />
11<br />
Eastern<br />
Ghulja<br />
Western<br />
AralSea<br />
11<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
19<br />
Aktau<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Makhachkalaa<br />
Almaty<br />
11<br />
Ysik-Kol<br />
Nukus<br />
Shymkent Bishkek<br />
K y z y l k u m<br />
17 h<br />
K y r g y<br />
z s t a n 18 Aksu<br />
AZR<br />
Dashoguz Urganch<br />
10<br />
13<br />
Tashkenta<br />
Jalalabad<br />
Baku<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
Kokand Osh<br />
T u r k m e n i s t a n U z b e k<br />
i s t a n<br />
Kujand<br />
Jizakh<br />
Ferghana<br />
Kashgar<br />
Bukhara<br />
T a k l<br />
a m a k a n<br />
Balkanabat<br />
K a r a k u m<br />
Samarkand 14<br />
16<br />
4<br />
C h i n a<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Dushanbe T a j i k i s t a n<br />
Rasht<br />
3<br />
Karshi<br />
Ashgabat<br />
P a m i r<br />
2<br />
b<br />
15<br />
Hotan<br />
Qurghonteppa<br />
Mary<br />
Korug<br />
Gorgan<br />
Sari<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Termiz<br />
12<br />
Kunduzu<br />
Gilgit<br />
Tehran<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
Mashad<br />
A f g h a n i s t a n P a k i s t a n<br />
Qom<br />
I r a n<br />
C a<br />
A<br />
Volga<br />
s p i a n<br />
p<br />
e<br />
S<br />
l b o<br />
a<br />
Oral<br />
1<br />
2<br />
r z<br />
Ural<br />
Karakum<br />
Canal<br />
Key ecosystem communities<br />
Ufa<br />
R u s<br />
s i a<br />
5<br />
7<br />
Orenburg<br />
6<br />
Astana<br />
Aktobe<br />
Tengiz Lake<br />
Temirtau<br />
Tejen<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Samara<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Ur<br />
U<br />
Herat<br />
Tobol<br />
T bo<br />
To<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Ishim<br />
5<br />
Omskk<br />
Petropavlovsko<br />
Sarysu<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Panj<br />
Karagandan<br />
K a z a k h s t a n<br />
a<br />
n d<br />
u<br />
Chu<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Ili<br />
Irtysh<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Yarkand<br />
Ob<br />
Semey<br />
Kabula<br />
Sr<strong>in</strong>agar<br />
Peshawar<br />
I n d i a<br />
H i n d u k u s h<br />
Il<br />
I i<br />
K a<br />
T i e n S<br />
r a k o<br />
r u m<br />
u m<br />
Barnaul<br />
24<br />
A l t a i<br />
23<br />
21<br />
22<br />
h a n<br />
Tarim<br />
Qiemo<br />
Yenisey<br />
Lake Uvs<br />
Altay<br />
Shihezi Urumqi<br />
Turp<br />
Korla<br />
1<br />
Pontic steppe<br />
9<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n northern desert<br />
17<br />
Tian Shan montane conifer forests<br />
2<br />
Caspian lowland desert<br />
10<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n southern desert<br />
18<br />
Tian Shan montane steppe and meadows<br />
3<br />
Kopet Dag semi-desert<br />
11<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n riparian woodlands<br />
19<br />
Tian Shan foothill arid steppe<br />
4<br />
Kopet Dag woodlands and forest steppe<br />
12<br />
Badghyz and Karabil semi-desert<br />
20<br />
Em<strong>in</strong> Valley steppe<br />
5<br />
Kazakh forest steppe<br />
13<br />
Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe<br />
21<br />
Altai steppe and semi-desert<br />
6<br />
Kazakh steppe<br />
14<br />
Gissaro-Alai open woodlands<br />
22<br />
Junggar Bas<strong>in</strong> semi-desert<br />
7<br />
Kazakh upland<br />
15<br />
Pamir alp<strong>in</strong>e desert and tundra<br />
23<br />
Altai alp<strong>in</strong>e meadow and tundra<br />
8<br />
Kazakh semi-desert<br />
16<br />
Rock and Ice<br />
24<br />
Altai montane forest and forest steppe<br />
Source: World Wildlife Fund: Ecoregions of the World (→ www.worldwildlife.org/science/ecoregions/item1267.html)<br />
15
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
The Aichi <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Targets<br />
The world largely failed to meet the 2010 <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Target to<br />
halt the decl<strong>in</strong>e of biodiversity set 10 years ago. So a revised<br />
and updated Strategic Plan for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Aichi<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Targets, to run from 2011 to 2020, was adopted<br />
at the 10th conference of the parties to the Convention on<br />
Biological Diversity at its meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Japan, <strong>in</strong> October 2010.<br />
They represent a new approach, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g tackl<strong>in</strong>g the drivers<br />
of change. Among their provisions, they require signatories<br />
to address the underly<strong>in</strong>g causes of biodiversity loss “by<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity across government and society”,<br />
to reduce direct pressures on biodiversity and promote<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able use. They seek to improve the status of biodiversity<br />
by safeguard<strong>in</strong>g ecosystems, species and genetic<br />
diversity, and to enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity<br />
and ecosystem services. The <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n nations are determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to achieve the Aichi <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Targets, and a jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
approach and synergies with socio-economic development<br />
priorities are important for success.<br />
Strategic Goal A<br />
Address the underly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
causes of biodiversity<br />
loss by ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g<br />
biodiversity across<br />
government and society<br />
1. People are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and<br />
use it susta<strong>in</strong>ably.<br />
2. <strong>Biodiversity</strong> values have been <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to national and local development and poverty reduction<br />
strategies and plann<strong>in</strong>g processes and are be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to national account<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
as appropriate, and report<strong>in</strong>g systems.<br />
3. Incentives, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g subsidies,harmful to biodiversity are elim<strong>in</strong>ated, phased out or reformed <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to m<strong>in</strong>imize or avoid negative impacts, and positive <strong>in</strong>centives for the conservation and susta<strong>in</strong>able use<br />
of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and <strong>in</strong> harmony with the Convention and other<br />
relevant <strong>in</strong>ternational obligations, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account national socio economic conditions.<br />
4. Governments, bus<strong>in</strong>ess and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have<br />
implemented plans for susta<strong>in</strong>able production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use<br />
of natural resources well with<strong>in</strong> safe ecological limits.<br />
Strategic Goal B<br />
Reduce the direct<br />
pressures on biodiversity<br />
and promote<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able use<br />
5. The rate of loss of all natural habitats, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought<br />
close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced.<br />
6. All fish and <strong>in</strong>vertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested susta<strong>in</strong>ably, legally<br />
and apply<strong>in</strong>g ecosystem based approaches, so that overfish<strong>in</strong>g is avoided, recovery plans and measures<br />
are <strong>in</strong> place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened<br />
species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are<br />
with<strong>in</strong> safe ecological limits.<br />
7. Areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed susta<strong>in</strong>ably, ensur<strong>in</strong>g conservation<br />
of biodiversity.<br />
8. Pollution, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to<br />
ecosystem function and biodiversity.<br />
9. Invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or<br />
eradicated, and measures are <strong>in</strong> place to manage pathways to prevent their <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
and establishment.<br />
10. By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems<br />
impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are m<strong>in</strong>imized, so as to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>tegrity<br />
and function<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
16<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Strategic Goal C<br />
Improve the status of<br />
biodiversity by<br />
safeguard<strong>in</strong>g ecosystems,<br />
species and genetic<br />
diversity<br />
11. At least 17 per cent of terrestrial and <strong>in</strong>land water, and 10 per cent of coastal and mar<strong>in</strong>e areas,<br />
especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved<br />
through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems<br />
of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the wider landscape and seascapes.<br />
12. The ext<strong>in</strong>ction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status,<br />
particularly of those most <strong>in</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e, has been improved and susta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
13. The genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />
and strategies have been developed and implemented for m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g genetic erosion<br />
and safeguard<strong>in</strong>g their genetic diversity.<br />
Strategic Goal D<br />
Enhance the benefits to all<br />
from biodiversity and<br />
ecosystem services.<br />
14. Ecosystems that provide essential services, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g services related to water, and contribute<br />
to health, livelihoods and wellbe<strong>in</strong>g, are restored and safeguarded, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the needs of<br />
women, <strong>in</strong>digenous and local communities, and the poor and vulnerable.<br />
15. Ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced,<br />
through conservation and restoration, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded<br />
ecosystems, thereby contribut<strong>in</strong>g to climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
and to combat<strong>in</strong>g desertification.<br />
16. By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Shar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of Benefits Aris<strong>in</strong>g from their Utilization is <strong>in</strong> force and operational, consistent with national legislation.<br />
Strategic Goal E<br />
Enhance implementation<br />
through participatory<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g, knowledge<br />
management and<br />
capacity build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
17. By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy <strong>in</strong>strument, and has commenced<br />
implement<strong>in</strong>g an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and action plan.<br />
18. The traditional knowledge, <strong>in</strong>novations and practices of <strong>in</strong>digenous and local communities relevant for<br />
the conservation and susta<strong>in</strong>able use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources,<br />
are respected, subject to national legislation and relevant <strong>in</strong>ternational obligations, and fully <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
and reflected <strong>in</strong> the implementation of the Convention with the full and effective participation<br />
of <strong>in</strong>digenous and local communities, at all relevant levels.<br />
19. Knowledge, the science base and technologies relat<strong>in</strong>g to biodiversity, its values, function<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred,<br />
and applied.<br />
20. The mobilization of f<strong>in</strong>ancial resources for effectively implement<strong>in</strong>g the Strategic Plan 2011- 2020<br />
from all sources and <strong>in</strong> accordance with the consolidated and agreed process <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Strategy for Resource Mobilization should <strong>in</strong>crease substantially from the current levels.<br />
Target 20 will be subject to changes cont<strong>in</strong>gent to resources needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties.<br />
17
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Convention on<br />
Biological Diversity<br />
Convention on<br />
Biological Diversity<br />
International and Regional <strong>Biodiversity</strong>-related Agreements<br />
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), an<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational legally b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g treaty, aims to conserve<br />
biodiversity, to ensure that it is used susta<strong>in</strong>ably, and<br />
to see that the benefits derived from genetic resources<br />
are shared fairly. Parties to the convention number 193<br />
countries: they <strong>in</strong>clude all five nations of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
It was opened for signature at the Earth Summit <strong>in</strong> Rio<br />
de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered <strong>in</strong>to force on<br />
29 December 1993. The convention recognizes that<br />
conserv<strong>in</strong>g biological diversity is “a common concern<br />
of humank<strong>in</strong>d” and is <strong>in</strong>tegral to development. The<br />
agreement covers all ecosystems, species and genetic<br />
resources. It l<strong>in</strong>ks traditional conservation efforts to<br />
the economic goal of us<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity susta<strong>in</strong>ably.<br />
The convention <strong>in</strong>sists that, where there is a threat of<br />
significant reduction or loss of biodiversity, lack of full<br />
scientific certa<strong>in</strong>ty can never be a reason for postpon<strong>in</strong>g<br />
action to avoid or m<strong>in</strong>imize the threat. The convention<br />
encourages countries to develop national strategies for<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able use and conservation of biodiversity and<br />
to report about progress. All <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n nations are<br />
about to update their national biodiversity strategies<br />
and action plans <strong>in</strong> the light of lessons learnt and of the<br />
Aichi Targets.<br />
Cartagena Protocol<br />
Convention on<br />
Biological Diversity<br />
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
agreement <strong>in</strong>tended to supplement the<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity. It entered <strong>in</strong>to<br />
force on 11 September 2003 and has more than 150<br />
parties (countries), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,<br />
Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. The protocol aims to<br />
ensure the safe handl<strong>in</strong>g, transport and use of liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
modified organisms (LMOs) result<strong>in</strong>g from modern<br />
biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biodiversity,<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account as well possible risks to<br />
human health. It makes clear that products from new<br />
technologies must be based on the precautionary<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciple and allows nations to balance public health<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st economic benefits. It also requires exporters<br />
to label shipments which conta<strong>in</strong> genetically-altered<br />
commodities such as agricultural crops. <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n nations are currently develop<strong>in</strong>g their national<br />
biosafety frameworks and clear<strong>in</strong>g house mechanisms<br />
for comprehensive legal and <strong>in</strong>strumental control of<br />
LMOs.<br />
Nagoya Protocol<br />
Convention on<br />
Biological Diversity<br />
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources<br />
and the Fair and Equitable Shar<strong>in</strong>g of Benefits aris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from their Utilization (ABS) is an <strong>in</strong>ternational agreement<br />
which forms part of the Convention on Biological<br />
Diversity. It was adopted by the tenth Conference of<br />
the Parties to the CBD <strong>in</strong> Nagoya, Japan, <strong>in</strong> 2010. The<br />
protocol aims to share the benefits aris<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />
use of genetic resources <strong>in</strong> a fair and equitable way,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g by appropriate access to the resources and<br />
technology transfer. It seeks to do this by tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
account all rights over those resources and technologies,<br />
and by appropriate fund<strong>in</strong>g, contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
conservation and susta<strong>in</strong>able use of biodiversity. From<br />
the five <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n states, so far it has been signed<br />
only by the Tajik Foreign M<strong>in</strong>ister, on 20 September<br />
2011 <strong>in</strong> New York.<br />
The Ramsar Convention (the Convention on Wetlands of<br />
International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat)<br />
is an <strong>in</strong>ternational treaty aimed at conserv<strong>in</strong>g wetlands<br />
and us<strong>in</strong>g them susta<strong>in</strong>ably, by slow<strong>in</strong>g encroachment<br />
on them and promot<strong>in</strong>g recognition of their ecological<br />
importance. It takes its name from the Iranian city on<br />
the southern Caspian Sea where it was adopted on 2<br />
February 1971, com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to force on 21 December 1975.<br />
The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental<br />
treaty which addresses the needs of a particular type of<br />
ecosystem. The list of wetlands of <strong>in</strong>ternational importance<br />
currently <strong>in</strong>cludes around 2,000 sites. Its broad<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ition of wetlands <strong>in</strong>cludes lakes and rivers, swamps<br />
and marshes, wet grasslands and peatlands, oases, estuaries,<br />
deltas and tidal flats, mangroves and coral reefs,<br />
and human-made sites such as reservoirs, and salt pans.<br />
The Convention has 160 parties (countries), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g all<br />
the nations of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
18<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory<br />
Species of Wild Animals (the Bonn Convention or<br />
CMS) aims to conserve the world’s migratory species<br />
on land, sea and <strong>in</strong> the air. The convention was signed<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1979 <strong>in</strong> Bonn and entered <strong>in</strong>to force <strong>in</strong> 1983, and<br />
unites116 parties (countries), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Kazakhstan,<br />
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. CMS parties<br />
try to provide strict protection to the 176 species (as<br />
of November 2011) threatened with ext<strong>in</strong>ction which<br />
are listed <strong>in</strong> the Convention’s Appendix I, conserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
or restor<strong>in</strong>g the places where they live, reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
obstacles to migration and controll<strong>in</strong>g other threats to<br />
them. Species which need or would significantly benefit<br />
from <strong>in</strong>ternational co-operation are listed <strong>in</strong> Appendix<br />
II. The Convention encourages states where these<br />
species live to conclude regional agreements, which<br />
may be legally b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g or less formal. Several exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
agreements <strong>in</strong>clude ones which aim to conserve<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e mammals, and birds which migrate between<br />
Africa, <strong>Asia</strong> and Europe. There are also memoranda of<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g on the protection of the Bukhara deer<br />
and the saiga.<br />
CMS<br />
CITES is the Convention on International Trade <strong>in</strong><br />
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. It aims to<br />
ensure that <strong>in</strong>ternational trade <strong>in</strong> specimens of wild animals<br />
and plants does not threaten their survival. Parties to the<br />
convention number 175 countries: they <strong>in</strong>clude Kazakhstan,<br />
Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. The convention entered <strong>in</strong>to<br />
force on 1 July 1975. Species protected by CITES aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
over-exploitation by <strong>in</strong>ternational trade number about 5,000<br />
animals and 28,000 plants. Those listed on the convention’s<br />
Appendix I are the most endangered and are threatened<br />
with ext<strong>in</strong>ction: <strong>in</strong>ternational trade <strong>in</strong> them is banned except<br />
for certa<strong>in</strong> non-commercial purposes, such as scientific<br />
research. Appendix II lists species that are not necessarily<br />
threatened with ext<strong>in</strong>ction now but which may become<br />
so unless trade is closely controlled, while Appendix III lists<br />
species <strong>in</strong>cluded at the request of a country that already<br />
regulates trade <strong>in</strong> the species and that needs the cooperation<br />
of other countries to prevent unsusta<strong>in</strong>able or illegal<br />
exploitation. <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>’s species listed by CITES <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
snow leopard, brown bear and saiga antelope.<br />
The World Heritage Convention Concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage<br />
was adopted by the United Nations Educational,<br />
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on 16<br />
November 1972. UNESCO has 193 member states,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g all the nations of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. Currently<br />
UNESCO ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s a list of 936 World Heritage Sites,<br />
places such as forests, mounta<strong>in</strong>s, lakes, deserts,<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs and cities which it has identified as be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of special cultural or natural significance. Kazakhstan<br />
has three sites, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan one each,<br />
Turkmenistan three and Uzbekistan four. Many<br />
more country sites are listed as tentative pend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
endorsement.<br />
The Framework Convention for the<br />
Protection of the Mar<strong>in</strong>e Environment of<br />
the Caspian Sea (the Tehran Convention)<br />
was signed on 4 November 2003 <strong>in</strong> Tehran.<br />
The five Caspian countries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, are members. Its objective<br />
is to protect the Caspian Sea environment from pollution<br />
and to promote the protection, restoration and rational<br />
use of the biological resources of the Sea. The protocol<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g regional preparedness, response and cooperation<br />
<strong>in</strong> oil pollution <strong>in</strong>cidents was signed <strong>in</strong> August 2011 and<br />
three other protocols are be<strong>in</strong>g discussed: on land-based<br />
sources of pollution, on transboundary environmental<br />
impact assessment, and on biodiversity protection.<br />
The Framework Convention on Environmental<br />
Protection and Susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
Development <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> was adopted<br />
<strong>in</strong> November 2006. Aim<strong>in</strong>g to strengthen<br />
regional environmental cooperation, it has<br />
five priorities: air pollution, water pollution,<br />
land degradation, waste management and<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> ecosystem degradation. Kyrgyzstan,<br />
Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have signed<br />
the convention. Another important regional<br />
process is the Aral Sea Bas<strong>in</strong> Programme of<br />
the International Fund for Sav<strong>in</strong>g the Aral Sea (IFAS) which<br />
addresses environmental and socio-economic problems and<br />
biodiversity-related projects <strong>in</strong> the Aral Sea bas<strong>in</strong>.<br />
19
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Volga<br />
Saratov<br />
Samara<br />
Ural<br />
Ufa<br />
R U S S I A<br />
Orenburg<br />
Uralsk<br />
Aktobe<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Ishim<br />
Saryarka<br />
Petropavlovsk<br />
Astana<br />
Omsk<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Karaganda<br />
Irtysh<br />
Semipalat<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Ob<br />
Elevation <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
Barnaul 2000<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
200<br />
100<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Atyrau<br />
Lake Alakol<br />
Tacheng<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Sarysu<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
Shihezi<br />
Makhachkala<br />
AZR<br />
C a s p i a n<br />
S e a<br />
Baku<br />
Aktau<br />
Karabogazgol<br />
Syr Darya<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N<br />
Nukus<br />
Dashoguz<br />
Urganch<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
Aydar Lake<br />
Turkestan<br />
Shymkent<br />
Mausoleum of Khoja<br />
Ahmed Yasawi<br />
Tamgaly Petroglyphs<br />
Chu<br />
Tashkent<br />
Kokand Osh<br />
Khujand Fergana<br />
Almaty<br />
Taraz<br />
Ysyk-Kol<br />
Bishkek<br />
K Y R G Y Z S T A N<br />
T i e<br />
Y<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
n S h a n<br />
Aksu<br />
C H I N A<br />
Protected areas<br />
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance especially as waterfowl habitat)<br />
UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Kazakhstan, the largest country <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, conta<strong>in</strong>s a variety<br />
of habitats. Arid lowlands with steppes, semi-deserts, and<br />
deserts comprise more than 80% of the land area. Mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
occupy another 10% of the territory. Thousands of small lakes,<br />
rivers, Lake Balkhash, the Caspian and Aral Seas further add<br />
to the diversity of ecosystems. Forests occupy only 4.6% of the<br />
total land area, and artificial forest plantations make up 10%<br />
of all forests. The protected areas of Kazakhstan have nearly<br />
doubled <strong>in</strong> size and coverage over the last decade and now<br />
cover 8.6% of the country. Kazakh strategy for protected areas<br />
system expansion calls for a further <strong>in</strong>crease of strict nature<br />
reserves and national parks. The current system <strong>in</strong>cludes: ten<br />
strict nature reserves (“zapovedniks”), twelve national parks,<br />
more than fifty species management areas, n<strong>in</strong>e Ramsar<br />
20<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
6<br />
5<br />
Flora diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan<br />
Number of species, thousand<br />
Vascular plants<br />
Red-listed<br />
Flora species density<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan<br />
Vascular plants<br />
400<br />
350<br />
Number of species<br />
10 000<br />
500<br />
Fauna diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan<br />
Red-listed<br />
Invertebrates<br />
over 50 000<br />
4<br />
3<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
400<br />
300<br />
2<br />
150<br />
200<br />
1<br />
Endemics<br />
100<br />
50<br />
Number of species per 10000 km 2 0<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Source: Kazakhstan’s Fourth National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
0<br />
Source: Kazakhstan’s Fourth National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
sites, several other protected landscapes, buffer zones around<br />
strict nature reserves and parks, susta<strong>in</strong>able nature use areas<br />
(“reservates”) and nature monuments.<br />
Large mammals <strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan have decl<strong>in</strong>ed almost everywhere,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly because of habitat loss. Some species are<br />
hunted - such as wolf and wild goat. Threatened and endangered<br />
mammals <strong>in</strong>clude the Bukhara deer, wild ass, goitered<br />
gazelle, desman, <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n otter and Menzbier’s marmot.<br />
More positively, the saiga antelope liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the southern steppes<br />
and semi-deserts recovered from near-ext<strong>in</strong>ction. Among 12<br />
amphibians is the unique Semirechye salamander. Rare mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
species are the endangered snow leopard, Tien-Shan bear,<br />
wild sheep and vultures. Wetlands host greater flam<strong>in</strong>goes and<br />
relict gulls. The Caspian Sea bas<strong>in</strong> holds 90% of the world’s<br />
sturgeons and the endemic Caspian seals. With extensive<br />
governmental and <strong>in</strong>ternational support, the level of the northern<br />
Aral Sea has stabilized and fisheries slightly recovered.<br />
Birds Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibians<br />
Source: Kazakhstan’s Fourth National Report for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
25 000<br />
20 000<br />
15 000<br />
10 000<br />
5 000<br />
Protected areas<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan<br />
Area, thousand hectares<br />
other<br />
national parks<br />
nature reserves<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Forest cover <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Disclaimer: the map and graph of protected areas show the entire protected<br />
area network and its evolution, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g buffer zones and protected territories/<br />
water areas both with and without a legal entity.<br />
0<br />
1992 2000 2010<br />
21
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Zhangatas<br />
Shymkent<br />
Qaratau<br />
Talas<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Toktogul Reservoir<br />
Kara-Kol<br />
Chirchiq<br />
Tash-Komur<br />
Tashkent<br />
Kochkor-Ata<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N Namangan<br />
Jalal-Abad<br />
Angren<br />
Andijan<br />
Almaliq<br />
Ferghana Valley<br />
Sulaiman-Too<br />
Qoqand Marghilan Osh<br />
Gulistan<br />
Gulcho<br />
Kairakkum Res.<br />
Jangy-Nookat<br />
Ferghana<br />
Bekabad Khujand<br />
Kyzyt-Kyya<br />
Isfara<br />
Khaydarkan<br />
Batken<br />
Sary-Tash<br />
Istaravshan<br />
Isfana<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Kyzyl Adyr<br />
A l a<br />
Toktogul<br />
Kyzyl-Suu<br />
i R<br />
Daroot-Korgon<br />
Tole Bi<br />
Shu<br />
Chu<br />
Cholpon-Ata<br />
Tokmok Kem<strong>in</strong><br />
Bishkek Balykchy Y s y k - K o l<br />
K Y R G Y Z S T A N<br />
Song-Kol<br />
a n<br />
g e<br />
T<br />
Naryn<br />
Baetov<br />
Chatyr-Kol<br />
Kochkor<br />
Wuqia<br />
Naryn<br />
At-Bashy<br />
Almaty<br />
i e n<br />
Kashgar<br />
Esik<br />
Bokonbaev<br />
Kashgar<br />
Tup<br />
Karakol<br />
Kyzyt-Suu<br />
S h<br />
K a k s h a a l T o<br />
o<br />
Toshkan<br />
a<br />
Bachu<br />
Aqsu<br />
Wushi<br />
n<br />
Aqsu<br />
T a k l a m a k a n<br />
C H I N A<br />
Elevation <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
4000<br />
3000<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
Garm<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
Protected<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Vahdat areas <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Kaiaikhum<br />
Nurek<br />
Protected areas<br />
Panj<br />
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance especially as waterfowl habitat)<br />
Karakul<br />
Murgab<br />
UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Yarkand<br />
Tentative UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Biospheric territories<br />
Kyrgyzstan is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of the Tien Shan<br />
and Alai, important <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g fresh water to other <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n states and the western part of Ch<strong>in</strong>a. Mounta<strong>in</strong>s occupy<br />
over 90% of the territory, shelter<strong>in</strong>g a unique and varied range<br />
of ecosystems. Local scientists dist<strong>in</strong>guish more than 20 different<br />
ecosystems <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan. Many have been affected by<br />
overgraz<strong>in</strong>g and deforestation, and the Kyrgyz mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
forests have significantly decl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the 20th century, threaten<strong>in</strong>g<br />
many species with ext<strong>in</strong>ction and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g risk of erosion<br />
and disasters. Forests currently cover about 4.5% of the land<br />
area of Kyrgyzstan. Spruce, juniper and fruit-and-nut forests<br />
are the ma<strong>in</strong> types of national forests.<br />
22<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
6<br />
Flora diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Number of species, thousand<br />
Vascular plants<br />
Flora species density<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Number of species per 10000 km 2<br />
Vascular plants<br />
400<br />
Number of species<br />
10 000<br />
Fauna diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Invertebrates<br />
over 10 000<br />
5<br />
350<br />
500<br />
4<br />
3<br />
Red-listed<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
400<br />
300<br />
Red-listed<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Endemics<br />
Source: Kyrgyzstan’s Fourth National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Source: Kyrgyzstan’s<br />
Fourth National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
The exist<strong>in</strong>g network of protected areas <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
ten strict nature reserves, n<strong>in</strong>e national parks, more than forty<br />
species management areas and numerous nature monuments,<br />
cover<strong>in</strong>g 6.3% of the land area. In 2003 Kyrgyzstan assigned the<br />
special status of “biosphere territory” to the entire Issyk-Kul prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong>in</strong> the eastern part of the country. If this territory is added,<br />
the ecosystems under protection would cover one quarter of the<br />
country. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>dependence, many protected areas have been<br />
operat<strong>in</strong>g on reduced budgets, staff<strong>in</strong>g and equipment. There<br />
has been some improvement <strong>in</strong> recent years to <strong>in</strong>volve local<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> forest and pasture management and advance<br />
species monitor<strong>in</strong>g and conservation <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational projects.<br />
Many species of animals like the goitered gazelle, great bustard<br />
and imperial eagle are no longer found. Critically endangered<br />
are wild pomegranates and several tulip varieties <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
glitter tulip (Tulipa nitida), Ostrovskiy tulip (T. ostrowskiana),<br />
p<strong>in</strong>k tulip (T. rosea). Rare species like the grey monitor lizard,<br />
marbled polecat, snow leopard and brown bear rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> an<br />
extremely dangerous situation.<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Birds Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibians<br />
Source: Kyrgyzstan’s<br />
Fourth National Report for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
800<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
Protected areas<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Area, thousand hectares<br />
1 400<br />
other<br />
1 200 national parks<br />
nature reserves<br />
1 000<br />
600<br />
1992 2000 2010<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Includ<strong>in</strong>g the Issyk-Kul<br />
biosphere territory<br />
Forest cover <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
The graph does not <strong>in</strong>clude the Issyk-Kul biosphere territory.<br />
23
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Shardara<br />
Reservoir<br />
Aydar Lake<br />
Dostlik<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Zhetisay<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N<br />
Jizzax<br />
Samarkand<br />
Urgut<br />
Shahrisabz<br />
Boysun<br />
Qumqorgon<br />
Sherobod<br />
Termiz<br />
Sarazm<br />
Zarafshon<br />
Panjakent<br />
Denov<br />
Shorchi<br />
Shahr-i Tuz<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Ayvaj<br />
Vaksh<br />
Saryaghash Chirchiq<br />
Abay Parkent<br />
Tashkent<br />
Angren<br />
Sirdaryo<br />
Gulistan<br />
Tursunzoda<br />
Bekabad<br />
A<strong>in</strong>i<br />
Sultonobod<br />
Takfon<br />
Olmaliq<br />
Istaravshan<br />
Isfana<br />
Emam<br />
Shaheb<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Varzob<br />
Khujand<br />
Pastigov<br />
Vahdat<br />
Nurek<br />
Qurghonteppa<br />
Panj<br />
Shaydon<br />
Rogun<br />
Konibodom<br />
Khudgiv<br />
Garm<br />
Panj<br />
Isfara<br />
Namangan<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Kokand<br />
Jirgatal<br />
Feyzabad<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
Taloqan<br />
Khanabad<br />
Kosonsoy<br />
Fergana<br />
Panj<br />
Bazar-Korgon<br />
Uchqorgon<br />
Jalal-Abad<br />
Andijan Ozgon<br />
Jangy-Nookat<br />
Kyzyl-Kyya<br />
K Y R G Y Z S T A N<br />
Khaydarkan<br />
Sary-Tash<br />
Gunt<br />
Daroot-Korgon<br />
Bartang<br />
Osh<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
Tavildara<br />
Qala-i Khumb<br />
Kulob<br />
Vanj<br />
Vomar<br />
Korug<br />
Savnob<br />
Langar<br />
Drasan<br />
Kara Kul<br />
Kara Kul<br />
Lake Sarez<br />
Khandut<br />
Gulcho<br />
Murgab<br />
Alichur<br />
Murgab<br />
Ulugqat<br />
Langar<br />
Gakuch<br />
Aksu<br />
P A K I S T A N<br />
Kashgar<br />
C H I N A<br />
Shaymak<br />
Elevation <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
4000<br />
3000<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
Wuqia<br />
500<br />
Pasu<br />
Taxkorgan<br />
Protected areas<br />
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance especially as waterfowl habitat)<br />
UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Tajikistan is the smallest country of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by the Pamir, Gissar and Alai mounta<strong>in</strong>s, with 93% of its land<br />
considered mounta<strong>in</strong>ous and over half above 3 000 m. It boasts<br />
a wealth of biodiversity and a broad range of habitats, reflected<br />
<strong>in</strong> high species diversity and local flora endemism. Tajikistan’s<br />
ecosystems <strong>in</strong>clude nut, juniper, and broadleaf forests, alp<strong>in</strong>e<br />
meadows and grasslands and high-mounta<strong>in</strong> deserts.<br />
The protected area system <strong>in</strong>cludes four strict nature reserves,<br />
one national park (the Tajik National Park) cover<strong>in</strong>g nearly<br />
half of the Tajik Pamirs, Shirkent natural-historical park, five<br />
Ramsar sites, and more than a dozen species management<br />
areas. Overall, protected areas occupy 22% of the territory -<br />
the highest percentage <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. They cover almost all<br />
representative ecosystems, although many protected areas<br />
24<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
6<br />
Flora diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Number of species, thousand<br />
Vascular plants<br />
Flora species density<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Number of species per 10000 km 2<br />
Vascular plants<br />
400<br />
Number of species<br />
10 000<br />
Fauna diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Invertebrates<br />
over 12 000<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
Red-listed<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
Red-listed<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Endemics<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Birds Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibians<br />
Source: Tajikistan’s Fourth National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
Source: Tajikistan’s Fourth National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
are too small for effective protection and lack management<br />
plans, equipment and adequate budgets. Several protected<br />
areas were negatively affected by the civil war <strong>in</strong> the 1990s.<br />
Forest resources are slender, cover<strong>in</strong>g only about 3% of<br />
Tajikistan. Juniper forests make up nearly half of national<br />
forests and play a crucial role <strong>in</strong> erosion control and water<br />
regulation. Walnut forests mixed with wild fruit trees as well<br />
as pistachio and almond forests occur <strong>in</strong> central and southern<br />
Tajikistan.<br />
The exist<strong>in</strong>g Red List of Tajikistan dates back to the Soviet<br />
era (1988), although the new Red List is under preparation.<br />
Almost half of all mammals and reptiles are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Red List. The status of the leopard and striped hyena is<br />
doubtful. Threatened species <strong>in</strong>clude the goitered gazelle,<br />
grey monitor, snow leopard, brown bear, argali (Marco Polo<br />
sheep) and markhor goat.<br />
Source: Tajikistan’s Fourth National Report for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
3 000<br />
2 500<br />
2 000<br />
1 000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
Protected areas<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Area, thousand hectares<br />
3 500<br />
1 500<br />
other<br />
national parks<br />
nature reserves<br />
1992 2000 2010<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Forest cover <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
25
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Fetisovo<br />
Turkestan<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Elevation <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
Chimboy<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
2000<br />
Nukus K y z y l k u m D e s e r t<br />
Kunya-Urgench<br />
Shymkent<br />
1000<br />
Mangit<br />
Uchquduq<br />
Sarygamysh Boldumsaz<br />
500<br />
Karabogazgol<br />
Lake<br />
Dashoguz<br />
200<br />
Urganch<br />
Zarafshon<br />
100<br />
Xiva Pitnak<br />
Tashkent<br />
Golden Age Lake<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N<br />
(under construction)<br />
Aydar Lake<br />
Nurota<br />
Gulistan<br />
Turkmenbashy<br />
Jizzax<br />
Balkanabat<br />
Navoiy<br />
Khujand<br />
Hazar<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Bukhara<br />
Bereket<br />
Samarkand<br />
Serdar<br />
K a r a k u m<br />
Panjkent<br />
D e s e r t<br />
Shahrisabz<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Magtymguly<br />
Baharly<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Qarshi<br />
Nisa<br />
Esenguly<br />
Ashgabat<br />
Shorchi<br />
Merv<br />
Kerkichi<br />
Sherobod<br />
Bandar-e Torkeman<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Mary<br />
Qurghonteppa<br />
Gonbad-e Kavus<br />
Tejen<br />
Gorgan<br />
Kaka<br />
Termiz<br />
Amol Sari<br />
Quchan<br />
Yoloten<br />
Emamrud<br />
Balkh<br />
Sabzevar Mashad Sarakhs Sarahs<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
Semnan<br />
Sar-e Pol<br />
Neyshabur<br />
I R A N<br />
Tagtabazar<br />
Meymaneh<br />
Torbat-e Jam<br />
Serhetabad A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
Torbat-e<br />
D a s h t - e K a v i r<br />
Heydariyeh<br />
Qaleh-ye Now<br />
Atrek<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan<br />
Protected areas<br />
K o p e t<br />
Great Turkmen Collector<br />
D a g<br />
Tayyebad<br />
Ghurian<br />
Herat<br />
UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
Tejen<br />
Murgab<br />
Karakum Canal<br />
Hari Rud<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Zarafshan<br />
Chaghcharan<br />
Tentative UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance especially as waterfowl habitat)<br />
UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Most of Turkmenistan (80%) consists of sandy desert, although<br />
<strong>in</strong> the south the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of Kopet Dag and Kugitang lie along<br />
the Iranian, Afghan and Uzbek borders. Turkmenistan’s deserts<br />
are dom<strong>in</strong>ated by xerophytic shrubs and salt-tolerant species.<br />
Other ecosystems are riparian wetlands, mounta<strong>in</strong> forests and<br />
the Caspian Sea. Turkmenistan has many close relatives of<br />
domestic food plants, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g wild pomegranate, grape, fig,<br />
apple, pear, cherries, plum, almond and melon.<br />
Turkmenistan’s eight strict nature reserves cover more than<br />
784,000 ha and <strong>in</strong>clude a range of ecosystems. Besides the strict<br />
reserves, there are 14 species management areas and 17 nature<br />
monuments. The country’s first national park is <strong>in</strong> the process<br />
of establishment. One of the famous nature monuments <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Kugitang mounta<strong>in</strong>s has 2,000 fossilized d<strong>in</strong>osaur footpr<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
26<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Flora diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan<br />
Number of species, thousand<br />
Vascular plants<br />
6<br />
Flora species density<br />
<strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan<br />
Number of species per 10000 km 2<br />
Vascular plants<br />
400<br />
Number of species<br />
10 000<br />
Fauna diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan<br />
Invertebrates<br />
over 4 000<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
Red-listed<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
Red-listed<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Endemics<br />
Source: Turkmenistan’s National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Source: Turkmenistan’s National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010)<br />
The Red List of Turkmenistan <strong>in</strong>cludes around 30 mammals, 30<br />
reptiles, and many bird species. S<strong>in</strong>ce the 1950s the tiger, Syrian<br />
brown bear and lynx have vanished. The surviv<strong>in</strong>g populations<br />
of goitered gazelles, markhors, wild sheep, leopards, wild cats<br />
and wild goats are thought to be much reduced. Characteristic<br />
desert mammals <strong>in</strong>clude honey badgers, endemic sand shrews,<br />
ground squirrels and desert cats. There are many dry country<br />
bird specialists: Pander’s ground jay, houbara bustard, sandgrouse,<br />
desert sparrow and several falcons. Desert reptiles<br />
abound <strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan and many are endemic to <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
These <strong>in</strong>clude tortoises, lizards and snakes. Threats to biodiversity<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude habitat loss, deforestation, overgraz<strong>in</strong>g and pollution.<br />
Hunt<strong>in</strong>g, over-exploitation and the <strong>in</strong>troduction of alien species<br />
compound the damage.<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Birds Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibians<br />
Source: Turkmenistan’s National Repor for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2010), UNDP GEF (2009)<br />
1 600<br />
800<br />
Protected areas<br />
<strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan<br />
Area, thousand hectares<br />
2 400<br />
2 000<br />
1 200<br />
other<br />
nature reserves<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Forest cover <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
The Caspian Sea ecosystem around the Cheleken pen<strong>in</strong>sula of<br />
Turkmenistan suffered years of environmental mismanagement<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the Soviet era. Industrial waste and discharges led <strong>in</strong><br />
those days to high levels of pollution <strong>in</strong> the Sea and on its shores.<br />
While pollution has fallen, many effects persist.<br />
400<br />
0<br />
1992 2000 2010<br />
27
0<strong>Biodiversity</strong> 100<strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> 200<strong>Asia</strong><br />
300 400 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
Source: Protected Planet (→ http://protectedplanet.net); UNESCO World Heritage Conventon (→ http://whc.unesco.org)<br />
ADB Nature Atlas (→ http://beta.adb.org/publications/central-asia-atlas-natural-resources); Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (→ www.ramsar.org)<br />
Beyneu<br />
Moynoq<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Baikonur<br />
Dzhusaly<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
Chiili<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Kentau<br />
Zhanatas<br />
Lake Balkash<br />
Chu<br />
Elevation <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
200<br />
Shu 100<br />
Golden Age Lake<br />
(under construction)<br />
Balkanabad<br />
Atrek<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Qongirot<br />
Great Turkmen Collector<br />
Quchan<br />
Nukus<br />
Sarygamysh<br />
Lake<br />
Dashoguz Itchan Kala<br />
Urganch<br />
Xiva<br />
K a r a k u m D e s e r t<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Serdar<br />
I R A N<br />
Baharly<br />
Ashgabat<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan<br />
Tejen<br />
K y z y l k u m<br />
Sarakhs<br />
Sarahs<br />
Mary<br />
Shardara<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N<br />
Tashkent<br />
Olmaliq<br />
Aydar Lake<br />
Navoiy<br />
Gulistan<br />
Jizzax<br />
Bukhara Samarkand<br />
Istaravshan<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Murgab<br />
Karakum<br />
Canal<br />
D e s e r t<br />
Uchquduq<br />
Qarshi<br />
Shahrisabz<br />
Kerkichi<br />
Zarafshan<br />
Panjkent<br />
Termiz<br />
Turkestan<br />
Shymkent<br />
Vaksh<br />
Denov<br />
Kulob<br />
Sherobod<br />
Qurghonteppa<br />
Taraz<br />
Khujand<br />
Isfara<br />
Feyzabad<br />
Andijan<br />
Kokand<br />
Fergana<br />
Panj<br />
Korug<br />
Jalal-Abad<br />
Osh<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
Dushanbe P a m i r<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
Bishkek<br />
Talas<br />
Toktogul<br />
K Y R G Y Z S T A N<br />
Drasan<br />
Murgab<br />
Protected areas<br />
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance especially as waterfowl habitat)<br />
UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO natural world heritage<br />
Tentative UNESCO cultural world heritage<br />
Uzbekistan’s mounta<strong>in</strong>s, deserts, riparian wetlands and the<br />
Aral Sea (which <strong>in</strong> the past 50 years has shrunk dramatically)<br />
produce a diversity of habitats. More than four fifths<br />
of the country is desert and semi-desert which <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
seven types of terrestrial ecosystems as well as wetlands.<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s occupy nearly 20% of the total land area.<br />
There are n<strong>in</strong>e strict nature reserves, two national (natural)<br />
parks, 14 species management areas, five nature monuments<br />
and the Dzeiran centre for captive breed<strong>in</strong>g of rare<br />
animals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the goitered gazelle, wild ass, Houbara<br />
bustard and Bactrian deer. Most of these areas were established<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Soviet era and cover 5.8% of the country’s<br />
28<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
6<br />
Flora diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan<br />
Number of species, thousand<br />
Vascular plants<br />
Flora species density<br />
<strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan<br />
Number of species per 10000 km 2<br />
Vascular plants<br />
400<br />
Number of species<br />
10 000<br />
Fauna diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan<br />
Invertebrates<br />
over 14 000<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
Red-listed<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
Red-listed<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Endemics<br />
Source: Uzbekistan’s National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2008)<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Source: Uzbekistan’s National Report<br />
for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2008)<br />
area. New categories of protected areas cover<strong>in</strong>g groundwater<br />
and river zones are be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the country. In<br />
the past decade, more than 25 such water protection zones<br />
along or upstream of the ma<strong>in</strong> rivers and lakes have been<br />
designated. Protected areas of Uzbekistan are managed<br />
by various state authorities: the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture<br />
and Water Resources, the State Committee for Nature<br />
Protection, and the Tashkent Prov<strong>in</strong>cialAdm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
(Hokimiyat). The Kitab geological reserve is supervised by<br />
the State Committee for Geology and M<strong>in</strong>eral Resources.<br />
Forests cover 7.7% of the land area: junipers constitute the<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipal mounta<strong>in</strong> forests and saxaul natural and artificial<br />
forests are typical for deserts and are extensively used for<br />
reforestation of the Aral Sea surround<strong>in</strong>g areas. More than<br />
25% of all national forests are planted.<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Birds Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibians<br />
Source: Uzbekistan’s National Report for the UN Convention <strong>Biodiversity</strong> (2008); http://www.cbd.uz/<br />
2 000<br />
1 000<br />
Protected areas<br />
<strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan<br />
Area, thousand hectares<br />
3 000<br />
2 500<br />
1 500<br />
other<br />
national parks<br />
nature reserves<br />
Protected areas <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Forest cover <strong>in</strong> 2010<br />
per cent of total land area<br />
Rare animals <strong>in</strong>clude the saiga antelope, goitered gazelle,<br />
desert monitor, Tien-Shan brown bear, snow leopard, mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
urial, Menzbier’s marmot, Dalmatian pelican, glossy ibis<br />
and heron.<br />
500<br />
0<br />
1992 2000 2010<br />
29
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness<br />
of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Steppes<br />
R u s s i a<br />
K a z a k h s t a n<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
C h i n a<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
Steppes<br />
I r a n<br />
Pakistan<br />
Afghanistan<br />
India<br />
Steppes are grassy and largely treeless pla<strong>in</strong>s. The climate<br />
is usually too dry to support the growth of forests but not dry<br />
enough to qualify as a desert, though some steppes may<br />
be semi-deserts. They often experience very marked differences<br />
of temperature between day and night, and between<br />
summer and w<strong>in</strong>ter. The steppes of southwestern Russia<br />
and northern <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> are the world’s largest steppe ecoregion.<br />
Steppes have developed their own suite of species,<br />
both resident and migratory. The Saryarka ecoregion is an<br />
area of the <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n steppe with both freshwater and<br />
saltwater lakes <strong>in</strong> northern Kazakhstan. A World Heritage<br />
Site, it is outstand<strong>in</strong>g for its wetlands that receive millions<br />
of water birds migrat<strong>in</strong>g between Africa, Europe, and South<br />
<strong>Asia</strong> and their breed<strong>in</strong>g areas <strong>in</strong> Siberia. Up until the 1950s<br />
Kazakhstan’s steppes were considered susta<strong>in</strong>able. In the<br />
next two decades, however, 35 million hectares of virg<strong>in</strong> and<br />
fallow steppe lands were ploughed for Soviet agriculture. The<br />
soil lost over 30% of the humus which helps it to reta<strong>in</strong> water<br />
and nutrients and the ecological balance became <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
disturbed. W<strong>in</strong>d erosion triggered massive dust storms. After<br />
collective farms vanished soil rehabilitation stopped and herders<br />
soon overcrowded steppe pastures and depleted them.<br />
32<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Deserts<br />
Deserts<br />
R u s s i a<br />
K a z a k h s t a n<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
C h i n a<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
I r a n<br />
Pakistan<br />
Afghanistan<br />
India<br />
The <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n deserts and semi-deserts <strong>in</strong>clude several<br />
sandy, stony and clay deserts that stretch from the eastern<br />
shore of the Caspian Sea to Lake Balkash and to the foothills<br />
of the Kopetdag, Tien Shan and Pamir mounta<strong>in</strong>s. Ra<strong>in</strong>fall,<br />
total<strong>in</strong>g 70–125 millimetres per year, is greatest dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g, with a long summer drought. The difference<br />
between night and day surface air temperatures <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n deserts could be as high as 30°C. The large<br />
Karakum Desert deserves special mention: it occupies more<br />
than two-thirds of Turkmenistan and covers some 350,000<br />
square kilometers, more than the total area of Kyrgyzstan and<br />
Tajikistan comb<strong>in</strong>ed. Under its arid surface are rich oil, gas,<br />
and sulphur deposits that are now be<strong>in</strong>g fully exploited. The<br />
spread of agriculture <strong>in</strong> the deserts, especially irrigated farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and graz<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with energy <strong>in</strong>frastructure, is<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> threat to the local biodiversity. The unsusta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
use of plants, especially saxaul forests, for firewood is also<br />
damag<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
33
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Saratov<br />
Ufa<br />
R u s<br />
s i a<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Samara<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Petropavlovsko<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Omskk<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Barnaul<br />
Oral<br />
Orenburg<br />
Astana<br />
Semey<br />
A l t a i<br />
C a<br />
s p i a n<br />
e<br />
S<br />
a<br />
Aktobe<br />
Tengiz Lake<br />
Temirtau<br />
Karagandan<br />
Altay<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
Zhezkazgan<br />
Northerne<br />
Aral SeaS<br />
Balkhash<br />
Lake L Alakol Karamayam<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Shihezi<br />
Baikonur<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
Ur<br />
Eastern<br />
Ghulja<br />
Western<br />
AralSea Kyzylorda<br />
Aktau<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Makhachkalaa<br />
Almaty<br />
Korla<br />
Nukus<br />
K y z y l k u m<br />
Shymkent<br />
Ysik-Kol<br />
Bishkekk<br />
K y r g y<br />
z s t a n<br />
Aksu<br />
AZR<br />
Dashoguz Urganch<br />
Tashkent<br />
Jalalabad<br />
Baku<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
Kokand Osh<br />
T u r k m e n i s t a n U z b e k<br />
i s t a n<br />
Kujand<br />
Jizakh<br />
Ferghana<br />
Kashgar<br />
Bukhara<br />
T a k l<br />
a m a k a n<br />
Balkanabat<br />
K a r a k u m<br />
Samarkand<br />
C h i n a<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Dushanbe T a j i k i s t a n<br />
Rashta<br />
Karshi<br />
Ashgabat<br />
P a m i r<br />
Hotan<br />
Qurghonteppa<br />
Mary<br />
Korug<br />
Gorgan<br />
Sari<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Termiz<br />
Kunduzu<br />
Gilgit<br />
Tehran<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
Mashad<br />
A f g h a n i s t a n<br />
P a k i s t a n<br />
Qom<br />
I r a n<br />
A<br />
Forests<br />
p<br />
l b o<br />
Fir, spruce<br />
r z<br />
Herat<br />
Broadleaf, fruit-nut<br />
Saxaul<br />
K a z a k h s t a n<br />
H i n d u k u s h<br />
K a<br />
T i e n S<br />
r a k o<br />
r u m<br />
u m<br />
Kabul<br />
Peshawar Sr<strong>in</strong>agarr<br />
I n d i 0 a<br />
h a n<br />
Forest steppe, ma<strong>in</strong>ly p<strong>in</strong>e and birch Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
100<br />
200 300 km<br />
Qiem<br />
Juniper, p<strong>in</strong>e, larch<br />
Birch, aspen<br />
Tugai and floodpla<strong>in</strong> forests<br />
Source: World Wildlife Fund (→ www.worldwildlife.org/science/data/item6373.html)<br />
Forest reduction <strong>in</strong> the 20th century<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Tien Shan spruce forests <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Junipers <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Pistachios <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Tugai forests <strong>in</strong> the Amu Darya delta, Uzbekistan<br />
-100% -90% -80%<br />
-70%<br />
-60%<br />
-50%<br />
-40%<br />
-30%<br />
-20%<br />
-10%<br />
0<br />
34<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Forest cover <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Area, thousand hectares<br />
12 500<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
11 500<br />
10 500<br />
9 500<br />
Other forests<br />
8 500<br />
Fruit and nut forests<br />
7 500<br />
Evergreen (coniferous) forests<br />
6 500<br />
Forests<br />
Some of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>’s forests are sparse,<br />
like the saxaul woodlands of the deserts,<br />
while others are traditional dense forests. All<br />
play key roles as <strong>in</strong>dicators of species diversity,<br />
core ecosystem elements, and carbon<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ks. They offer not only timber but many<br />
non-wood products, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fruit, nuts and<br />
honey, as well as refuges for wildlife. Most of<br />
Tajikistan’s and Kyrgyzstan’s forests, <strong>in</strong> fact,<br />
are protected, with timber fell<strong>in</strong>g forbidden.<br />
Some forests harbour trees which tolerate<br />
high aridity and sal<strong>in</strong>ity, and others which<br />
are close relatives of domestic food plants:<br />
both could be useful as climate change<br />
and biodiversity loss <strong>in</strong>tensify. Much of the<br />
region’s forests was lost <strong>in</strong> the early Soviet<br />
years (the 1930s-1940s). Today’s ma<strong>in</strong><br />
threats are graz<strong>in</strong>g and trampl<strong>in</strong>g, fires, and<br />
illegal cutt<strong>in</strong>g for fuel and sale.<br />
5 500<br />
Desert (saxaul) forests<br />
Forest stock <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Forest biomass<br />
4 500<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Volume, million cubic metres<br />
400<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
350<br />
Biomass, dry weight<br />
million metric tonnes *<br />
300<br />
above ground<br />
3 500<br />
2 500<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
Other forests, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g saxaul<br />
Evergreen (coniferous) forests<br />
200<br />
100<br />
1 500<br />
500<br />
0<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
100<br />
below ground<br />
* total for <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Source: FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010, data for 2005-2010<br />
Source: FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010, data for 2005-2010<br />
Source: FAO 2010, data for 2005-2010<br />
35
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Saxaul trees grow <strong>in</strong> the deserts of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. The biggest<br />
saxaul forests, which are composed primarily of white and<br />
black saxaul, are <strong>in</strong> southern Kazakhstan where they cover<br />
six million hectares. Turkmenistan has about four million<br />
hectares, Uzbekistan two million, and small areas are also<br />
found <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan. Saxaul trees are important for protect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
soil and help<strong>in</strong>g prevent sand from fi ll<strong>in</strong>g channels, oases and<br />
cover<strong>in</strong>g roads, and so help to regulate water supply. They<br />
benefi t pastures by provid<strong>in</strong>g shade and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pasture<br />
productivity. They are extensively used for reforestation<br />
efforts around the Aral Sea to mitigate dust storms and halt<br />
desertifi cation. The saxaul has extensive root systems reach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
down as deep as 10 metres to fi nd moisture. Saxaul trees<br />
grow up to 10-12 metres high and live 50 years.<br />
Tugai forests are fl oodpla<strong>in</strong> forests of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, found <strong>in</strong><br />
river valleys where the groundwater is close to the surface.<br />
They can <strong>in</strong>clude a range of tree species, among them poplar,<br />
willow, tamarisk, birch, salt tree and buckthorn. They were<br />
once widespread, but the area occupied by tugai has shrunk<br />
dramatically because of fl oodpla<strong>in</strong> reclamation and low water<br />
levels <strong>in</strong> rivers and deltas. Those that are left are vital for wildlife.<br />
The largest rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g tugai forests are found <strong>in</strong> the lower<br />
Amu Darya river delta. Floodpla<strong>in</strong> forests <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly threatened by the gold development projects<br />
along nearby river beds. Tugai forests have a high value for<br />
soil protection, and serve as graz<strong>in</strong>g lands, fi re barriers and<br />
habitats for wildlife.<br />
Spruce, firs and juniper woods are found <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n mounta<strong>in</strong>s at altitudes up to 3,700 m above sea<br />
level. Juniper trees grow at about 2 cm annually, and some<br />
specimens are estimated to be more than 1,000 years old.<br />
Most juniper forests are found on the northern slopes of<br />
the Turkestan, Alai, Zeravshan and Gissar mounta<strong>in</strong>s. The<br />
Tien Shan spruce forests are typical of the Issyk-Kul Lake’s<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>gs. All mounta<strong>in</strong> forests play a vital soil-protection<br />
and water-regulat<strong>in</strong>g role and they are strictly protected. They<br />
attenuate erosion processes, stabilize the soil aga<strong>in</strong>st mudand-stone<br />
landslides and regulate runoff.<br />
36<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Wild apple forests<br />
The mounta<strong>in</strong>s of Kazakhstan and the other countries of<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> are key for the world’s apples. Scientists believe<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> produced the ancestor of most cultivated apple<br />
species, which then spread East and West along the Silk<br />
Road. But the wild apple forests are not adequately managed<br />
to conserve biodiversity, and there are fears they are los<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their genetic dist<strong>in</strong>ctiveness. Kazakhstan is now work<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
conserve its wild apples <strong>in</strong> situ - <strong>in</strong> their native habitats, <strong>in</strong> addition<br />
to research stations and botanical gardens. Kyrgyzstan<br />
and Tajikistan also have signifi cant wild fruit and nut forests.<br />
On the eastern slopes of the Fergana Valley <strong>in</strong> southern<br />
Kyrgyzstan are the largest areas of natural walnut forests<br />
<strong>in</strong> the world, composed ma<strong>in</strong>ly of walnut but also <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
other fruit trees and shrubs, among them varieties of apple,<br />
pear and plum. The forests have extremely rich biodiversity<br />
- more than 180 tree species, 150 bird species and 40<br />
mammal species. After study<strong>in</strong>g traditional forest management<br />
schemes, Kyrgyzstan with Swiss support <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
community fruit-and-nut forest management, an experimental<br />
approach that engaged community groups and local authorities<br />
to manage forests. In addition to Kyrgyzstan, walnut<br />
forests also grow <strong>in</strong> central and southern Tajikistan.<br />
The pistachio is a tree which is salt- and aridity-tolerant<br />
and can also cope with wide temperature fl uctuations, from<br />
-10°C to 40°C. Well-known <strong>in</strong> southern Turkmenistan and<br />
Tajikistan, it grows as well <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.<br />
Many of today’s pistachio forests are planted rather than<br />
natural growth. Wild pistachio nuts are prized for their fl avour.<br />
Each hectare of pistachio forest on average provides 80 kg<br />
of nuts and <strong>in</strong> some areas 300 kg. But pistachio trees are<br />
valuable for more than their harvest. They can protect the<br />
soil and prevent the formation of gullies and the destruction<br />
of mounta<strong>in</strong> slopes.<br />
37
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Pamir and Tien Shan<br />
Altitude <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000<br />
0 100 200<br />
300 km<br />
a l k<br />
L a k e B<br />
h a<br />
s h<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, November 2011<br />
yzylorda<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Chu<br />
Ili<br />
Ghulja<br />
iy<br />
Sy<br />
Dary<br />
S r<br />
r a<br />
y<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N<br />
Jizakh<br />
Turkestan<br />
Shymkent<br />
Tashkent<br />
Kujand<br />
Samarkand<br />
5509<br />
Piramida Peak<br />
T la<br />
Ta<br />
Taraz<br />
l s<br />
yn<br />
y<br />
Namangan<br />
Ferghana Valley<br />
Kokand<br />
Ferghana<br />
K Y R G Y Z S T A N<br />
Osh<br />
7134<br />
Len<strong>in</strong> Peak<br />
Bishkek<br />
Almaty<br />
Kapchagay Lake<br />
Talgar Peak<br />
4979<br />
Ysyk-Kol<br />
T i e n<br />
Kashgar<br />
5982<br />
Dankova Peak<br />
k nt He<br />
r a<br />
rk<br />
Ya<br />
Y<br />
7439<br />
Jengish (Pobeda)<br />
Peak<br />
S h a n<br />
Aksu<br />
C H I N A<br />
T a k l a m a k a n<br />
Hotan He<br />
Karshi<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
k sh<br />
kh<br />
Va<br />
Dushanbe<br />
7495<br />
Ismoil Somoni Peak<br />
6974<br />
Independence<br />
Peak<br />
P a m i r<br />
7719<br />
Kongur Shan<br />
Hotan<br />
V<br />
Termiz<br />
Amu Dary<br />
r a<br />
y<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
P A K I S T A N<br />
Disthegil Sar<br />
7885<br />
7788<br />
Rakaposhi<br />
8611<br />
K2<br />
7282<br />
Muztag<br />
38<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Kopet Dag<br />
Altitude <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
500 1000 1500 2000<br />
Baharly<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Gokdepe Abadan Ashgabat<br />
Karakum Canal<br />
Lotfabad<br />
Kaka<br />
Dushak<br />
Tejen<br />
Tejen<br />
Kalat-e Naderi<br />
Magtymguly<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Maraveh<br />
Tappeh<br />
Iran<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
Afghanistan<br />
Atrek<br />
K o p e<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Shirvan<br />
I R A N<br />
t<br />
Chakaneh Sofli<br />
D a g<br />
Quchan<br />
Radkan<br />
Kashaf<br />
Mashad<br />
0 25 50 75 100 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> Ecosystems<br />
Diverse mounta<strong>in</strong> ranges described by the early Persians<br />
as the “Roof of the World” and by the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese as the<br />
“Heavenly Mounta<strong>in</strong>s” have always played a pivotal role <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. The mounta<strong>in</strong>s provide an astonish<strong>in</strong>g array<br />
of essential ecosystem goods and services that serve not<br />
only the mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>habitants but also those <strong>in</strong> the lowlands<br />
and people around the globe: forest products and land for<br />
food production; watershed protection; habitat for flora and<br />
fauna of local and global significance; the regulation of<br />
natural hazards and climate; natural areas for leisure and<br />
recreational activities; and perhaps most important of all,<br />
the storage and release of water.<br />
Two of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>’s major mounta<strong>in</strong> ranges – the Pamirs<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan and the Tien Shan <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan – make those<br />
countries the most mounta<strong>in</strong>ous <strong>in</strong> the region, with an<br />
average elevation of about 3,000 metres above sea level,<br />
peaks exceed<strong>in</strong>g 7,000 metres and more than 90% of their<br />
national territories considered as mounta<strong>in</strong>ous.<br />
Global biodiversity hotspots<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s of<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
The Kopet Dag, also known as the Turkmen-Khorasan<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s, run along the border of Turkmenistan and Iran,<br />
a region characterized by foothills, dry and sandy slopes,<br />
plateaus and steep rav<strong>in</strong>es. Mounta<strong>in</strong>s comprise only 5%<br />
of Turkmenistan’s land area but hold about two thirds of the<br />
country’s biodiversity.<br />
39
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> ecosystems also cover parts of east Kazakhstan<br />
(the Kazakh uplands, Djungar Alatoo, Tarbagatai and<br />
Altai), south-east Uzbekistan (Western Tien Shan and<br />
Gissar), and extend <strong>in</strong>to Afghanistan (H<strong>in</strong>du Kush) and<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a. Overall, mounta<strong>in</strong>s cover 800,000 square kilometres<br />
or 20% of the total area of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
Most of the population <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> relies on water that<br />
falls <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s where it is stored <strong>in</strong> glaciers and snow<br />
before mak<strong>in</strong>g its way downstream to population centres.<br />
The densely populated valleys and oases of the vast<br />
drylands of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> depend on mounta<strong>in</strong> water transported<br />
by numerous rivers and streams. Global warm<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
slowly melt<strong>in</strong>g mounta<strong>in</strong> glaciers, affect<strong>in</strong>g snow reserves<br />
and at the same time <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the water requirements of<br />
basic agricultural crops.<br />
40<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
The <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>s host at least 20 dist<strong>in</strong>ct ecosystems<br />
and 4,500–5,500 species of vascular plants, almost<br />
one quarter of which are unique (endemic) to the region.<br />
At lower altitudes and <strong>in</strong> the foothills, dryland ecosystems<br />
prevail. At higher altitudes, grasslands, shrubs and forests<br />
are widespread. Meadows and tundra-like ecosystems<br />
are found at the high mounta<strong>in</strong> plateaus.<br />
Globally endangered species resident <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude the snow leopard (with more than half of the global<br />
population) and the Marco Polo sheep. The numbers of<br />
these species have decl<strong>in</strong>ed, however, as a result of<br />
poach<strong>in</strong>g, hunt<strong>in</strong>g and the depletion of the food base.<br />
The high biodiversity richness and endemism of flora and<br />
fauna of the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is exemplified by<br />
the fact that the number of vascular plant species found<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Pamir-Alai or the Tien Shan Mounta<strong>in</strong>s is four times<br />
higher than that of the nearby lowland Karakum Desert,<br />
which has twice the area.<br />
41
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Caspian Sea<br />
The Caspian Sea is the world’s largest enclosed body of<br />
water by area: it covers 371,000 sq km. The Caspian seal is<br />
endemic to the Sea, which is also home to many sturgeon<br />
species, now endangered by overfish<strong>in</strong>g for the caviar<br />
trade. The commercial value of the Caspian’s biodiversity<br />
is estimated by the Caspian Environmental Programme<br />
at US $5 bn annually. The Volga River, Europe’s largest,<br />
provides 80% of the Caspian’s fresh water, much of it<br />
polluted. Offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation<br />
poses other risks. The other ma<strong>in</strong> river flow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
northern Caspian is the Ural: the wetlands around the Ural<br />
delta are important to migrat<strong>in</strong>g birds.<br />
The Khazar nature reserve near Turkmenistan’s Caspian<br />
coast, is home to 18 mammal species and more than 370<br />
birds, nearly half of them waterfowl. The Kara-Bogaz-Gol<br />
is a shallow water ecosystem <strong>in</strong> north-west Turkmenistan,<br />
form<strong>in</strong>g a lagoon of the Caspian about 18,000 sq km <strong>in</strong><br />
extent but separated from it by a small rocky ridge with a<br />
very narrow open<strong>in</strong>g. The sal<strong>in</strong>ity of the bay is about 35%,<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the Caspian’s 1.2%, and 3.5% for the world’s<br />
oceans. In the Soviet era, the Kara-Bogaz-Gol was artificially<br />
separated from the Caspian, which led to negative<br />
environmental impacts.<br />
Don<br />
Volgograd<br />
0 150 300 450 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, November 2011<br />
V lg<br />
Vo<br />
Atyrau<br />
R U S S I A<br />
M<strong>in</strong>eralnye Vody<br />
Grozny<br />
Tbilisi<br />
T re<br />
Te<br />
r k<br />
Vladikavkaz<br />
l a<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Makhachkala<br />
GEORGIA<br />
Depth <strong>in</strong> metres Altitude <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
200<br />
100<br />
200<br />
500<br />
C a<br />
S<br />
s p i a<br />
AZERBAIJAN<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gacevir<br />
Shirvan<br />
T abriz<br />
Ardabil<br />
Lake<br />
Urmia<br />
Rasht<br />
Baku<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
UZB<br />
Aktau<br />
Zhanaozen<br />
Sarygamysh<br />
Lake<br />
n S e<br />
Teheran<br />
I R A N<br />
a<br />
Kara-Bogaz<br />
K<br />
gaz-<br />
T urkmenbashy<br />
TURKMENISTAN<br />
A<br />
k<br />
Gorgan<br />
Sari<br />
Decl<strong>in</strong>e of the<br />
Caspian Seals<br />
million, number of animals<br />
1.0<br />
0.9<br />
0.8<br />
0.7<br />
0.6<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
0.3<br />
0.2<br />
0.1<br />
0<br />
1900 1930 1960 1990 2010<br />
Sources: Caspian Environmental Programme;<br />
Russian Wildlife Conservation Centre<br />
thousand tonnes<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Sturgeon catch <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Ural-Caspian bas<strong>in</strong><br />
0<br />
1985 1990 1995 2000 2006<br />
Source: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the<br />
Caspian Environmental Programme 2007<br />
42<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
Aral Sea<br />
The Aral Sea region <strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan is<br />
suffer<strong>in</strong>g a severe environmental disaster. In the early<br />
1960s, the waters of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers<br />
that fed the Sea were diverted for irrigation ma<strong>in</strong>ly to grow<br />
cotton, caus<strong>in</strong>g the gradual disappearance of the Sea.<br />
Despite numerous local and <strong>in</strong>ternational rescue efforts it<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ues to shr<strong>in</strong>k, as overall water consumption patterns<br />
persist. The exposed seabed has left salt, sand, dust and<br />
agricultural chemicals blow<strong>in</strong>g as far as 300 km. Water,<br />
land, crops and human health all suffer, with chronic respiratory<br />
and kidney disorders and liver diseases <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The Sea can no longer moderate the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly extreme<br />
climate. The economy, based on fisheries, livestock<br />
graz<strong>in</strong>g, hunt<strong>in</strong>g and fur production, is devastated. Four<br />
decades ago the annual fish catch was 35,000 tonnes,<br />
but fish<strong>in</strong>g stopped altogether <strong>in</strong> the mid-1980s, although<br />
Kazakhstan has partly managed to restore water levels<br />
and fisheries with an extensive artificial dam <strong>in</strong> the northern<br />
Aral Sea.<br />
Many lakes and wetlands dried up or were drastically<br />
reduced, caus<strong>in</strong>g the disappearance of 90% of the tugai<br />
(floodpla<strong>in</strong>) woodland. Poach<strong>in</strong>g and habitat fragmentation<br />
caused further stress and led to the ext<strong>in</strong>ction of the<br />
Turan (Caspian) tiger, other large predators and a significant<br />
drop <strong>in</strong> the Bukhara (Bactrian) deer.<br />
thousand tonnes per year<br />
50<br />
Massive water withdrawal<br />
for irrigation, over-fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
Fish catch <strong>in</strong> the Aral Sea region<br />
Fishery<br />
cessation<br />
<strong>in</strong> the sea<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
0<br />
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010<br />
Sources: International Symposium on the Management of Large Rivers for Fisheries (2003);<br />
Integrated Water Resource Management <strong>in</strong> the Amu Darya delta (2010);<br />
Environment and Security <strong>in</strong> the Amu Darya river bas<strong>in</strong> (2011)<br />
1960<br />
Aralsk<br />
The shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Aral Sea<br />
1980<br />
2000<br />
Aralsk<br />
Aralsk<br />
2010<br />
Aralsk<br />
North Aral dam<br />
seasonal<br />
lake<br />
Muynak<br />
Muynak<br />
Muynak<br />
Muynak<br />
Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldOfChange/aral_sea.php; Climate Change <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>: a visual synthesis report (2009)<br />
100 km<br />
43
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Ak-Tuz<br />
Kem<strong>in</strong><br />
Chu<br />
Shabdan<br />
Cholpon-Ata<br />
Grigorevka<br />
Ananevo<br />
Kuturgu<br />
Tup<br />
Mikhaylovka<br />
Taldyy-Suu<br />
Novovoznesenovka<br />
Karakol<br />
Orto-Tokoy<br />
Balikchy<br />
I s s y k<br />
1609<br />
K u<br />
Kyzyt-Suu<br />
Ottuk<br />
Kochkor<br />
Depth <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
Altitude <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
400 300 200 100 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000<br />
0 25 50 75 km<br />
Tamka<br />
UZB<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, November 2011<br />
Fish catch <strong>in</strong> Issyk-Kul Lake, Kyrgyzstan<br />
Average annual catch, tonnes<br />
1 400<br />
1 200<br />
1 000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
Chebachok Leuciscus bergi<br />
Other species<br />
Source: V. Pivnev Fish of Kyrgyzstan 1990"; J. Ismanbaeva 2008<br />
Fishery ban<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2008<br />
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2001-03<br />
Issyk-Kul Lake<br />
Issyk-Kul Lake (“hot lake” <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyz - it never freezes) lies <strong>in</strong> eastern<br />
Kyrgyzstan. Issyk-Kul, with a surface area of 6,236 square kilometers<br />
is the region’s largest mounta<strong>in</strong> lake. It is on the Ramsar Convention’s<br />
list of globally significant wetlands and forms the core of a biosphere<br />
reserve. Once a Silk Road stag<strong>in</strong>g post, it was a popular tourist resort<br />
and a flourish<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g ground. In the last decade, however, fisheries<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>ed to negligible levels, and many fish, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g endemic<br />
species, are threatened, because of over-fish<strong>in</strong>g, predation by <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
species, and the end of restock<strong>in</strong>g with juvenile fish. The<br />
government banned all fish<strong>in</strong>g here <strong>in</strong> 2008. In spite of this, thousands<br />
of illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g nets are detected annually. While agricultural runoff<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the lake and oil leakages from navigation have much reduced over<br />
the past 20 years, the poorly treated wastewater from urban and tourist<br />
areas cont<strong>in</strong>ues to pose pollution risks to the lake’s ecosystem.<br />
Community based and eco-friendly tourism is now develop<strong>in</strong>g around<br />
the lake. The restoration of the lake’s ecosystem depends <strong>in</strong> large part<br />
on the restock<strong>in</strong>g of the lake with juvenile endemic fish from hatcheries<br />
and on tighter control of illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
44<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
45
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
46<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Tulips of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is home to the wild tulip, forebear of the<br />
carefully nurtured blooms which now beguile gardeners<br />
across the world. But <strong>in</strong> their heartland many are under<br />
severe pressure from agriculture and plant collectors.<br />
In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, more than 20 species are<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the national Red Lists as rare and endangered.<br />
Of more than 100 tulip species known globally, roughly<br />
half are found <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
47
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Saratov<br />
Volga<br />
Ufa<br />
R u s<br />
s i a<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Samara<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Tobol<br />
T bo<br />
To<br />
Ishim<br />
Petropavlovsko<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Omskk<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Ob<br />
Barnaul<br />
Oral<br />
Orenburg<br />
Astana<br />
Irtysh<br />
Semey<br />
A l t a i<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
C a<br />
Aktau<br />
Makhachkalaa<br />
s p i a n<br />
AZR<br />
Baku<br />
Rasht<br />
A<br />
p<br />
Qom<br />
e<br />
S<br />
l b o<br />
a<br />
Sari<br />
r z<br />
Tehran<br />
Ural<br />
Ur<br />
U<br />
Karakum<br />
Canal<br />
Aktobe<br />
Aral Sea<br />
K a z a k h s t a n<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Sarysu<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Panj<br />
Balkhash<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Chu<br />
Almaty<br />
Ysik-Kol<br />
Bishkekk<br />
Dashoguz Urganch<br />
K y r g y z<br />
s t a n<br />
Jalalabad<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
T u r k m e n i s t a n U z b e i s t a n<br />
Tashkent Kokand<br />
k<br />
Osh<br />
Kujand<br />
Jizakh<br />
Ferghana<br />
Kashgar<br />
Balkanabat<br />
Bukhara Samarkand<br />
K a r a k u m<br />
Mary<br />
Gorgan<br />
Bojnurd<br />
I r a n<br />
Tengiz Lake<br />
Temirtau<br />
Karagandan<br />
Zhezkazgan<br />
Baikonur<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
Nukus<br />
K y z y l k u m<br />
Shymkent<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Karshi<br />
Ashgabat<br />
Mashad<br />
Herat<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> selected flagship species<br />
a<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Termiz<br />
Mazar-e Sharif Kunduzu<br />
A f g h a n i s t a n<br />
n d<br />
T a j i k i s t a n<br />
u<br />
Kabul<br />
H i n d u k u s h<br />
P a m i r<br />
Korug<br />
Gilgit<br />
T<br />
K a<br />
Yarkand<br />
P a k i s t a n<br />
Sr<strong>in</strong>agar<br />
Peshawar<br />
I n d i a<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Lake Alakol Karamayam<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
Ghulja<br />
i e n<br />
r a k o<br />
r u m<br />
S h<br />
Aksu<br />
a n<br />
C h i n a<br />
Hotan<br />
Tarim<br />
T a k l<br />
a m a k a n<br />
u m<br />
Altay<br />
Shihezi Uru<br />
Korla<br />
Qiem<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Grasslands<br />
Snow leopard<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> goat (Markhor)<br />
Saiga antelope<br />
Varan (Desert Monitor)<br />
Deserts<br />
Persian leopard<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> sheep<br />
(Marco polo sheep)<br />
Bactrian deer<br />
Caspian seal<br />
Steppe eagle<br />
0<br />
100<br />
200 300 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, November 2011<br />
Source: ???<br />
48<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Richness of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Snow Leopard<br />
Symbol of the 2011 W<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />
Games and motif of the coat of<br />
arms of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> cities, this<br />
stealthy nocturnal hunter with its<br />
huge furry tail is well adapted to<br />
life at high elevations. But poach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and loss of prey and habitat<br />
mean at most 7,000 wild survivors<br />
rema<strong>in</strong> worldwide.<br />
Marco Polo Sheep (Argali)<br />
The largest wild sheep, a coveted<br />
trophy with its curl<strong>in</strong>g horns, this is<br />
a sub-species of the argali sheep.<br />
The 13th century explorer described<br />
them <strong>in</strong> his autobiographical book<br />
The Travels of Marco Polo. Argali<br />
<strong>in</strong>habit high mounta<strong>in</strong> plateaus of<br />
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and move<br />
across borders to other countries.<br />
Markhor<br />
This large wild goat is an excellent<br />
climber and cliffhanger and has<br />
screw-shaped 1.5 m long horns.<br />
Endemic to the Pamir-H<strong>in</strong>du Kush<br />
region, it has no more than 4,000<br />
wild survivors worldwide, which are<br />
estimated to be decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Several<br />
nature reserves <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan have<br />
been established to protect this<br />
and other species.<br />
Bactrian Deer<br />
Formerly hunted by royalty and<br />
for its gorgeous horns, this red<br />
deer occupies river corridors<br />
sur rounded by deserts, and is now<br />
highly endangered because of the<br />
loss of this habitat (the tugai fl oodpla<strong>in</strong><br />
forests). Fewer than 500<br />
animals rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the wild.<br />
Saiga<br />
These antelopes have huge <strong>in</strong>flatable<br />
noses and migrate <strong>in</strong> large<br />
groups over long distances. They<br />
have adapted to survive the harsh,<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dy w<strong>in</strong>ter steppes. Habitat loss,<br />
poach<strong>in</strong>g, drought and disease<br />
have reduced them from several<br />
million to under 50,000 <strong>in</strong> 20 years.<br />
Caspian Seal<br />
Found only <strong>in</strong> the Caspian Sea,<br />
these exotic animals depend on<br />
its ice, now threatened by climate<br />
change. Regarded as <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
of the Sea’s health, they migrate<br />
to the deeper and cooler southern<br />
Caspian <strong>in</strong> the summer. The<br />
Caspian seals’ numbers are estimated<br />
at 100,000 animals: 10 times<br />
less than a century ago.<br />
Varan (Desert Monitor)<br />
This monitor lizard, found also <strong>in</strong><br />
other parts of the world, is known<br />
locally as the desert crocodile and<br />
is the stuff of legend for its size and<br />
appetite. It uses its long, powerful<br />
tail like a whip <strong>in</strong> defence. In the<br />
early 20th century, massive hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
due to high demand for its sk<strong>in</strong><br />
drastically reduced its numbers.<br />
Steppe Eagle<br />
This bird of prey, Kazakhstan’s<br />
national symbol, relies on its very<br />
sharp eyes. It prefers desert,<br />
steppe or savannah, and <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n populations w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>in</strong> Africa.<br />
Habitat destruction, persecution<br />
and power l<strong>in</strong>e collisions are caus<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a slow decl<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
49
<strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
Services and Products
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Day <strong>in</strong>, day out, the natural world provides many vitally<br />
important services and products. Different species and<br />
ecosystems keep the Earth friendly to human existence,<br />
oxygenat<strong>in</strong>g the atmosphere, purify<strong>in</strong>g water, fix<strong>in</strong>g nitrogen,<br />
recycl<strong>in</strong>g nutrients and waste and poll<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g crops<br />
(one estimate says bees alone provide about a third of<br />
human nutrition). The economic value of biodiversity<br />
services and products at regional and national levels <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> has not been assessed yet, but global studies<br />
show that these can be much higher than the gross<br />
national product.<br />
Sport and tourism<br />
Sense of place,<br />
spiritual value, <strong>in</strong>spiraon<br />
Recreaon, health services<br />
Weather formaon, climate regulaon<br />
Indicators of<br />
global changes,<br />
decomposion,<br />
weather<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Water storage<br />
Hazard regulaon,<br />
carbon storage, soil formaon,<br />
watershed protecon<br />
Diversity of habitats,<br />
unique flora and fauna<br />
Poll<strong>in</strong>aon, purificaon<br />
Au<br />
M<strong>in</strong>eral resources<br />
Genec resources,<br />
wild fruit-nut forests<br />
Tradional knowledge<br />
and products<br />
Water supply<br />
Food products, crops<br />
Hydropower potenal<br />
Natural pastures,<br />
livestock<br />
52<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Services and Products
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Nikolai Vavilov was a Soviet botanist and geneticist credited<br />
with describ<strong>in</strong>g the centres of orig<strong>in</strong> of cultivated<br />
plants. In 1931 he identifi ed <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> as one of the<br />
eight most important of these centres, the region richest <strong>in</strong><br />
diversity both with<strong>in</strong> and between species.<br />
Honey produce<br />
Honey, thousand tonnes<br />
14<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
The region is rich <strong>in</strong> highly variable domesticated crops<br />
with many unique landraces. The ma<strong>in</strong> cultivated crops<br />
are cereals, food legumes, vegetables, melons, <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
and stimulant crops. Fruits <strong>in</strong>clude apple, apricot, peach,<br />
pear, plum, grape, almond, pistachio, pomegranate and<br />
fi g. Many landraces and old local cultivars survive.<br />
The native genetic diversity of fruit species has been<br />
eroded, through overgraz<strong>in</strong>g, deforestation and <strong>in</strong>dustrialization.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g the Soviet collapse, people have<br />
overused fruit crops, worsen<strong>in</strong>g genetic erosion. But the<br />
high diversity of cultivated plant species rema<strong>in</strong>s important<br />
globally as well as for <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> itself.<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
Tajikistan<br />
Vavilov’s centres of orig<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
1990 2010<br />
Source: agrostatistics of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan<br />
53
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Saratov<br />
Volga<br />
Ufa<br />
R u s s i a<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Samara<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Tobol<br />
T bo<br />
To<br />
Ishim<br />
Petropavlovsko<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Omskk<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Ob<br />
Barnaul<br />
Oral<br />
Orenburg<br />
Astana<br />
Irtysh<br />
Semey<br />
A l t a i<br />
al<br />
Aktobe<br />
Tengiz Lake<br />
Temirtau<br />
Altay<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
Karamayam<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Sarysu<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
Shihezi<br />
Ur<br />
Ghulja<br />
C a<br />
Aktau<br />
Makhachkalaa<br />
s p i a n<br />
AZR<br />
Dashoguz<br />
Baku<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
Rasht<br />
A<br />
p<br />
Qom<br />
l b o<br />
e a<br />
Sari<br />
r z<br />
Tehran<br />
Canal<br />
I r a n<br />
Karakum<br />
Gorgan<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Mashad<br />
Urganch<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Tejen<br />
Mary<br />
Herat<br />
Amu Dary<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Tashkent Kokand<br />
Kujand<br />
Jizakh<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Karshi<br />
Termiz<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
A f g h a n i s t a n<br />
n d<br />
anj<br />
u<br />
Kabul<br />
H n d u k u s h<br />
Chu<br />
Almaty<br />
Ysik-Kol<br />
Jalalabad<br />
Osh<br />
Kashgar<br />
P a m i r<br />
Korug<br />
Gilgit<br />
K a<br />
T i e n S<br />
Yarkand<br />
r a k o<br />
r u m<br />
P a k i s t a n<br />
Sr<strong>in</strong>agar<br />
Peshawar<br />
I n d i a<br />
Aksu<br />
h a n<br />
C h i n a<br />
Hotan<br />
Tarim<br />
T a k l<br />
a m a k a n<br />
u m<br />
Korla<br />
Qiem<br />
Agrobiodiversity<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong>fed croplands Graz<strong>in</strong>g lands Intense graz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Orchards<br />
Wheat<br />
Cotton<br />
Honey production<br />
Irrigated croplands<br />
Areas abobe 3000 metres<br />
V<strong>in</strong>eyards<br />
Sunflowers<br />
Fruit- and nut forests<br />
0<br />
100<br />
200 300 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
Source: Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighbor<strong>in</strong>g Countries (→ www.agroatlas.ru/ru/content/vegetation_maps/Arable)<br />
54<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Services and Products
Agrobiodiversity<br />
Most land <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, apart from glaciers and sheer<br />
rock faces, is used for agriculture. This form of farm<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
known locally as agrobiodiversity, mean<strong>in</strong>g that it <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
traditionally cultivated lands as well as natural pastures on<br />
the deserts and steppes and <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, and also<br />
areas such as wild fruit and nut forests.<br />
TOP 10 agricultural products<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan<br />
The map and table show<strong>in</strong>g the top ten agricultural products<br />
of each country of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> illustrate how they<br />
have adapted to their <strong>in</strong>dividual topography, climate<br />
and traditions. Kazakhstan, for example, puts its roll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
steppes to good use for grow<strong>in</strong>g wheat, while beef and<br />
milk are both high on the list because of the extensive<br />
graz<strong>in</strong>g available. Horsemeat also makes an appearance,<br />
because there are so many horses used <strong>in</strong> other forms<br />
of agriculture that a market has been found for them. In<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>ous Kyrgyzstan, however, wheat is much further<br />
down the list, but root vegetables (potatoes, carrots and<br />
turnips) enjoy more prom<strong>in</strong>ence. Kyrgyzstan’s Talas Valley<br />
is the largest producer of beans <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. Cotton<br />
production is clearly dom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> the other three countries<br />
of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.<br />
Milk<br />
Bean<br />
Cotton L<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Egg<br />
Carrot<br />
Cotton seed<br />
Cattle meat<br />
Onion<br />
Wool<br />
Horse meat<br />
Apple<br />
Pig meat<br />
Tomato<br />
Sheep meat<br />
Wheat<br />
Potato<br />
Grape<br />
Source: FAOSTAT<br />
55
Challenges<br />
for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Penza<br />
Volga<br />
Samara<br />
Ufa<br />
R U S S I A<br />
Buzuluk<br />
Magnitogorsko<br />
Kumertau<br />
Orenburg<br />
Oral<br />
Orsk<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Rudniy<br />
Omsk<br />
Petropavlovsk<br />
ov<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Stepnogorsk Pavlodar<br />
Atbasar Northern Kazakhstan<br />
Irtysh<br />
Volgograd<br />
Ural<br />
U<br />
Aktobe<br />
Arkalyk<br />
Temirtau<br />
Karaganda<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Ay<br />
Makhachkala<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gachevir<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Shirvan<br />
Rasht<br />
Arak<br />
Derbent<br />
Karaj<br />
C a s<br />
p i a n S<br />
i a<br />
Baku<br />
Qom<br />
e a<br />
Aktau<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
Cheleken<br />
Penn<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
Tehran<br />
Sari<br />
Atyrau<br />
Northern<br />
Caspian Sea<br />
Zhanaozen<br />
Kara-Bogaz-<br />
Gol<br />
Gorgan<br />
Aral Sea<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Balkanabat<br />
Gonbad-e<br />
Kavus<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Neyshabur<br />
I R A N<br />
Amu Darya Delta<br />
and Aral Sea<br />
Dashoguz<br />
Ashgabat<br />
Nukusu<br />
Urganch<br />
Amu Darya<br />
ar<br />
Aral<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Mary<br />
Southern<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
Baikonur<br />
Zhezkazgan<br />
Kyzylorda yy<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Chu<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Foothills and Mounta<strong>in</strong>s of<br />
Almaty<br />
Kentau Pamirs and Tien Shan<br />
Zhanatas<br />
Turkestan<br />
Taraz<br />
Balykchy Issyk-Kul<br />
Bishkek<br />
Issyk-K<br />
Uchkudukk<br />
Shymkent<br />
K Y R G Y<br />
Z S T A N<br />
Toktogul<br />
Tashkent<br />
Ferghana valley<br />
Naryn<br />
Namangan Jalalabad<br />
Tashkent region<br />
U Z B E<br />
K I S T A N<br />
Osh<br />
Navoiy Jizakh<br />
Ferghana<br />
Kashgar<br />
Bukhara<br />
and Uzbekistan<br />
Termiz<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
Korug<br />
Balkhash<br />
Gilgit<br />
Il<br />
Ili<br />
I i<br />
T<br />
<strong>Central</strong> Eastern<br />
58<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Semey<br />
Ob<br />
Novokuznetsk<br />
Barnaul<br />
Biysk<br />
Oskemen<br />
Zyryanovsk<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
agoz<br />
Tacheng<br />
Karamay<br />
Shihezi<br />
Kuytun<br />
aldykorgana<br />
Ghulja<br />
C H I N A<br />
Tup<br />
Kuqa<br />
ul Lake<br />
Pamir<br />
Synthesis of<br />
biodiversity challenges<br />
Population density (<strong>in</strong>habitants per km²)<br />
0<br />
1 5 50<br />
Sensitive water ecosystems with complex<br />
manmade pressures on biodiversity<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g climate change, pollution, habitat<br />
disturbance, overexploitation and <strong>in</strong>vasive<br />
species<br />
Environmental crisis area: ecosystemchange<br />
and degradation due to massive<br />
water withdrawal for agriculture with<br />
negative implications for life quality,<br />
economic performance, health and<br />
environment<br />
Sensitive ecological regions <strong>in</strong>tensely used<br />
for agriculture (crop cultivation and<br />
graz<strong>in</strong>g) and experienc<strong>in</strong>g high pressure<br />
from climate change, habitat disturbance<br />
and overexploitation<br />
Densely populated and <strong>in</strong>dustrialized<br />
regions<br />
100<br />
Fortified borders<br />
200 300 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
Source: LandScan Global Population Database 2007, Oak Ridge, TN,<br />
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (→ www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan)<br />
The map (left) shows starkly how multiple pressures<br />
are affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>’s biodiversity.<br />
Underly<strong>in</strong>g the dist<strong>in</strong>ct pressures it shows the<br />
fact that much of the region is scarcely-populated<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> or desert, so there is a relatively small<br />
area where the problems are concentrated.<br />
Climate change is a real and grow<strong>in</strong>g global<br />
problem which is affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> already.<br />
Beyond that, four sorts of pressure are discernible.<br />
One is the deterioration of water ecosystems<br />
because of pollution, <strong>in</strong>vasive species and other<br />
factors: this is evident <strong>in</strong> the Caspian Sea and<br />
Lake Issyk-Kul. Another is the massive loss of<br />
water <strong>in</strong> the Aral Sea bas<strong>in</strong> caused by thoughtless<br />
and unplanned nature exploitation and<br />
large-scale irrigation projects over the past five<br />
to seven decades. Then there is the extensive<br />
damage from habitat loss and overexploitation.<br />
Last, there is the <strong>in</strong>evitable pressure of population<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dustry. Fortified borders and energy<br />
and transport <strong>in</strong>frastructure augment biodiversity<br />
impacts through habitat fragmentation.<br />
Probably all of the above pressures can be<br />
relieved by careful plann<strong>in</strong>g and rigorous<br />
enforcement, though remediat<strong>in</strong>g the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
damage would be very expensive. The problems<br />
may appear <strong>in</strong>tractable, unless the countries<br />
of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> can together make very rapid<br />
progress towards balanc<strong>in</strong>g population growth,<br />
green<strong>in</strong>g their <strong>in</strong>dustries, energy sectors and<br />
agriculture and protect<strong>in</strong>g their natural ecosystems<br />
effectively. As all of this will need to happen<br />
not only quickly but <strong>in</strong> the context of a warm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
climate, the prospect is challeng<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
59
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Change <strong>in</strong> surface temperature, 1951-2001<br />
RUSSIA<br />
Astana<br />
Change <strong>in</strong> precipitation, 1951-2001<br />
RUSSIA<br />
Astana<br />
KAZAKHSTAN<br />
KAZAKHSTAN<br />
IRAN<br />
CHINA<br />
Bishkek<br />
UZBEKISTAN<br />
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN<br />
Temp. change<br />
TURKMENISTAN<br />
Dushanbe<br />
C° per decade<br />
Ashgabat<br />
TAJIKISTAN<br />
0.1<br />
0.2<br />
0.4<br />
IRAN<br />
CHINA<br />
Bishkek<br />
UZBEKISTAN<br />
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong>fall change<br />
TURKMENISTAN<br />
mm per decade<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Ashgabat<br />
2<br />
TAJIKISTAN<br />
1<br />
0<br />
-1<br />
-2<br />
Sources: U.K. Climate Research Unit (data synthesis is available at: www.climatewizard.org),<br />
compilation of <strong>in</strong>formation from the Second (and the First) National Communications<br />
Sources: U.K. Climate Research Unit (data synthesis is available at: www.climatewizard.org),<br />
compilation of <strong>in</strong>formation from the Second (and First) National Communications<br />
Surface temperature trends<br />
Country-averaged annual air temperature (C°)<br />
18<br />
Turkmenistan<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
Uzbekistan<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
Kazakhstan<br />
Tajikistan<br />
Kyrgyzstan<br />
0<br />
1951 1960 1970 1980 1990 2001<br />
Source: U.K. Climate Research Unit data synthesis at: www.climatewizard.org<br />
60<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Elevation, m<br />
4 000<br />
3 500<br />
3 000<br />
2 500<br />
2 000<br />
1 500<br />
1 000<br />
Tugai ecosystem<br />
(river floodpla<strong>in</strong>s)<br />
Deserts and<br />
500 semi-deserts 2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Climate change impact on ecosystems<br />
Broad-leaf forests<br />
(walnut, apple, maple)<br />
4<br />
Sensitive<br />
species and<br />
ecotones<br />
5<br />
Steppes<br />
3<br />
Migratory birds<br />
Evergreen forests<br />
(juniper, p<strong>in</strong>e)<br />
7<br />
9<br />
Nival<br />
(glacier)<br />
ecosystem<br />
6<br />
8<br />
10<br />
Lakes<br />
Alp<strong>in</strong>e<br />
ecosystem<br />
Middle<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
ecosystems<br />
Agricultural<br />
ecosystems<br />
(0-3000 m)<br />
12<br />
Xerophitic forests<br />
(pistachio, saxaul)<br />
11 and pastures<br />
Concept: I. Abdusalomov and V. Novikov<br />
1 - Increased climate aridity, expansion of<br />
desert areas<br />
2 - Ecosystem degradation due to reduced<br />
river flow, <strong>in</strong>creased risk of fires and diseases<br />
3 - Increased ecosystem productivity <strong>in</strong><br />
northern parts of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, northward<br />
shift of vegetation<br />
4 - Forest degradation due to reduced runoff,<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased risk of droughts and diseases<br />
5 - Changes <strong>in</strong> species composition, risk of<br />
ext<strong>in</strong>ction of endangered and vulnerable species<br />
6 - Alteration of food-cha<strong>in</strong>s, change <strong>in</strong> the<br />
balance of predators and herbivorous animals<br />
7 - Shift of forest communities to higher<br />
altitudes, risk of fires<br />
8 - Degradation and reduction of habitats,<br />
reduction of forage<br />
9 - Glacier melt and vegetation succession,<br />
alp<strong>in</strong>e habitat loss<br />
10 - Physical and biological changes <strong>in</strong> high<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> lakes<br />
11 - Changes <strong>in</strong> phenology (earlier ripen<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
fad<strong>in</strong>g), pest attacks<br />
12 - Mixed negative and positive effects of<br />
climate warm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Glacier volume change<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Volume, km 3<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
?<br />
0<br />
50 years ago Today Next 50 years<br />
Source: Kyrgyzstan’s Second National Communication, 2009<br />
Glacier volume change<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan<br />
Volume, km 3<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
?<br />
0<br />
50 years ago Today Next 50 years<br />
Source: Tajikistan’s Second National Communication, 2008<br />
Weather records confirm that the surface<br />
temperatures <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> are grow<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
but precipitation trends are different.<br />
Almost everywhere, climate warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter is more pronounced than <strong>in</strong> other<br />
seasons.<br />
Climate change scenarios for <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
envisage a 1°C–3°C <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> temperature<br />
<strong>in</strong> the next two to four decades. If global<br />
greenhouse gas emissions are unmitigated,<br />
scientists project that temperatures<br />
could exceed today’s by 3°C–6°C by the<br />
end of the century while ra<strong>in</strong>fall amounts<br />
<strong>in</strong> southern parts of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> could<br />
reduce. The impacts of these weather<br />
changes, especially <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, are<br />
still unknown.<br />
61
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Penza<br />
Saratova<br />
Volga<br />
Oral<br />
Samara<br />
Ufa<br />
R U S S I A<br />
Buzuluk<br />
Kumertau<br />
Orenburg<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Rudniy<br />
Petropavlovsko<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Atbasar<br />
Omsk<br />
Stepnogorsk<br />
Irtysh<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Volgogradg<br />
Ural<br />
Ur<br />
U<br />
Aktobe<br />
Orsk<br />
Arkalyk<br />
Astana<br />
Temirtau<br />
Karaganda<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
A<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
Zhezkazgan<br />
Balkhash<br />
Aral<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Makhachkala<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gachevir<br />
Kura<br />
Shirvan<br />
Rasht<br />
Hamadan<br />
Arak<br />
Derbent<br />
Karaj<br />
C a s p i a n<br />
p i<br />
Baku<br />
Qom<br />
S e a<br />
Aktau<br />
Zhanaozen<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
Sari<br />
Tehran<br />
Kara-Bogaz-<br />
Gol<br />
Gorgan<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Balkanabat<br />
Gonbad-e<br />
Kavus Bojnurd<br />
Neyshabur<br />
I R A N<br />
Atrek<br />
Dashoguz<br />
Ashgabat<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Mashad<br />
Nukus<br />
Urganch<br />
Mary<br />
Murghab<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Baikonur<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
y<br />
ya<br />
Uchkudukk<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
Syr Darya<br />
U Z B E K I S T A N<br />
Navoiy<br />
Jizakh<br />
Bukhara<br />
Katta-Kurgan<br />
Karshi<br />
Termiz<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
Kentau<br />
Turkestan<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
Zhanatas<br />
Taraz<br />
Chu<br />
Shymkent Toktogul<br />
Tashkent<br />
Angren<br />
Kokand Ferghana<br />
Kunduz<br />
Kujand<br />
Kara-Balta<br />
Korug<br />
Almaty<br />
BishkekB<br />
K Y R G Y<br />
Z S T A N<br />
Naryn<br />
Jalalabad<br />
Osh<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gora<br />
Balykchya<br />
Gilgit<br />
Kashgar<br />
P A K I S T A<br />
N<br />
Ysik-Ko<br />
T<br />
62<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Ob<br />
Novokuznetsk<br />
Barnaul<br />
Semey<br />
Oskemenen<br />
Zyryanovsk<br />
yagoz<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Tacheng<br />
Karamay<br />
Shihezi<br />
Kuytun<br />
aldykorgan<br />
Ghulja<br />
Karakol<br />
l<br />
Kuqa<br />
Aksu<br />
Tarim He<br />
0<br />
Climate change<br />
100<br />
Increased river flow<br />
Reduced river flow<br />
Risk of flood<strong>in</strong>g due to<br />
sea level fluctuation<br />
Reduction of ice cover<br />
Increased productivity<br />
of wheat crops and pastures<br />
Severe drought impacts<br />
Increased risk of<br />
natural disasters<br />
<strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Hazardous waste sites<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dustries potentially<br />
affected by disasters<br />
Environmental<br />
crisis area<br />
Bushfires<br />
Locust <strong>in</strong>vasions<br />
Potential risk of cross-border spread of<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasive species and new diseases<br />
200 300 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, September 2011<br />
The chang<strong>in</strong>g climate, especially s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1950s,<br />
has had a negative effect on glaciers, snow cover and<br />
permafrost. Numerous small glaciers (smaller than 0.5<br />
square km) at lower altitudes have totally melted. The<br />
high altitude glaciers appear more stable and have<br />
shrunk only a little. Today’s rate of glacier loss <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong> is 0.5–1 per cent per year. In the last 50–60 years,<br />
between 15 per cent and 35 per cent of the Tien Shan<br />
and Pamir glaciers have melted, depend<strong>in</strong>g on their<br />
location, size and elevation.<br />
Climate change is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly becom<strong>in</strong>g a factor def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
the future conditions of the region’s ecosystems<br />
and adds to environmental stress on sensitive flora<br />
and fauna. Vegetation succession can be observed at<br />
many alp<strong>in</strong>e sites of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, which were covered<br />
by ice and permanent snow until recently. Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
species see their ecosystems chang<strong>in</strong>g. Droughts, a<br />
more arid climate and the reduction of water flow <strong>in</strong> the<br />
rivers strongly affect aquatic and tugai floodpla<strong>in</strong> forest<br />
ecosystems.<br />
The areas annually affected by locusts (ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> southern<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>) have significantly <strong>in</strong>creased. Pest<br />
attacks <strong>in</strong> southern Tajikistan <strong>in</strong> 2003-05 halved the<br />
cotton harvest <strong>in</strong> the worst-hit districts. They have also<br />
brought challenges to Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.<br />
The risk of forest fires and of spread<strong>in</strong>g forest diseases<br />
has amplified. Scientists warn that the forests and<br />
steppes of Kazakhstan are exposed to higher fire risk<br />
due to climate warm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
C H I N<br />
A<br />
Hotan<br />
Certa<strong>in</strong> agricultural crops may not adapt to a more arid<br />
climate. On the other hand, climate warm<strong>in</strong>g could be<br />
potentially favourable for some types of agricultural<br />
activities, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g wheat production and graz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
northern <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. However, extreme weather<br />
events may outweigh these positive effects. For<br />
example, Kazakhstan <strong>in</strong> 2011 harvested a record 29<br />
million tonnes of gra<strong>in</strong>. In contrast, <strong>in</strong> 2010, the severe<br />
drought reduced the crop to 12 million tonnes, almost<br />
a record low.<br />
63
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Penza<br />
Saratova<br />
Volgodonsk<br />
Volgograd<br />
g<br />
Volga<br />
Balavokoo<br />
Tolyatti<br />
y<br />
Ural<br />
Ufa<br />
R U S S I A<br />
Samara<br />
Buzuluk<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Kumertaur<br />
Orenburg<br />
Oral<br />
Orsk<br />
U<br />
Aktobe<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Rudniy<br />
Omsk<br />
Petropavlovskov<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Ekibastuz<br />
Stepnogorsk<br />
Atbasar<br />
Astana<br />
Arkalyk<br />
Temirtau<br />
Karaganda<br />
Irtysh<br />
Semey<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Ay<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
Aral<br />
Zhezkazgan<br />
Trans-<strong>Asia</strong><br />
Balkhashk<br />
Gas pipel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gachevir<br />
Shirvan<br />
C a<br />
Makhachkala<br />
Rasht<br />
Hamadan<br />
Arak<br />
Derbent<br />
s p i a n S e a<br />
Baku<br />
a<br />
Karaj<br />
i a<br />
Qom<br />
Aktau<br />
Aktau<br />
Tehran<br />
Gorgan<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Baikonur<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
yy<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Chu<br />
Ili<br />
Taldykorgan<br />
Almaty<br />
Zhanaozen<br />
Kentau Zhanatas<br />
Kara-Balta BishkekB<br />
Turkestan Taraz<br />
Ysik-Ko<br />
Balykchya<br />
Nukus<br />
Uchkudukk<br />
Toktogul<br />
Kara-Bogaz-<br />
Shymkent<br />
K Y R G Y<br />
Z S T A N<br />
Gol<br />
Dashoguz Urganch<br />
Tashkent<br />
Naryn<br />
Trans Caspian Gas pipel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Angren<br />
Namangan Kamparata<br />
Jalalabad<br />
U Z B K I S T A N<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
E<br />
Kujand<br />
Balkanabat<br />
Navoiy Jizakh<br />
Ferghana Osh Bukhara<br />
Kashgar<br />
Samarkand<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
Rogun<br />
Projected r<br />
Karshi<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
Kyrgyzst<br />
Nurek<br />
Ashgabata<br />
Dushanbe<br />
Gonbad-e<br />
Kavus<br />
Sari<br />
Bojnurd<br />
Termiz Qurghonteppa<br />
Korug<br />
Neyshabur<br />
I R A N<br />
Mashad<br />
D<br />
Mary<br />
Serhetabad<br />
TAP Gas project<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
AFGHANISTAN<br />
A<br />
A N<br />
Kunduz<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gora<br />
Gilgit<br />
Il<br />
I i<br />
P A K I S T A N<br />
64<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
agoz<br />
l<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Ob<br />
Karakol<br />
ailway l<strong>in</strong>k<br />
an-Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Novokuznetsk<br />
Barnaul<br />
Oskemen<br />
Biysk<br />
Zyryanovsk<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Ghulja<br />
Aksu<br />
Tacheng<br />
Karamay<br />
Kuytun<br />
Kuqa<br />
Shihezi<br />
C H I N A<br />
Infrastructure and pollution<br />
0<br />
Railway<br />
Projected railway<br />
Major roads<br />
Oil or gas pipel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Projected oil or gas pipel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Oil or gas field<br />
Coal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> sensitive areas<br />
Recently constructed new tunnels<br />
Thermal power plant (coal, oil, gas)<br />
Hydroelectric power plant<br />
Nuclear power plant<br />
Projected hydroelectric power plant<br />
Projected nuclear power plant<br />
Radioactive contam<strong>in</strong>ation and limitations for landuse<br />
Concentration of <strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution<br />
100<br />
200 300 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, September 2011<br />
Sources: Pipel<strong>in</strong>e Infrastructure Map of Europe & the CIS, The Petroleum<br />
Economist Ltd., London (→ www.petroleum-economist.com);<br />
Resources and Energy Atlas of Russia<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Habitat Fragmentation<br />
There is extensive m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g across much of <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong> - <strong>in</strong> steppes, deserts and <strong>in</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>ous areas<br />
- for coal, uranium, gold, mercury and other m<strong>in</strong>erals.<br />
There is also the highly-developed and still<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g oil and gas <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> the Caspian Sea.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>eral and hydrocarbon extraction is never riskfree,<br />
and the ravages of past accidents and neglect<br />
still disfigure parts of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. Examples are<br />
the damage to Caspian seals and sturgeons and<br />
the high concentrations of hazardous pollutants<br />
found <strong>in</strong> slag, sludge and tail<strong>in</strong>gs from uranium and<br />
mercury m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. These<br />
may significantly affect the surround<strong>in</strong>g farmlands,<br />
natural waterways and the health of people and<br />
wildlife.<br />
Soil compaction, reduction of vegetation and<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased erosion of mounta<strong>in</strong> slopes also contribute<br />
to higher sediment formation and silt load<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
the rivers with implications for the useful life and<br />
effectiveness of the reservoirs and irrigation canals<br />
and the operation of hydroelectric turb<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
The improvement of national roads and the addition<br />
of new <strong>in</strong>ternational roads has <strong>in</strong>creased accessibility<br />
to remote mounta<strong>in</strong> areas. This new accessibility<br />
has brought both additional pressures from visitors<br />
and from bus<strong>in</strong>ess development, and new <strong>in</strong>come<br />
opportunities <strong>in</strong> terms of tourism and hospitality<br />
and the trade of native products. The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
the number of people who have cars has improved<br />
mobility and connectivity, but has also brought<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased risks to previously unreachable mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
ecosystems, and the additional traffic has contributed<br />
to environmental noise and air pollution.<br />
65
U<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
R U S S I A<br />
Volga<br />
Astana<br />
Irtysh<br />
Ural<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
Aral Sea<br />
Syr Darya 5<br />
(38)<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Il<br />
Ili<br />
I i<br />
C a s<br />
Chu<br />
p i a n S<br />
i a<br />
Baku<br />
e a<br />
Tehran<br />
Kara-Bogaz-<br />
Gol<br />
I R A N<br />
(70.2)<br />
KAZ 10<br />
Amudarya 15.4<br />
Karakalpakstan 7.9<br />
Arys 1<br />
Prospective<br />
Collector<br />
U Z B E K I S T<br />
A N<br />
Horezm 4.4<br />
Tashkent<br />
Tashauz 6.5<br />
(UZB)<br />
Chirchik-Charvak 9 UZB 10<br />
Bishkekk<br />
K Y R G Y<br />
Z S T A N<br />
Naryn 15<br />
KYR 3<br />
(37)<br />
TJK 2 Kara Darya 4<br />
Lebap 3.9<br />
UZB 5.3<br />
Amu- Zarafshan 5.3<br />
Rivers of<br />
Bukhara 5.2<br />
T U R K MENISTAN<br />
N<br />
UZB 10<br />
Ferghana Valley: 8<br />
Ahangaran n 1<br />
KYR 0.1<br />
Kashkadarya 1.2<br />
0.3 TJK 6.6<br />
Dushanbe<br />
T A J I K I S T A N<br />
Ashgabat<br />
Karshi UZB<br />
0.6<br />
4.2 1.4<br />
1.5<br />
Murgab 1.5<br />
0.5<br />
Vakhsh h 13.3<br />
High water losses along<br />
Karakum Sherabad 0.2<br />
Karakum Canal<br />
Canal 11.0<br />
Tejen 1.0 Surhandarya a 3.4<br />
Panj 31.9<br />
Prospective expansion<br />
Kafarnigan 5.0<br />
of irrigation Other rivers: 6.2<br />
P A K I S T A N<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
Is<br />
66<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
syk-Kul<br />
Ob<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
C H I N A<br />
Water-land management<br />
Aral Sea bas<strong>in</strong><br />
0<br />
Impacts from <strong>in</strong>tense graz<strong>in</strong>g and land cultivation <strong>in</strong><br />
sensitive soils or steep slopes<br />
Croplands <strong>in</strong> the former steppes and virg<strong>in</strong> lands<br />
of northern Kazakhstan<br />
30<br />
Average flow (km 3 /year)<br />
100<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> regions above 2000 metres<br />
Major decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> fisheries<br />
Average outflow of branch<br />
(km 3 /year)<br />
15 (70)<br />
Environmental crisis area<br />
Aral Sea bas<strong>in</strong><br />
Irrigated lands<br />
200 300 km<br />
Theoretical average flow<br />
without outflow (km 3 /year)<br />
Pollution<br />
Irrigation runoff from fields to rivers<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
70<br />
30<br />
10<br />
5<br />
Source: CAWATER<strong>in</strong>fo (→ www.cawater-<strong>in</strong>fo.net); Interactive Agricultural<br />
Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighbor<strong>in</strong>g Countries (→ www.agroatlas.ru/ru/<br />
content/vegetation_maps/Arable)<br />
Over-exploitation<br />
Water management affects water-dwell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
species, but can also affect terrestrial wildlife<br />
at some distance. The diversion of the rivers<br />
which fed the Aral Sea to serve large-scale<br />
irrigation projects led to the drastic shr<strong>in</strong>kage<br />
of the Sea itself, and also exposed huge<br />
quantities of salt and chemicals which have<br />
devastated human health and ecosystems<br />
across the entire region. The Aral Sea fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry, which had reportedly produced onesixth<br />
of the Soviet Union’s entire fish catch, has<br />
been ru<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
Concerns over food security promoted the<br />
growth of ra<strong>in</strong>fed crop cultivation <strong>in</strong> the<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> areas, especially <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan. This<br />
cultivation often <strong>in</strong>creased soil erosion on<br />
steep slopes. With the abrupt end of the Soviet<br />
era, the people <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s faced sudden<br />
poverty and the risk of fam<strong>in</strong>e, and responded<br />
by hunt<strong>in</strong>g wild animals for meat and trophies.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g caused a correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the pressures on wildlife. The<br />
cessation of Soviet supplies of solid and liquid<br />
fuels to the Tien Shan and Pamir mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
communities had similar consequences –<br />
woody biomass and dried dung became major<br />
sources of energy for cook<strong>in</strong>g and heat<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and the widespread collection throughout the<br />
1990s and <strong>in</strong>to the early 2000s of slow-grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
shrubs, such as artemisia and teresken, as well<br />
as forest cutt<strong>in</strong>gs, dim<strong>in</strong>ished mounta<strong>in</strong> forests,<br />
soil cover and biodiversity.<br />
67
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Spread and impacts of <strong>in</strong>vasive species comb jellyfish ( Mnemiopsis lediyi ) <strong>in</strong> the Caspian Sea<br />
Atyrau<br />
Atyrau<br />
Atyrau<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Astrakhan<br />
RUSSIA<br />
RUSSIA<br />
RUSSIA<br />
Makhachkala<br />
KAZAKHSTAN<br />
Makhachkala<br />
KAZAKHSTAN<br />
Makhachkala<br />
KAZAKHSTAN<br />
AZERBAIJAN<br />
Turkmenbashy<br />
AZERBAIJAN<br />
Turkmenbashy<br />
AZERBAIJAN<br />
Turkmenbashy<br />
Baku<br />
Baku<br />
Baku<br />
TURKM.<br />
TURKM.<br />
TURKM.<br />
Lenkoran<br />
Lenkoran<br />
Lenkoran<br />
Tulka ( Clupeonella ) catch<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Caspian Sea<br />
thousand tonnes<br />
300<br />
Unidentified<br />
250<br />
C. caspia<br />
200<br />
C. engrauli<br />
Anchovy tulka<br />
150<br />
100<br />
Rasht<br />
Ramsar<br />
IRAN<br />
2000<br />
Rasht<br />
Ramsar<br />
IRAN<br />
2002<br />
Rasht<br />
Ramsar<br />
IRAN<br />
2004<br />
Sources: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis of the Caspian Environmental Programme (2007); Environment and Security <strong>in</strong> the Eastern Caspian (2008); Vital Caspian Graphics II (2011)<br />
Invasive Alien Species<br />
Biosafety and<br />
Liv<strong>in</strong>g Modified Organisms<br />
50<br />
0<br />
2000 01 02 03 04 05<br />
Alien species which <strong>in</strong>vade new habitats are thought to be a<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> direct driver of biodiversity loss across the world. Water<br />
ecosystems of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>in</strong> the heart of Eurasia are especially<br />
vulnerable to aliens because they are naturally isolated<br />
from strong competitors. They often have ecological niches that<br />
have rema<strong>in</strong>ed empty because of their distance from possible<br />
colonists. In much the same way, mounta<strong>in</strong>s have a diverse but<br />
geographically narrow range of habitats, and <strong>in</strong>vasive species<br />
may br<strong>in</strong>g great disturbance to them.<br />
Increas<strong>in</strong>g travel, trade, and tourism associated with globalization<br />
and the growth <strong>in</strong> human numbers have made <strong>in</strong>tentional<br />
and un<strong>in</strong>tentional movements of species beyond natural biogeographical<br />
barriers much easier, and many aliens have become<br />
<strong>in</strong>vaders. They can change the community structure and species<br />
composition of native ecosystems directly by out-compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous species for resources. Alien species <strong>in</strong> the Caspian<br />
Sea <strong>in</strong>clude comb jellyfish and others, which <strong>in</strong> the past decade<br />
have severely affected local commercial fish species such as<br />
tulka. Issyk-Kul Lake <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan has also suffered from the<br />
past <strong>in</strong>tentional release of non-native fish species <strong>in</strong>to its sensitive<br />
water ecosystem.<br />
The most common genetically modified organisms (GMOs and<br />
LMOs) are crop plants which are altered to resist pests, diseases<br />
or herbicides. They <strong>in</strong>clude soya, wheat, corn (maize), cotton,<br />
sugar beet, walnuts, potatoes, tomatoes, peas and salad crops.<br />
Supporters of GMO technology argue that eng<strong>in</strong>eered crops can<br />
improve nutrition, that those resistant to drought or salt can flourish<br />
<strong>in</strong> poor conditions, and that crops able to resist <strong>in</strong>sects help to<br />
protect the environment by reduc<strong>in</strong>g the use of pesticides.<br />
Critics fear that GMOs could adversely affect the health of those<br />
who eat them, produc<strong>in</strong>g tox<strong>in</strong>s or transferr<strong>in</strong>g antibiotic resistance<br />
and other genetic material <strong>in</strong>to the human gut. So far little<br />
evidence to support them has been reported. There are also<br />
fears that GMOs could become superweeds or that they could<br />
accidentally breed with wild plants or other crops. Plants that are<br />
<strong>in</strong>sect-resistant are thought likely to hasten the development of<br />
pests able to resist <strong>in</strong>secticides. GMOs may help to grow more<br />
crops and so could be part of the answer to world hunger. But<br />
<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly globalised world they could, their critics say,<br />
help the agricultural <strong>in</strong>dustry to create monopolies. Detect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the presence of genetically-modified material <strong>in</strong> seed imports is<br />
possible, though it needs specialist equipment and tra<strong>in</strong>ed staff.<br />
68<br />
Challenges for <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
Unsusta<strong>in</strong>able Use and Consumption:<br />
Implications for <strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
However efficiently an economy is managed and run, there will<br />
still be a potential risk for biodiversity. The most careful irrigation<br />
methods, the most modern energy efficiency approaches and<br />
energy production technologies, cannot elim<strong>in</strong>ate the human<br />
factor. And while that rema<strong>in</strong>s the ultimate determ<strong>in</strong>ant of the fate<br />
of habitats and systems there will always be a need for str<strong>in</strong>gent<br />
protection of biodiversity.<br />
In <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> this universal difficulty is compounded by the<br />
region’s acknowledged poor record of wasteful water use <strong>in</strong> agriculture<br />
and energy <strong>in</strong>efficiency <strong>in</strong> households. Many grasslands<br />
have been affected by the overgraz<strong>in</strong>g of 20 years ago. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the economic transition, the number of livestock <strong>in</strong>itially decl<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />
and herd<strong>in</strong>g practices centred around settlements. This development<br />
led to overuse of so-called w<strong>in</strong>ter and autumn pastures <strong>in</strong><br />
the lower mounta<strong>in</strong>s near populated areas as the regular fodder<br />
supply was no longer available or affordable to most households.<br />
At the same time, the condition of summer pastures <strong>in</strong> the high<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s improved, but the growth of unpalatable grasses<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased. The conflicts over pasture use <strong>in</strong> the near-border<br />
areas have <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />
One way forward for <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> could be the recognition and<br />
enforcement of cooperative, <strong>in</strong>tegrated and efficient water,<br />
energy and pasture use as a way to serve the <strong>in</strong>terests of the<br />
economy, society and nature. Grow<strong>in</strong>g populations, demands for<br />
better liv<strong>in</strong>g standards and more water, energy and food, and<br />
a less predictable climate mean biodiversity requires stronger<br />
protection and consideration.<br />
Productivity of pastures <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
Yield, kilogramme per hectare<br />
350<br />
Summer pastures<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Source: FAO 2010<br />
Spr<strong>in</strong>g-autmn pastures<br />
W<strong>in</strong>ter pastures<br />
1950-1955 1980-1985 1997-2004<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
69
Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong>
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Penza<br />
Saratov<br />
Volga<br />
Tolyatti<br />
Samara<br />
Oral<br />
Ufa<br />
R U S S I A<br />
Buzuluk<br />
Kumertau<br />
Orenburg<br />
Chelyab<strong>in</strong>sk<br />
Kostanay<br />
Magnitogorsk<br />
Rudniy<br />
Petropavlovsko<br />
Kokshetau<br />
Atbasar<br />
Omsk<br />
Stepnogorsk<br />
Irtysh<br />
Pavlodar<br />
Volgograd<br />
Ural<br />
Ur<br />
U<br />
Aktobe<br />
Orsk<br />
Arkalyk<br />
Astana<br />
Temirtau<br />
Karaganda<br />
K A Z A K H S T A N<br />
A<br />
Astrakhan<br />
Atyrau<br />
Zhezkazgan<br />
Balkhash<br />
Makhachkala<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gachevir<br />
Kura<br />
Shirvan<br />
Rasht<br />
Hamadan<br />
Arak<br />
Derbent<br />
Karaj<br />
C a s p i a n<br />
p i<br />
Baku<br />
Qom<br />
Aktau<br />
S e a<br />
Zhanaozen<br />
Turkmenbashi<br />
Sari<br />
Tehran<br />
Kara-Bogaz-<br />
Gol<br />
Gorgan<br />
Atrek<br />
Aral Sea<br />
T U R K M E N I S T A N<br />
Balkanabat<br />
Gonbad-e<br />
Kavus Bojnurd<br />
Neyshabur<br />
I R A N<br />
Dashoguz<br />
Ashgabata<br />
Mashad<br />
Nukus<br />
Urganch<br />
Mary<br />
Murghab<br />
Aral<br />
Amu Darya<br />
Baikonur<br />
Turkmenabat<br />
y<br />
ya<br />
Uchkudukk<br />
Kyzylorda<br />
Syr Darya<br />
Kentau<br />
Turkestan<br />
Shymkent<br />
Angren<br />
Tashkent<br />
U Z B E K<br />
I S T A N<br />
Kokand Ferghana<br />
Navoiy<br />
Jizakh<br />
Kujand<br />
Bukhara Katta-Kurgan<br />
Karshi<br />
Qurghonteppa<br />
Termiz<br />
Mazar-e Sharif<br />
Kunduz<br />
A F G H A N I S T A N<br />
Zhanatas<br />
Taraz<br />
Chu<br />
Lake Balkhash<br />
Ili<br />
Almaty<br />
Kara-Balta<br />
Bishkekh<br />
Ysik-Kol<br />
Balykchy<br />
Toktogul<br />
K Y R G Y Z S T A<br />
N Naryn<br />
Korug<br />
Jalalabad<br />
Osh<br />
M<strong>in</strong>gora<br />
Gilgit<br />
Kashgar<br />
P A K I S T A<br />
N<br />
l<br />
T<br />
72<br />
Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Semey<br />
yagoz<br />
Novosibirsk<br />
Ob<br />
Ridder<br />
Novokuznetsk<br />
Barnaul<br />
Biysk<br />
Lake Zaysan<br />
Zyryanovsk<br />
Elevation <strong>in</strong> metres<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> conservation<br />
Protected areas<br />
Reforestation <strong>in</strong>itiatives<br />
Zoological parks<br />
Botanical parks<br />
Wildlife sanctuaries and nurseries<br />
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational importance especially as<br />
waterfowl habitat)<br />
100<br />
200 300 km<br />
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011<br />
As the map (left) shows, there is an encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trend <strong>in</strong> much of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> towards extend<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
network of protected areas and forests <strong>in</strong>herited two<br />
decades ago after <strong>in</strong>dependence from the Soviet<br />
Union - and <strong>in</strong> the countries which have recorded<br />
little actual <strong>in</strong>crease (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan),<br />
at least there has been no loss of protection. But<br />
it is a matter of more than the simple extent of the<br />
areas under protection. To show effective concern<br />
for biodiversity and forests, governments need to<br />
improve the efficiency with which they are managed,<br />
the enforcement of the legislation designed to<br />
secure their future, the engagement of the communities<br />
of which they are a part, and the effectiveness<br />
of f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g mechanisms.<br />
Tacheng<br />
Karamay<br />
Source: Protected Planet (→ http://protectedplanet.net);<br />
UNESCO World Heritage Conventon (→ http://whc.unesco.org)<br />
ADB Nature Atlas (→ http://beta.adb.org/publications/central-asia-atlasnatural-resources);<br />
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (→ www.ramsar.org)<br />
Kuytun<br />
Shihezi<br />
aldykorgan<br />
Ghulja<br />
Karakol<br />
Kuqa<br />
Aksu<br />
Tarim He<br />
C H I N<br />
A<br />
Hotan<br />
73
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Global Environment Facility <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the largest<br />
funder of projects to improve the Earth’s environment.<br />
The GEF was established <strong>in</strong> 1991 and s<strong>in</strong>ce then has allocated<br />
$9.5 billion, supplemented by more than $42 billion<br />
<strong>in</strong> co-f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g, for 2,700 projects <strong>in</strong> more than 165 develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and transition countries. The GEF projects cover not<br />
only biodiversity, but also climate change, <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
waters, land degradation and other global environmental<br />
priorities. All these projects benefit the global environment,<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g local, national, and global environmental<br />
challenges and promot<strong>in</strong>g susta<strong>in</strong>able livelihoods. The<br />
GEF supported more than 40 biodiversity-related projects<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> over the past 15 years and allocated more<br />
than $50 million. In addition to national projects, several<br />
regional <strong>in</strong>itiatives supported by the GEF are help<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to build cross-border cooperation and efficient nature<br />
resource management. Selected examples of recent GEF<br />
projects and their accomplishments are described below.<br />
The goal of the Susta<strong>in</strong>able Land Management <strong>in</strong> the<br />
High Pamir and Pamir-Alai Mounta<strong>in</strong>s GEF project (known<br />
locally as “PALM”) is to restore the productive and protective<br />
functions of the transboundary mounta<strong>in</strong> ecosystems<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. The project is improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rural well-be<strong>in</strong>g through better management of pastures,<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able land management, and lessen<strong>in</strong>g land degradation’s<br />
causes and consequences.<br />
The West Tien Shan GEF project <strong>in</strong>itially assisted three<br />
countries - Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan - to<br />
strengthen local and cross-border mounta<strong>in</strong> ecosystem<br />
and watershed conservation. The new phase of the GEF<br />
project aims to improve forestry and biodiversity management<br />
and <strong>in</strong>crease local peoples’ access to biodiversity<br />
resources and earn<strong>in</strong>gs from ecotourism.<br />
74<br />
Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
A Visual Synthesis<br />
The biodiversity of Kazakhstan’s steppes is threatened by<br />
habitat degradation. Protected areas have a significant role<br />
to play, but they cover only a limited part of steppe ecosystems<br />
and their management effectiveness is limited. The<br />
GEF project is currently work<strong>in</strong>g to expand protected areas<br />
conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g representative samples of steppes, to <strong>in</strong>tegrate<br />
buffer zones <strong>in</strong>to the protected areas network, to <strong>in</strong>troduce<br />
wildlife corridors, and to promote community-based<br />
conservation areas. New approaches to ecological monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
are also tested <strong>in</strong> the project. In spr<strong>in</strong>g 2011, a new<br />
national park, Buiratau, cover<strong>in</strong>g 89,000 ha was established.<br />
Another GEF project <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of southern<br />
Kazakhstan that harbour more than 75% of the country’s<br />
agrobiodiversity is assist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> conservation efforts target<strong>in</strong>g<br />
wild crop relatives, namely wild apples (Malus sieversii)<br />
and wild apricots (Armeniaca vulgaris).<br />
GEF’s project to susta<strong>in</strong> agricultural biodiversity <strong>in</strong> the face<br />
of climate change <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan recognises that many local<br />
species of plants and their wild relatives may offer resistance<br />
to or tolerance of pests, diseases and severe weather<br />
shocks. Tajikistan’s agricultural biodiversity is important for<br />
rural communities’ well-be<strong>in</strong>g, for ensur<strong>in</strong>g their food security<br />
and for the conservation of globally significant genetic<br />
diversity and crop varieties. The project is test<strong>in</strong>g how rural<br />
communities can benefit from agrobiodiversity conservation<br />
and how they can adapt to climate change. The project<br />
catalyses <strong>in</strong>ternational research collaboration <strong>in</strong> soil and<br />
plant modell<strong>in</strong>g and assists local communities <strong>in</strong> diversification<br />
of crops and other cop<strong>in</strong>g strategies.<br />
Fish <strong>in</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong> lakes of Kyrgyzstan are threatened by<br />
alien species and overfish<strong>in</strong>g. The GEF project addresses<br />
these problems through legal and <strong>in</strong>stitutional reforms<br />
<strong>in</strong> fishery management, <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity-friendly<br />
fishery management regimes, conserv<strong>in</strong>g endemic fish<br />
species and controll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>troduced species <strong>in</strong> Issyk-<br />
Kul Lake and address<strong>in</strong>g socio-economic root causes.<br />
Restock<strong>in</strong>g of native species is another important priority.<br />
Natural pastures play a key role <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan’s rural<br />
economy. The ongo<strong>in</strong>g GEF project on susta<strong>in</strong>able pasture<br />
management <strong>in</strong> the Suusamyr Valley aims to demonstrate<br />
how scientific and traditional knowledge and community<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement can reduce pressure from overgraz<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Another GEF project aims to lock biodiversity <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Uzbekistan’s oil-and-gas sector policies and operations <strong>in</strong><br />
the Ustyurt Plateau. The few surviv<strong>in</strong>g strongholds of dry<br />
temperate grasslands are threatened by grow<strong>in</strong>g hydrocarbon<br />
exploration and pipel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>frastructure and the<br />
country’s protected areas cannot safeguard the vast area<br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g outside. The long-term goal is for all oil-and-gas<br />
operations to m<strong>in</strong>imize their adverse impacts on biodiversity,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g ecosystem fragmentation. An ongo<strong>in</strong>g GEF<br />
project <strong>in</strong> the Amu Darya delta region is help<strong>in</strong>g tugai forest<br />
conservation through more efficient biodiversity protection<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ed with community-based forestry and energy<br />
and water-efficient agricultural activities. The recently<br />
completed Nuratau-Kyzylkum GEF project improved<br />
national regulations, promoted modern approaches for<br />
nature conservation <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g local communities, and<br />
contributed to susta<strong>in</strong>able pasture, forest and tourism<br />
development. Awareness-rais<strong>in</strong>g among children, farmers<br />
and tourists is cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g with GEF support.<br />
Protected areas cover<strong>in</strong>g nearly 4% of its territory safeguard<br />
Turkmenistan’s biodiversity. But the protection is<br />
not comprehensive, the protected areas network is fragmented<br />
and plann<strong>in</strong>g management is under-developed.<br />
The ongo<strong>in</strong>g GEF project assists Turkmenistan <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
efficiency of the exist<strong>in</strong>g protected areas system and<br />
enabl<strong>in</strong>g conditions for - develop<strong>in</strong>g a network of national<br />
parks as part of the country’s protected areas system.<br />
National parks are not only meant for strict biodiversity<br />
conservation, but also for environmental education and<br />
eco-tourism. The project covers a range of desert and<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> ecosystems and slows threats to biodiversity,<br />
such as cutt<strong>in</strong>g woodlands, dra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g water meadows,<br />
overgraz<strong>in</strong>g, and over-exploit<strong>in</strong>g species. The recently<br />
completed Hazar nature reserve GEF project on the<br />
Caspian Sea coast has improved biodiversity conservation<br />
and monitor<strong>in</strong>g efficiency, and helped to alleviate<br />
population pressures on the local ecosystem.<br />
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<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong>-related Initiatives Supported by Switzerland<br />
The project designed to explore the potential of Payment<br />
for Ecosystem Services (PES) is centred on the Chon-<br />
Aksu small river bas<strong>in</strong> of Lake Issyk-Kul, <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan. It<br />
aims to show the feasibility of apply<strong>in</strong>g the PES concept <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated water resources management. The project activities<br />
which started <strong>in</strong> 2010 by the Regional Environmental<br />
Centre <strong>in</strong>clude: improv<strong>in</strong>g the practice of land use with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
small river bas<strong>in</strong>; reconstruct<strong>in</strong>g a water pipe-l<strong>in</strong>e network<br />
and clean<strong>in</strong>g up irrigation facilities to save water; develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a biological filtration scheme for water; identify<strong>in</strong>g how<br />
many livestock pastures a small river bas<strong>in</strong> can support;<br />
and modernis<strong>in</strong>g a village’s access to water.<br />
Switzerland seeks to help <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>’s countries <strong>in</strong><br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able development, transition from authoritarian rule<br />
and central plann<strong>in</strong>g to pluralism, democracy and a market<br />
economy. Its projects <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> are <strong>in</strong> five ma<strong>in</strong><br />
areas: public <strong>in</strong>stitutions and services, basic water and<br />
energy <strong>in</strong>frastructure, private sector development, water<br />
management and disaster risk reduction, and health care<br />
reform. Currently, Switzerland supports over 20 projects<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (plus 10 more implemented<br />
regionally) where it spends about US$ 14-15 million annually<br />
per country.<br />
Forest depletion by <strong>in</strong>dividuals and bus<strong>in</strong>ess groups jeopardizes<br />
rural livelihoods <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan and threatens the<br />
world’s largest natural walnut forests. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
two decades ago the Kyrgyz Government has <strong>in</strong>vested<br />
less <strong>in</strong> conserv<strong>in</strong>g these forests, lack<strong>in</strong>g resources and an<br />
effective legal framework. So Switzerland has been f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the KIRFOR project based on the idea that farmers,<br />
foresters, government authorities, local communities and<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess should decide jo<strong>in</strong>tly how to manage and susta<strong>in</strong>ably<br />
use the forests. The project aims also to support<br />
research and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and to contribute to the new forest<br />
law and <strong>in</strong>ventory.<br />
In 2000 Switzerland launched the <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
Partnership <strong>in</strong>itiative (CAMP) <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and<br />
Kazakhstan with the aim of promot<strong>in</strong>g susta<strong>in</strong>able mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
development that should lead to better liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />
for the poor majority of mounta<strong>in</strong> people. CAMP activities<br />
promote group learn<strong>in</strong>g and action on priority topics<br />
related to pasture management, water resource management,<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated local risk management, energy efficiency,<br />
conflict over natural resources and other topics. Mounta<strong>in</strong>focused<br />
NGOs, <strong>in</strong>itially supported by Swiss researchers<br />
and collaborators, <strong>in</strong>volve various levels of stakeholders<br />
from central governments to village <strong>in</strong>stitutions and the<br />
general public. They often communicate “mounta<strong>in</strong> voices”,<br />
advocate <strong>in</strong>teractive and open processes of policy formulation<br />
and act to bridge any gaps between new legislation<br />
and strategies and the realities <strong>in</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong> communities.<br />
Cotton is start<strong>in</strong>g to rega<strong>in</strong> its importance <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan.<br />
In selected areas, it is now grown with far fewer chemicals<br />
than dur<strong>in</strong>g Soviet times, and organic cotton is seen as an<br />
opportunity to enter a new niche market and to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>in</strong>comes. The BioCotton project promotes organic farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> and the trade <strong>in</strong> organic products on the<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational and domestic markets. The project has developed<br />
a system to ensure that organic cotton complies with<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational standards.<br />
76<br />
Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Biodiversity</strong>
Other Initiatives<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
There are many other <strong>in</strong>itiatives on biodiversity conservation<br />
and susta<strong>in</strong>able use, as these examples show. Some<br />
concentrate on top predators like the big cats, the creatures<br />
at the apex of the food cha<strong>in</strong> whose wellbe<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
essential for an entire ecosystem. Others focus on species<br />
which are commercially important or which bestow other<br />
benefits on the environment, like the saiga antelopes<br />
whose long migrations help to disperse seeds across the<br />
steppe. Many aim to help local people to recover skills<br />
which were undervalued <strong>in</strong> previous decades and to use<br />
natural resources susta<strong>in</strong>ably.<br />
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
to develop and promote the ECONET, which l<strong>in</strong>ks core<br />
nature protection and priority areas with transit areas (ecocorridors)<br />
and buffer zones. Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g all three elements<br />
should guarantee the long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability of ecosystem<br />
development. WWF has also helped to research<br />
the possible re<strong>in</strong>troduction of tigers <strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan and<br />
Kazakhstan (someth<strong>in</strong>g it considers feasible <strong>in</strong> a few years’<br />
time), the conservation of cheetahs <strong>in</strong> Turkmenistan, and<br />
Bukhara deer <strong>in</strong> Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan.<br />
The German <strong>in</strong>ternational development organization GIZ<br />
(Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit)<br />
is work<strong>in</strong>g with governments, NGOs and academia <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>in</strong> a programme on susta<strong>in</strong>able use of natural<br />
resources. In Kyrgyzstan it is work<strong>in</strong>g to encourage susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
pasture management; <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan and Turkmenistan<br />
it is also promot<strong>in</strong>g susta<strong>in</strong>able forest management. GIZ<br />
is also support<strong>in</strong>g water resource and water ecosystem<br />
projects, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g reforestation <strong>in</strong> the dry Aral Sea. The<br />
German Nature and <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Conservation Union<br />
(NABU) is support<strong>in</strong>g wildlife centres <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan’s Issyk-<br />
Kul prov<strong>in</strong>ce. Germany’s Michael Succow Foundation is<br />
assist<strong>in</strong>g Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g buffer<br />
zones for nature reserves and <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g new management<br />
concepts that <strong>in</strong>volve the local population. Another<br />
GIZ-supported project <strong>in</strong> Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan is<br />
focus<strong>in</strong>g on ibex, markhor, urial and Marco Polo sheep.<br />
The project collaborates with traditional hunters, private<br />
conservancies, hunt<strong>in</strong>g concessionaires, scientists, NGOs<br />
and state nature protection authorities. The project is help<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to manage hunt<strong>in</strong>g grounds and wildlife stocks <strong>in</strong> a<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able way and to monitor biodiversity.<br />
The <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n region stands at the crossroads of<br />
several flyways and hosts at least 530 bird species. With<br />
support from the UK Government’s Darw<strong>in</strong> Initiative, the<br />
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and German<br />
Nature and <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Conservation Union, more than<br />
230 sites cover<strong>in</strong>g over 20 million hectares of steppes,<br />
deserts, mounta<strong>in</strong>s and wetlands have been mapped and<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to a comprehensive Important Bird Areas<br />
(IBAs) list of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. In Turkmenistan the IBA <strong>in</strong>itiative<br />
was a driv<strong>in</strong>g force beh<strong>in</strong>d the country’s sign<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />
Ramsar Convention.<br />
Fauna & Flora International’s (FFI) work <strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan aims<br />
to protect the snow leopard at the Sarychat-Ertash and Naryn<br />
state nature reserves <strong>in</strong> the central Tien Shan mounta<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
FFI helps the reserve’s staff to combat poach<strong>in</strong>g, monitor the<br />
animals and <strong>in</strong>volve communities, with <strong>in</strong>put from the Snow<br />
Leopard Trust. FFI helps to conserve fruit and nut forests, and<br />
has recently prepared the Red List of Trees of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
The Saiga Conservation Alliance (SCA) works <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong> to conserve these critically endangered antelopes<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. SCA monitors saiga<br />
numbers, identifies poacher profiles and motives, and <strong>in</strong><br />
Uzbekistan has successfully negotiated a consensus and<br />
an action plan between the Government and local people.<br />
It aims to establish local ranger groups to monitor saiga<br />
populations and raise public awareness and <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
support from communities for the plight of the saiga.<br />
The Association for the Conservation of <strong>Biodiversity</strong> of<br />
Kazakhstan and Frankfurt Zoological Society focus on the<br />
recovery of saiga <strong>in</strong> central Kazakhstan.<br />
77
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
References<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> background documents:<br />
ADB. 2010. <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> Atlas of Natural Resources.<br />
Birdlife International. 2009. <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> factsheet. Available at:<br />
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/sowb/flyways/7_<strong>Central</strong>_<strong>Asia</strong>_Factsheet.pdf<br />
Chelpakova J. 2011. Animal world of Kyrgyzstan.<br />
Chemonics International. 2001a. <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment for Kazakhstan<br />
–––. 2001b. <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment for Kyrgyzstan<br />
–––. 2001c. <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment for Tajikistan<br />
–––. 2001d. <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment for Turkmenistan<br />
–––. 2001e. <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Assessment for Uzbekistan<br />
IUCN. 2005. World Heritage Thematic Study for <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. A<br />
Regional Overview. Ed. Ch. Mag<strong>in</strong><br />
FAO. 2010a. Global Forest Resources Assessment: Kazakhstan<br />
–––. 2010b. Global Forest Resources Assessment: Kyrgyzstan<br />
–––. 2010c. Global Forest Resources Assessment: Tajikistan<br />
–––. 2010d. Global Forest Resources Assessment: Turkmenistan<br />
–––. 2010e. Global Forest Resources Assessment: Uzbekistan<br />
FFI. 2009. The Red List of Trees of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. Eastwood A.,<br />
Lazkov G., Newton A (eds.)<br />
Kazakhstan National Environmental Center. 2000. State of the<br />
Environment <strong>in</strong> the Republic of Kazakhstan 2000. Electronic report<br />
facilitated by GRID-Arendal. Esek<strong>in</strong>, B., V. Bogachev, K. Duskaev,<br />
A. Rodionov, N. Medvedeva, S. Daukeev, and A. Bekeev (eds.)<br />
Kazakhstan’s National Strategy and Action Plan on Conservation<br />
and Susta<strong>in</strong>able Use of <strong>Biodiversity</strong>. 1999. M<strong>in</strong>istry of Natural Resources<br />
and Environmental Protection.<br />
Kyrgyzstan’s Fourth National Report on Implementation of the UN<br />
CBD. 2008. State Agency on Environmental Protection and Forestry<br />
Kyrgyzstan’s National <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Strategy and Action Plan. 1998.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environmental Protection.<br />
Pivnev I. 1990. Fish of Kyrgyzstan.<br />
Safarov, N. and Novikov V. 2003. Tajikistan’s State of the Environment<br />
Report 2002. Electronic publication of the Research Laboratory<br />
for Nature Protection (Tajikistan) and GRID-Arendal (Norway).<br />
Tajikistan’s Fourth National Report on Implementation of the UN<br />
CBD. 2009. National <strong>Biodiversity</strong> and Biosafety Centre and the<br />
Governmental Workgroup.<br />
Tajikistan’s National Biosafety Framework. 2004. National <strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
and Biosafety Centre.<br />
Tajikistan’s National Strategy and Action Plan on Conservation and<br />
Susta<strong>in</strong>able Use of <strong>Biodiversity</strong>. 2003. National <strong>Biodiversity</strong> and<br />
Biosafety Centre and the Governmental Workgroup.<br />
Turkmenistan’s Fourth National Report on Implementation of the UN<br />
CBD. 2009. M<strong>in</strong>istry of Nature Protection.<br />
Turkmenistan’s National <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Strategy and Action Plan.<br />
2002. M<strong>in</strong>istry of Nature Protection.<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity. 2010. Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Outlook-3.<br />
UNDP GEF. 2008. Project document. Strengthen<strong>in</strong>g policy and<br />
regulatory framework for ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity <strong>in</strong>to fishery<br />
sector of Kyrgyzstan<br />
UNDP GEF. 2009. Project document. Strengthen<strong>in</strong>g the management<br />
effectiveness of the protected area system of Turkmenistan.<br />
UNEP WCMC. 2011. UK National Ecosystem Assessment. Synthesis<br />
of the Key F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Uzbekistan’s National <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Strategy and Action Plan. 1997.<br />
State Committee for Nature Protection.<br />
Uzbekistan’s Third National Report on Implementation of the UN<br />
CBD. 2006. State Committee for Nature Protection.<br />
Zoï Environment Network and the University of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. 2011. From<br />
Rio 1992 to 2012 and beyond: Susta<strong>in</strong>able Mounta<strong>in</strong> Development <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>. Hughes G., Dear Ch., Simonett O., Novikov V. (eds.)<br />
Zoï Environment Network. 2009. Climate Change <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>: A<br />
Visual Synthesis. Novikov V., Simonett O., Berthiaume Ch. (eds.)<br />
78
A Visual Synthesis<br />
Additional references:<br />
Kazakhstan’s Initial National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1998. M<strong>in</strong>istry of<br />
Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Available<br />
at: http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/kaznc1.pdf<br />
Kazakhstan’s Second National Communication under the United<br />
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2009. M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Available<br />
at: http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/kaznc2e.pdf<br />
Kyrgyzstan’s First National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2003. M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
of Ecology and Emergencies of the Kyrgyz Republic. Available at:<br />
http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/kyrnc1.pdf<br />
Kyrgyzstan’s Second National Communication under the United<br />
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2009. State<br />
Agency for Environmental Protection and Forestry under the Government<br />
of the Kyrgyz Republic. Available at:<br />
http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/kyrnc2e.pdf<br />
RECCA (Regional Environmental Centre of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>). 2004.<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> Mounta<strong>in</strong> Ecosystems.<br />
RECCA-ICSD (Regional Environmental Centre of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
and Interstate Commission on Susta<strong>in</strong>able Development). 2001.<br />
Regional Environmental Action Plan for <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
Tajikistan’s First National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2002. Ma<strong>in</strong> Adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
on Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitor<strong>in</strong>g under the<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry for Nature Protection of the Republic Tajikistan. Available at:<br />
http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/ta<strong>in</strong>c1.pdf<br />
Tajikistan’s First National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Capacity Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
Priority Areas. 2003. Ma<strong>in</strong> Adm<strong>in</strong>istration on Hydrometeorology and<br />
Environmental Monitor<strong>in</strong>g under the M<strong>in</strong>istry for Nature Protection of<br />
the Republic Tajikistan. Available at: http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/<br />
natc/tajnc1add.pdf<br />
Tajikistan’s State of the Environment Report. 2002. Eds: Safarov<br />
N., Novikov V. Laboratory for Nature Protection under the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
for Nature Protection of the Republic Tajikistan. Available at: http://<br />
enr<strong>in</strong>.grida.no/htmls/tadjik/soe2001/eng/<strong>in</strong>dex.htm<br />
Tajikistan’s Second National Communication under the United<br />
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2008. State<br />
Agency on Hydrometeorology under the Committee for Environmental<br />
Protection. The Government of the Republic Tajikistan. Available<br />
at: http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/ta<strong>in</strong>c2.pdf<br />
Turkmenistan’s Initial National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1999. M<strong>in</strong>istry for<br />
Nature Protection of Turkmenistan. Available at:<br />
http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/tkmnc1.pdf<br />
Turkmenistan’s Initial National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Capacity Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> Priority Areas. 2006. M<strong>in</strong>istry for Nature Protection of Turkmenistan.<br />
Available at: http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/tkmnc1a1.pdf<br />
UNECE. 2009. Second Environmental Performance Review: Kyrgyzstan.<br />
Available at: http://www.unece.org/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/DAM/env/epr/<br />
epr_studies/Kyrgyzstan%20II%20En.pdf<br />
UNECE. 2010. Second Environmental Performance Review: Uzbekistan.<br />
Available at: http://www.unece.org/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/DAM/env/epr/<br />
epr_studies/uzbekistan%20II%20e.pdf<br />
Uzbekistan’s Initial National Communication under the United<br />
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1999. Ma<strong>in</strong><br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istration of Hydrometeorology under the Cab<strong>in</strong>et of M<strong>in</strong>isters<br />
of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Available at:<br />
http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/uzbnc1.pdf<br />
Uzbekistan’s Second National Communication under the United Nations<br />
Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2008. Centre of<br />
Hydrometeorological Service under the Cab<strong>in</strong>et of M<strong>in</strong>isters of the<br />
Republic of Uzbekistan. Available at:<br />
http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/natc/uzbnc2e.zip<br />
Tajikistan’s National Action Plan on Climate Change Mitigation.<br />
2003. Ma<strong>in</strong> Adm<strong>in</strong>istration on Hydrometeorology and Environmental<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g under the M<strong>in</strong>istry for Nature Protection of the Republic<br />
Tajikistan. Eds: Makhmadaliev B., Novikov V., Kayumov A., Karimov<br />
U. Available at: http://unfccc.<strong>in</strong>t/resource/docs/nap/ta<strong>in</strong>ap01e.pdf<br />
79
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
Onl<strong>in</strong>e databases and <strong>in</strong>formation sources<br />
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> Indicators Partnership: http://www.bip<strong>in</strong>dicators.net/<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> Environment and Susta<strong>in</strong>able Development portal: http://www.caresd.net<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> Water Information portal: http://www.cawater-<strong>in</strong>fo.net<br />
Climate Wizard: <strong>in</strong>teractive web tool developed by The Nature Conservancy, The University of Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, and The University of Southern Mississippi<br />
http://www.climatewizard.org<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity: http://www.cbd.<strong>in</strong>t/<br />
Convention on Migratory Species: http://www.cms.<strong>in</strong>t/<br />
CITES Convention: http://www.cites.org/<br />
FAO GLADIS Global Land Degradation Information System: http://lprapp11.fao.org:8080/glad_res/<br />
FAO Stat: http://faostat.fao.org<br />
Forest Encyclopaedia: http://forest.geoman.ru/<br />
Global <strong>Biodiversity</strong> Hotspots: http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/resources/Pages/maps.aspx<br />
Kazakhstan M<strong>in</strong>istry of Natural Resources: http://www.eco.gov.kz<br />
Kazakhstan’s Association for the Conservation of <strong>Biodiversity</strong>: http://acbk.kz/<br />
Kyrgyzstan State Agency for Environmental Protection and Forestry: http://www.nature.kg<br />
Kyrgyzstan’s ecological movement “BIOM”: http://www.biom.kg/<br />
Tajikistan Committee for Nature Protection: http://www.hifzitabiat.tj/<br />
Tajikistan National <strong>Biodiversity</strong> and Biosafety Centre: http://www.biodiv.tj<br />
Turkmenistan M<strong>in</strong>istry of Nature Protection: http://www.natureprotection.gov.tm<br />
Uzbekistan State Committee for Nature Protection: http://www.uznature.uz/<br />
Uzbekistan Clear<strong>in</strong>g House Mechanism under the CBD: http://www.cbd.uz/<br />
UNEP GRID-Arendal: http://www.grida.no/<br />
UNEP-WCMC World Protected Areas Visual Database: http://www.protectedplanet.net/#5_44.25_65.25_0<br />
UNESCO World Heritage List: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list<br />
World Bank development <strong>in</strong>dicators: http://publications.worldbank.org/WDI/<br />
WWF’s ECONET of <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>: http://www.wwf.ru/about/where_we_work/asia/closed/econet/maps/<br />
Note: In <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>: Strict Nature Reserves “zapovedniks” are equivalent to IUCN category (I); National Parks are equivalent to IUCN category (II); Natural<br />
Monuments are equivalent to IUCN category (III); Species Management Areas (botanical, zoological, complex reserves) “zakazniks” are equivalent to IUCN<br />
category (IV); the protected zones of strict nature reserves, “reservates” and water protection zones are equivalent to IUCN category (V).<br />
80
Photo Sources<br />
Cover page: Wild apple forests, <strong>Central</strong> Tajikistan © V. Novikov<br />
Back cover page: Nura River meander<strong>in</strong>g through the steppes of Kazakhstan © A. Koshk<strong>in</strong><br />
P6: Agama lizard <strong>in</strong> the desert of Turkmenistan © A. Veyisov<br />
P8-9: Horses on a high mounta<strong>in</strong> pasture, Kyrgyzstan © used under license of Shutterstock.com<br />
P30-31: Jungar-Alatau National Park, Kazakhstan © R. Vagapov<br />
P32: Family of marmots <strong>in</strong> the steppe, Kazakhstan © A. Koshk<strong>in</strong><br />
P33: Desert landscape, Kazakhstan © V. Novikov<br />
P36: Saxaul forest, Repetek State Nature Reserve, Turkmenistan © A. Veyisov<br />
P36: Tugai forests, Amu Darya river delta, Uzbekistan © V. Novikov<br />
P36: Juniper forest, Tajikistan © V. Novikov<br />
P37: Wild apple (Malus Sieversii), southern Kazakhstan © L. Valdshmit<br />
P37: Walnut forests, southern Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)<br />
P37: Pistachio forest, southern Tajikistan © V. Novikov<br />
P40: Kyrgyz yurts © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)<br />
P41: Water towers, Tien Shan Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)<br />
P45: Issyk-Kul Lake © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)<br />
P46: Tulipa gregeii © L. Valdshmit<br />
P46: Tulipa regeli © D. Unshikov<br />
P47: Tulips field, Aksu Jabagly Nature Reserve, Kazakhstan © L. Valdshmit<br />
P49: Snow leopard © S. Michel<br />
P49: Marco Polo Sheep © B. Wald<br />
P49: Markhor © V. Shakula<br />
P49: Bactrian Deer © N. Beshko<br />
P49: Saiga © A. Koshk<strong>in</strong><br />
P49: Caspian Seal © P. Eroch<strong>in</strong><br />
P49: Desert Monitor © P. Eroch<strong>in</strong><br />
P49: Steppe Eagle © A. Koshk<strong>in</strong><br />
P50-51: Crops, Uzbekistan © used under license of Shutterstock.com<br />
P53: Dry fruits and nuts © V. Novikov<br />
P56-57: Summer pastures, Song-Kul Lake, Kyrgyzstan © V. Novikov<br />
P70-71: Saiga antelopes, Kazakhstan © A. Koshk<strong>in</strong><br />
P83: Lonely pistachio tree, Tajikistan © V. Novikov<br />
A Visual Synthesis<br />
81
<strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
• Zoï Books •<br />
Publications produced <strong>in</strong> 2009 -12 by Zoï staff and associates for the United Nations,<br />
GRID-Arendal and a grow<strong>in</strong>g community of readers world-wide.<br />
Available on • www.zo<strong>in</strong>et.org •<br />
Desertification<br />
A visual synthesis<br />
121 p. English<br />
UNEP, UNCCD, 2011<br />
Amu Darya River Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
Environment and Security<br />
98 p. English, Russian<br />
UNEP, ENVSEC, 2011<br />
Coalland - Faces of Donetsk<br />
43 p. English<br />
UNEP, ENVSEC, 2011<br />
South Caucasus<br />
A visual synthesis of Climate Change<br />
60 p. English<br />
ENVSEC, Zoï, 2012<br />
<strong>Central</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
A visual synthesis of Climate Change<br />
80 p. English, Russian (2010)<br />
Zoï, Swiss Government 2009<br />
Eastern Europe<br />
A visual synthesis of Climate Change<br />
60 p. English, Russian<br />
Zoï, 2011<br />
Khaidarkan mercury<br />
Address<strong>in</strong>g primary mercury m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kyrgyzstan<br />
34 p. English<br />
UNEP, Zoï 2009<br />
Vital Caspian<br />
Graphics 2<br />
Opportunities, Aspirations<br />
and Challenges<br />
80 p. English, Russian<br />
GRID Arendal, 2012<br />
82
A Visual Synthesis<br />
83
People hunted the saiga <strong>in</strong> Moyunkum desert. Before they came on horseback, dressed <strong>in</strong> sk<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
armed with arrows; then they came with guns, galloped to and fro, and antelope crowds rushed<br />
first one then another way... the time passed and people switched to motorised raids, <strong>in</strong>tensify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
attrition like a pack of wolves, shoot<strong>in</strong>g the saiga on the run... then they began to use helicopters to<br />
search for the saiga herds <strong>in</strong> the steppe, and ground-based snipers rac<strong>in</strong>g at a hundred kilometres<br />
per hour to pursue the animals, giv<strong>in</strong>g them no chance to escape. Cars, helicopters, rapid-fire rifles,<br />
all turned life <strong>in</strong> the Moyunkum desert upside down.<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>giz Aitmatov, “The Executioner’s Block”, 1987