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omega-3 fatty acids
What can high-omega-3 foods do for you?
Reduce inflammation throughout your body
Keep your blood from clotting excessively
Maintain the fluidity of your cell membranes
lower the amount of lipids (fats such as cholesterol and triglycerides) circulating in the
bloodstream
decrease platelet aggregation, preventing excessive blood clotting
inhibit thickening of the arteries by decreasing endothelial cells' production of a plateletderived
growth factor (the lining of the arteries is composed of endothelial cells)
increase the activity of another chemical derived from endothelial cells (endotheliumderived
nitric oxide), which causes arteries to relax and dilate
reduce the production of messenger chemicals called cytokines, which are involved in
the inflammatory response associated with atherosclerosis
reduce the risk of becoming obese and improve the body's ability to respond to insulin
by stimulating the secretion of leptin, a hormone that helps regulate food intake, body
weight and metabolism, and is expressed primarily by adipocytes (fat cells)
help prevent cancer cell growth
What conditions or symptoms indicate a need for more high-omega-3 foods?
Depression
Cardiovascular Disease
Type 2 Diabetes
Fatigue
Dry, itchy skin
Brittle hair and nails
Inability to concentrate
Joint pain
Salmon, flax seeds and walnuts are excellent food sources of omega-3 fatty acids.
Research indicates that omega-3s may be better absorbed from food than supplements.
Norwegian researchers compared 71 volunteers' absorption of omega-3s (EPA and DHA) from
salmon, smoked salmon, cod (14 ounces of fish per week) or cod liver oil (3 teaspoons per
day). Cooked salmon provided 1.2 grams of omega-3s daily, while cod liver oil provided more
than twice as much: 3 grams of omega-3s per day.
Despite the fact that the salmon group got less than half the amount of omega-3s as the cod
liver oil group, blood levels of omega-3s increased quite a bit more in those eating salmon
than those taking cod liver oil. After 8 weeks, EPA levels had risen 129% and DHA rose 45%
in those eating cooked salmon compared to 106% and 25%, respectively, in those taking cod
liver oil.
In the group eating smoked salmon, blood levels of omega-3s rose about one-third less than
in the salmon group. In those eating cod, the rise in omega-3s was very small.
Concurrent with the rise in omega-3s in those eating salmon, a drop was seen in blood levels
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of a number of pro-inflammatory chemicals (TNFalpha, IL-8, leukotriene B4, and
thromboxane B2). Researchers think omega-3s may be better absorbed from fish because
fish contains these fats in the form of triglycerides, while the omega-3s in almost all refined
fish oils are in the ethyl ester form. Once absorbed, omega-3s are converted by the body
from their triglyceride to ester forms as needed. Lipids. 2006 Dec;41(12):1109-14.
Description
Function
Deficiency Symptoms
Toxicity Symptoms
Cooking, storage and processing
Factors that affect function
Description
What are omega-3 fatty acids?
Drug-nutrient interaction
Nutrient interaction
Health conditions
Supplements
Food Sources
Public Recommendations
References
You've probably been hearing about omega-3 fatty acids in recent years. The reason? A
growing body of scientific research indicates that these healthy fats help prevent a wide
range of medical problems, including cardiovascular disease, depression, asthma, and
rheumatoid arthritis.
Unlike the saturated fats found in butter and lard, omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated.
In chemistry class, the terms "saturated" and "polyunsaturated" refer to the number of
hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon chain of the fatty acid. In the kitchen, these
terms take on a far more practical meaning.
Polyunsaturated fats, unlike saturated fats, are liquid at room temperature and remain liquid
when refrigerated or frozen. Monounsaturated fats, found in olive oil, are liquid at room
temperature, but harden when refrigerated. When eaten in appropriate amounts, each type
of fat can contribute to health. However, the importance of omega-3 fatty acids in health
promotion and disease prevention cannot be overstated.
The three most nutritionally important omega-3 fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid,
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Alpha-linolenic acid is one of two fatty acids traditionally classified as "essential." The other
fatty acid traditionally viewed as essential is an omega 6 fat called linoleic acid. These fatty
acids have traditionally been classified as "essential" because the body is unable to
manufacture them on its own and because they play a fundamental role in several
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physiological functions. As a result, we must be sure our diet contains sufficient amounts of
both alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid.
Dietary sources of alpha-linolenic acid include flaxseeds, walnuts, hemp seeds, soybeans and
some dark green leafy vegetables. Linoleic acid is found in high concentrations in corn oil,
safflower oil, sunflower oil, and canola oil. Most people consume a much higher amount of
linoleic acid than alpha-linolenic acid, which has important health consequences. For more
information on the proper ratio of these fatty acids in the diet, see our FAQ entitled, A New
Way of Looking at Proteins, Fats, and Carbohydrates
The body converts alpha-linolenic acid into two important omega-3 fats, eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA). These fats can also be derived directly from
certain foods, most notably cold-water fish including salmon, tuna, halibut, and herring. In
addition, certain types of algae contain DHA. EPA is believed to play a role in the prevention
of cardiovascular disease, while DHA is the necessary for proper brain and nerve
development.
How it Functions
What are the functions of omega-3 fatty acids?
Every cell in our body is surrounded by a cell membrane composed mainly of fatty acids. The
cell membrane allows the proper amounts of necessary nutrients to enter the cell, and
ensures that waste products are quickly removed from the cell.
Promoting Healthy Cell Membranes
To perform these functions optimally, however, the cell membrane must maintain its integrity
and fluidity. Cells without a healthy membrane lose their ability to hold water and vital
nutrients. They also lose their ability to communicate with other cells. Researchers believe
that loss of cell to cell communication is one of the physiological events that leads to growth
of cancerous tumors.
Because cell membranes are made up of fat, the integrity and fluidity of our cell membranes
is determined in large part by the type of fat we eat. Remember that saturated fats are solid
at room temperature, while omega-3 fats are liquid at room temperature. Researchers believe
that diets containing large amounts of saturated or hydrogenated fats produce cell
membranes that are hard and lack fluidity. On the other hand, diets rich in omega-3 fats
produce cell membranes with a high degree of fluidity.
In addition, recent in vitro (test tube) evidence suggests when omega-3 fatty acids are
incorporated into cell membranes they may help to protect against cancer, notably of the
breast. They are suggested to promote breast cancer cell apoptosis via several mechanisms
including: inhibiting a pro-inflammatory enzyme called cyclooxygenase 2 (COX 2), which
promotes breast cancer; activating a type of receptor in cell membranes called peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-ã, which can shut down proliferative activity in a
variety of cells including breast cells; and, increasing the expression of BRCA1 and BRCA2,
tumor suppressor genes that, when functioning normally, help repair damage to DNA, thus
helping to prevent cancer development.
Animal and test tube studies published in the November 2005 issue of the International
Journal of Cancer suggest yet another way in which the omega-3 fatty acids found in cold
water fish-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)-help protect against
breast cancer development.
All dietary fatty acids are incorporated into cell membranes, and the type of fatty acids
dictates how a cell responds and grows. Researchers found that omega-3 fatty acids affect
cell growth by activating an enzyme called sphingomyelinase, which then generates the
release of ceramide, a compound that induces the expression of the human tumor suppressor
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gene p21, which ultimately causes cancer cell death.
In the animal experiments, mice were fed diets rich in either omega-3 (fish oil) or omega-6
(corn oil) fatty acids after which breast cancer cells were implanted. Three weeks later, tumor
volume and weight was significantly lower in mice on the omega-3 rich diet. In the lab
culture experiments, when cells were treated with DHA or EPA, sphingomyelinase activity
increased by 30-40%, and breast cancer cell growth dropped 20-25%.
Prostaglandin Production
Omega-3 fats also play an important role in the production of powerful hormone-like
substances called prostaglandins. Prostaglandins help regulate many important physiological
functions including blood pressure, blood clotting, nerve transmission, the inflammatory and
allergic responses, the functions of the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract, and the production
of other hormones.
In essence, all prostaglandins perform essential physiological functions. However, depending
on the type of fat in the diet, certain types of prostaglandins may be produced in large
quantities, while others may not be produced at all. This can set up an imbalance throughout
the body that can lead to disease.
For example, EPA and DHA serve as direct precursors for series 3 prostaglandins, which have
been called "good" or "beneficial" because they reduce platelet aggregation, reduce
inflammation and improve blood flow. The role of EPA and DHA in the prevention of
cardiovascular disease can be explained in large part by the ability of these fats to increase
the production of favorable prostaglandins.
The omega 6 fats serve as precursors for series 1 and series 2 prostaglandins. Like the series
3 prostaglandins produced from omega-3 fats, series 1 prostaglandins are believed to be
beneficial. On the other hand, series 2 prostaglandins are usually considered to be "bad" or
"unhealthy," since these prostaglandins promote an inflammatory response and increase
platelet aggregation. As a result, it is important to ensure proper balance of omega-3 and
omega-6 fats in the diet.
EPA Directly Anti-Inflammatory
A recently identified lipid (fat) product our bodies make from EPA, called resolvins, helps
explain how this omega-3 fat provides anti-inflammatory effects on our joints and improves
blood flow.
Resolvins, which have been shown to reduce inflammation in animal studies, are made from
EPA by our cellular enzymes, and work by inhibiting the production and regulating the
migration of inflammatory cells and chemicals to sites of inflammation. Unlike
anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, ibuprofen and the COX-2 inhibitors, the resolvins
our bodies produce from EPA do not have negative side effects on our gastrointestinal or
cardiovascular systems.
Deficiency Symptoms
What are deficiency symptoms for omega-3 fatty acids?
Recent statistics indicate that nearly 99% of people in the United States do not eat enough
omega 3 fatty acids. However, the symptoms of omega-3 fatty acid deficiency are very
vague, and can often be attributed to some other health conditions or nutrient deficiencies.
Consequently, few people (or their physicians, for that matter) realize that they are not
consuming enough omega-3 fatty acids. The symptoms of omega-3 fatty acid deficiency
include fatigue, dry and/or itchy skin, brittle hair and nails, constipation, frequent colds,
depression, poor concentration, lack of physical endurance, and/or joint pain.
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Toxicity Symptoms
What are toxicity symptoms for omega 3 fatty acids?
In its 2002 guidelines for omega-3 fatty acid intake, the Institute of Medicine at the National
Academy of Sciences declined to establish a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for omega-3s.
However, research was cited showing increased risk of bleeding and hemorrhagic stroke in a
few studies following supplementation with omega-3s. Individuals who have disorders
involving bleeding, who bruise very easily, or who are taking blood thinners should consult
with a medical practitioner before taking supplemental omega-3 fatty acids.
Impact of Cooking, Storage and Processing
How do cooking, storage, or processing affect omega-3 fatty acids?
Polyunsaturated oils, including the omega-3 fats, are extremely susceptible to damage from
heat, light, and oxygen. When exposed to these elements for too long, the fatty acids in the
oil become oxidized, a scientific term that simply means that the oil becomes rancid.
Rancidity not only alters the flavor and smell of the oil, but it also diminishes the nutritional
value. More importantly, the oxidation of fatty acids produces free radicals, which are
believed to play a role in the development of cancer and other degenerative diseases.
Under most circumstances, the problem of rancidity only arises when the oils are removed
from their natural food package. For example, the hard shell of the flaxseed protects the oil
inside the seed from heat, light, and oxygen. Flaxseeds also contain antioxidant compounds,
such as vitamin E, that provide additional protection against oxidation. But, when the seed is
pressed to isolate the oil, the oil becomes vulnerable to the elements.
As a result, oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids should be stored in dark glass, tightly
closed containers in the refrigerator or freezer. In addition, these oils should never be heated
on the stove. So, instead of sautéing your vegetables in flaxseed or walnut oil, make a salad
dressing using these oils.
Although less a problem with whole foods than processed oils, some foods containing
omega-3 fatty acids appear to lose some of their health benefits (like heart protection) when
the foods are fried. Fried fish is a good example in this area, since fried fish containing
omega-3s have been shown to provide less heart protection than baked or broiled fish
containing the same amount of omega-3s.
Factors that Affect Function
What factors might contribute to a deficiency of omega-3 fatty acids?
The conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to EPA and DHA involves a series of chemical reactions.
One of the first reactions in this series is catalyzed by the enzyme delta-6 desaturase. Further
down the line is a reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme delta-5 desaturase. Unfortunately,
it is now well-known that these enzymes do not function optimally in many people, and,
consequently, only a small amount of the alpha-linolenic acid consumed in the diet is
converted to EPA, DHA, and ultimately to the anti-inflammatory prostaglandins.
To increase the activity of your desaturase enzymes, be sure that your diet includes a
sufficient amount of vitamin B6, vitamin B3, vitamin C, magnesium and zinc. In addition,
limit your intake of saturated fat and partially hydrogenated fat, as these fats are known to
decrease the activity of delta-6 desaturase. Also, to be on the safe side, consider including a
direct source of EPA and DHA if your diet, such as wild-caught salmon, halibut, or tuna.
Drug-Nutrient Interactions
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What medications affect omega-3 fatty acids?
Fish oil supplements containing high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to
reduce high blood pressure in people taking cyclosporine, an immunosuppressive drug used
to prevent rejection of transplanted organs.
In addition, a high dietary intake of omega-3 fats, especially from fish, may decrease blood
pressure and thin the blood. People taking prescription blood pressure medications and/or
anticoagulants should consult with their physician before taking fish oil supplements.
Nutrient Interactions
How do other nutrients interact with omega-3 fatty acids?
Vitamin E, the primary fat-soluble antioxidant, protects omega-3 fats from oxidation.
Oxidation is a chemical process that produces free radicals.
Health Conditions
What health conditions require special emphasis on omega-3 fatty acids?
Omega-3 fatty acids may play a role in the prevention and/or treatment of the following
health conditions:
Alzheimer's disease
Asthma
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Bipolar disorder
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease
Depression
Diabetes
Eczema
High blood pressure
Huntington's disease
Lupus
Migraine headaches
Multiple sclerosis
Obesity
Osteoarthritis
Osteoporosis
Psoriasis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Form in Dietary Supplements
What forms of omega-3 fatty acids are found in dietary supplements?
In supplemental form, omega-3 fatty acids are available as softgels (like a vitamin E capsule)
or as bottled liquids. Flaxseed oil, a rich source of alpha-linolenic acid, and cod liver oil, a rich
source of EPA and DHA, are among the most popular omega-3 supplements.
When purchasing an omega-3 fatty acid supplement, remember that these oils are highly
sensitive to damage from heat, light and oxygen. Choose a certified organic product that has
been refrigerated and is packaged in a dark brown or green glass jar and be sure to store the
product in your refrigerator or freezer.
It is also advisable to choose a supplement that contains vitamin E. Vitamin E is a powerful
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antioxidant, which is added to the oil to prevent the fatty acids from becoming oxidized (or
rancid).
Food Sources
Introduction to Nutrient Rating System Chart
The following chart shows the World's Healthiest Foods that are either excellent, very good or
good sources of this nutrient. Next to each food name you will find the following information:
the serving size of the food; the number of calories in one serving; DV% (percent daily value)
of the nutrient contained in one serving (similar to other information presented in the
website, this DV is calculated for 25-50 year old healthy woman); the nutrient density rating;
and the food's World's Healthiest Foods Rating. Underneath the chart is a table that
summarizes how the ratings were devised. Read detailed information on our Nutrient Rating
System.
Introduction to Nutrient Rating System Chart
In order to better help you identify foods that feature a high concentration of nutrients for
the calories they contain, we created a Food Rating System. This system allows us to
highlight the foods that are especially rich in particular nutrients. The following chart shows
the World's Healthiest Foods that are either an excellent, very good, or good source of omega
3 fatty acids. Next to each food name, you'll find the serving size we used to calculate the
food's nutrient composition, the calories contained in the serving, the amount of omega 3
fatty acids contained in one serving size of the food, the percent Daily Value (DV%) that this
amount represents, the nutrient density that we calculated for this food and nutrient, and the
rating we established in our rating system. For most of our nutrient ratings, we adopted the
government standards for food labeling that are found in the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration's "Reference Values for Nutrition Labeling." Read more background information
and details of our rating system.
World's Healthiest Foods ranked as quality sources of:
omega 3 fatty acids
Food
Serving
Size Cals
Amount
(g)
DV
(%)
Nutrient
Density
World's
Healthiest
Foods
Rating
Flaxseeds 2 tbs 95.3 3.51 146.3 27.6 excellent
Cloves, dried, ground 2 tsp 14.2 0.20 8.3 10.6 very good
Walnuts 0.25 cup 163.5 2.27 94.6 10.4 excellent
Oregano, dried, ground 2 tsp 9.2 0.12 5.0 9.8 very good
Salmon, chinook,
baked/broiled
4 oz-wt 261.9 2.09 87.1 6.0 excellent
Cauliflower, boiled 1 cup 28.5 0.21 8.8 5.5 very good
Sardines
3.25 oz
can
191.4 1.36 56.7 5.3 very good
Mustard seeds 2 tsp 35.0 0.20 8.3 4.3 very good
Cabbage, shredded, boiled 1 cup 33.0 0.17 7.1 3.9 very good
Romaine lettuce 2 cup 15.7 0.08 3.3 3.8 good
Broccoli, steamed 1 cup 43.7 0.20 8.3 3.4 very good
Brussel sprouts, boiled 1 cup 60.8 0.26 10.8 3.2 good
Winter squash, baked, cubes 1 cup 80.0 0.34 14.2 3.2 good
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Tofu, raw 4 oz-wt 86.2 0.36 15.0 3.1 good
Summer squash, cooked,
slices
1 cup 36.0 0.15 6.3 3.1 good
Halibut, baked/broiled 4 oz-wt 158.8 0.62 25.8 2.9 good
Collard greens, boiled 1 cup 49.4 0.18 7.5 2.7 good
Spinach, boiled 1 cup 41.4 0.15 6.3 2.7 good
Kale, boiled 1 cup 36.4 0.13 5.4 2.7 good
Soybeans, cooked 1 cup 297.6 1.03 42.9 2.6 good
Shrimp, steamed/boiled 4 oz-wt 112.3 0.37 15.4 2.5 good
Turnip greens, cooked 1 cup 28.8 0.09 3.8 2.3 good
Cod, baked/broiled 4 oz-wt 119.1 0.32 13.3 2.0 good
Strawberries 1 cup 43.2 0.11 4.6 1.9 good
Green beans, boiled 1 cup 43.8 0.11 4.6 1.9 good
Snapper, baked/broiled 4 oz-wt 145.2 0.36 15.0 1.9 good
Scallops, baked/broiled 4 oz-wt 151.7 0.35 14.6 1.7 good
Tuna, yellowfin,
baked/broiled
4 oz-wt 157.6 0.33 13.8 1.6 good
Raspberries 1 cup 60.3 0.12 5.0 1.5 good
Miso 1 oz 70.8 0.14 5.8 1.5 good
World's Healthiest
Foods Rating Rule
excellent DV>=75% OR Density>=7.6 AND DV>=10%
very good DV>=50% OR Density>=3.4 AND DV>=5%
good DV>=25% OR Density>=1.5 AND DV>=2.5%
Public Health Recommendations
What are current public health recommendations for omega-3 fatty acids?
In 2002, the Institute of Medicine at the National Academy of Sciences issued Adequate
Intake (AI) levels for linolenic acid, the initial building block for all omega-3 fatty acids found
in the body. For male teenagers and adult men, 1.6 grams per day were recommended, For
female teenagers and adult women, the recommended amount was 1.1 grams per day. These
guidelines do not seem as well-matched to the existing health research on omega-3 fatty
acids as guidelines issued by the Workshop on the Essentiality of and Recommended Dietary
Intakes (RDI) for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids in 1999 sponsored by the National
Institutes of Health (NIH). This panel of experts recommended that people consume at least
2% of their total daily calories as omega-3 fats. To meet this recommendation, a person
consuming 2000 calories per day should eat sufficient omega-3-rich foods to provide at least
4 grams of omega-3 fatty acids.
This goal can be easily met by adding just two foods to your diet: flaxseeds and wild-caught
salmon. Two tablespoons of flaxseeds contain 3.5 grams of omega-3 fats, while a 4 ounce
piece of salmon contains 1.5 grams of omega 3 fats. There's research evidence showing that
two servings of non-fried fish per week-especially salmon, tuna, and halibut-can be enough to
significantly increase the level of omega-3 fatty acids in your blood (including the level of
both EPA and DHA).
Vegans and vegetarians relying on ALA as their only source of omega-3 fatty acids should
increase their consumption of ALA-rich foods accordingly to ensure sufficient production its
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important derivatives, EPA and DHA.
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© 2001-2010 The George Mateljan Foundation
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