Nano Gobies

THE REEF & MARINE AQUARIUM MAGAZINE
Nano Gobies
MAY/JUNE 2012

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EDITOR & PUBLISHER | James M. Lawrence
INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHER | Matthias Schmidt
INTERNATIONAL EDITOR | Daniel Knop
SENIOR ADVISORY BOARD |
Dr. Gerald R. Allen, Christopher Brightwell,
Dr. Andrew W. Bruckner, Dr. Bruce Carlson,
J. Charles Delbeek, Dr. Sylvia Earle, Svein
A. Fosså, Jay Hemdal, Sanjay Joshi, Larry
Jackson, Martin A. Moe, Jr., Dr. John E.
Randall, Julian Sprung, Dr. Rob Toonen,
Jeffrey A. Turner, Joseph Yaiullo
SENIOR EDITORS |
Scott W. Michael, Dr. Ronald L. Shimek,
Matt Pedersen
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS |
J. Charles Delbeek, Robert M. Fenner, Ed
Mary Sweeney, John H. Tullock, Tim Wijgerde
PHOTOGRAPHERS |
Matthew L. Wittenrich, Vince Suh
TRANSLATOR | Mary Bailey
ART DIRECTOR | Linda Provost
PRODUCTION MANAGER | Anne Linton Elston
ASSOCIATE EDITORS |
Louise Watson, Alexander Bunten,
Bayley R. Lawrence
EDITORIAL & BUSINESS OFFICES
Reef to Rainforest Media, LLC
140 Webster Road | PO Box 490
Shelburne, VT 05482
Tel: 802.985.9977 | Fax: 802.497.0768
CUSTOMER SERVICE 570.567.0424
ADVERTISING SALES |
James Lawrence | 802.985.9977 Ext. 7
james.lawrence@coralmagazine-us.com
BUSINESS OFFICE |
NEWSSTAND | Howard White & Associates
PRINTING |
CORAL ® , The Reef & Marine Aquarium Magazine,
(ISSN:1556-5769) is published bimonthly in January,
March, May, July, September, and November by Reef
to Rainforest Media, LLC, 140 Webster Road, PO Box
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POSTMASTER: Send address changes to CORAL,
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CORAL ® is a licensed edition of KORALLE Germany,
ISSN:1556-5769
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All rights reserved. Reproduction of any material from this
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COVER:
Redeye Goby (Bryaninops natans),
photo by Inken Krause.
BACKGROUND:
Zooantids
(unidentified), photo by
Daniel Knop.
4
LETTER FROM EUROPE by Daniel Knop
7 EDITOR’S PAGE by James M. Lawrence
8 LETTERS
10 REEF NEWS
22 RARITIES by Scott W. Michael
The Dragon Moray (Enchelycore pardalis)
34 VIEWPOINT: THE AQUARIUM ARK by Matt Pedersen
FEATURE ARTICLES
48 PYGMY GOBIES
by Daniel Knop
56 PYGMY GOBIES: DIVERSITY AND AQUARIUM HUSBANDRY
by Inken Krause
70 OVERVIEW: PYGMY GOBIES IN THE SEA AND THE AQUARIUM
by Inken Krause
72 THE ELDERS
How long can a coral live?
by Ronald L. Shimek, Ph.D.
86 LONG ISLAND GOLD RUSH
by Todd Gardner
94 CUBA’S UNDERWATER PARADISE:
LOS JARDINES DE LA REINA
Part 1: Picturebook Caribbean reefs by Werner Fiedler
100 SUCCESSFUL BREEDING OF THE
YELLOW-BANDED PIPEFISH (Doryrhamphus pessuliferus)
by Inken Krause
AQUARIUM PORTRAIT
105 AN ENERGY-SAVING SWISS AQUARIUM
Created by Rueda Furter and Brigitte Utz
by Inken Krause
DEPARTMENTS
115 SPECIES SPOTLIGHT:
The Ambon Scorpionfish by Daniel Knop
121 REEFKEEPING 101:
Marine substrates by Daniel Knop
126 CORALEXICON: Technical terms that appear in this issue
128 RETAIL SOURCES: Outstanding aquarium shops
130 ADVANCED AQUATICS:
Behind the scenes: mammoth reef, mammoth challenges
by J. Charles Delbeek
134 ADVERTISER INDEX
136 REEF LIFE: by Denise Nielsen Tackett and Larry P. Tackett
www.CoralMagazine-US .com

LETTER
Inotes from DANIEL KNOP
s bigger really better and more interesting?
Not necessarily—tiny can
often win hands down! And that applies
not only to gobies, not even just
to aquarium occupants in general,
but also to the aquariums in which
we keep these dwarfs. Sometimes less
really is more.
Granted, you have to look very closely
to appreciate dwarf gobies, but on the
other hand, you notice more when you
look closely. A coral fish doesn’t have
to be big to be fascinating and striking.
It’s true that it is difficult to miss a large
lemon yellow or royal blue surgeonfish
swimming around the aquarium, but a
pair of Gobiodon gobies 1.2 inches (30
mm) long, resting immobile on their bellies among the
branches of a stony coral—that’s something else again.
Happy reading!
Their size is undoubtedly part of their
survival strategy—the smaller you are
the more difficult it is for predators to
see you. But from the aquarist’s point
of view, it is all too easy for dwarf gobies
to come to grief in an aquarium
of normal size.
It is much better to keep these tiny
fishes in a small tank, where there
is less to distract us from them and
we are more focused. In a large reef
aquarium a pair of 0.75-inch (20-
mm) Bryaninops gobies are no more
than a minor detail, but in a nano
tank they are the main attraction, and
their true charm becomes apparent.
FOCUS: BREATHER
This picture of a young clownfish, nestling safe from
attack among the sheltering tentacles of its host
anemone, conveys an impression of security. But the
sense of peace is deceptive, as the little fish is quite
out of breath, gasping for air—or should I say water?
For several days it has been engaged
in strenuous “virtual” battles that last
for hours.
This fish lived in a sales tank in an
aquarium store, and the neighboring
tank was home to a belligerent Maroon
Clownfish (Premnas biaculeatus),
about the same size, that repeatedly
sallied forth from its host anemone,
seeking to provoke a fight. Only a few
seconds before this photo was taken,
the two had finally become exhausted
after confronting each other violently all day through
the glass, with only short intervals of peace.
This Twoband Anemonefish now lives in a reef
aquarium, where it has a partner and a new host
anemone.
—Daniel Knop
A small Twoband Anemonefish
(Amphiprion bicinctus) nestling among
the tentacles of its host Long Tentacle
Anemone (Macrodactyla doreensis).
4 CORAL

CORAL
5

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getting a species out of the endangered zone
For a fish that was supposed to be the marine equivalent
of the guppy, the Banggai Cardinalfish has proved
itself to be an enigma. We were fortunate
enough to obtain one of the first pairs of Pterapogon
kauderni imported following the species’ introduction
to the aquarium world by Dr. Gerry Allen at MACNA
VII in Louisville in 1995. Placed in a small desktop
aquarium for observation, they spawned within a month
and the male went on a food fast, brooding a mouthful
of eggs. There were but 17 fry—tiny, perfect replicas of
their parents on the day they emerged—but they did not
hesitate to attack and eat frozen Artemia nauplii.
We assumed that home breeders would embrace the
species, then selling for princely sums, and that every local
fish store would soon have local suppliers of captivebred
Banggai Cardinalfishes.
Seventeen years later, nothing of the sort has come to
pass, and in 2007 Pterapogon kauderni was placed on the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Red List of endangered species. With the 2011 publication
of The Banggai Cardinalfish: Natural History, Conservation,
and Culture of Pterapogon kauderni (Wiley,
2011), Dr. Alejandro Vagelli squarely blamed the marine
aquarium trade, amateur aquarists, and the “aquarium
media” for dramatically reducing wild populations of the
fish, even completely wiping it out in some locations.
After reading his damning words and the dismaying
Red List reports, we made a personal resolution to respond.
Dr. Vagelli’s work has been questioned by some,
but we learned from wildlife conservation sources working
in the Banggai Islands that there are, indeed, problems
in the aquarium fishery there that need addressing.
Dr. Allen himself did some the field work that led to the
species’ endangered listing, and he believes that corrective
actions are warranted.
It turns out that others were ready to act as well. The
Rising Tide Conservation Initiative, led by Dr. Judy St.
Leger and in concert with the Association of Zoos and
Aquariums, is targeting P. kauderni as one of five popular
aquarium species that need to be aquacultured commercially
to take the pressure off wild populations.
A group of marine biologists and fisheries scientists
at the University of Florida’s Tropical Aquaculture Lab
(TAL) at Ruskin have already started to turn the Rising
Tide goals into realities. Under the direction of aquaculturist
Craig Watson, M.Aq., who is the director of the
lab, Matthew Wittenrich, Ph.D., had been looking into
the challenges of Banggai Cardinalfish culture.
His colleague, fish veterinarian Dr. Roy Yanong, had
been researching the puzzling mass deaths of so many
wild-caught Banggais being brought into the U.S. His lab
found an iridovirus in samples of dead fish from a group
of 1,000 broodstock specimens bought by a U.S. commercial
aquaculture operation. All 1,000 had died of the
disease.
When looking for assistance in funding a TAL research
expedition to the Banggai Islands, Drs. Wittenrich
and Yanong contacted this magazine. We immediately
said yes, not quite sure where this small company,
still in its launch phase and experiencing everyday growing
pains, would find the money. We decided to embed
journalist and CORAL senior editor Ret Talbot in the
expedition and to invite Matt Pedersen, senior editor
and an accomplished home-scale breeder, to work on a
new guide for a species that had proved uncooperative
for many would-be hobbyist breeders. Plans were quickly
made to produce a series of magazine articles and a definitive
book. But how to fund all of this?
Enter Kickstarter, a radical new “crowd-funding”
tool for creative projects in need of unconventional support.
Thanks largely to the generous and enthusiastic
support of CORAL readers, advertisers, and supporters,
we have just succeeded in exceeding our funding goals
after a month of seeking backers for the project.
All of us involved in this believe there is no single solution
to the problems that have beset the Banggai Cardinalfish.
Our goals are to help foster a healthier, more
sustainable fishery for wild specimens, to find protocols
for commercial-scale mariculture and aquaculture, to
establish better methods for hobbyists wishing to breed
this species to meet local demands, and to publish the
whole story and all of the lessons learned in CORAL and
in the Banggai project book. In this, we value the interest,
suggestions, criticisms, and involvement of the entire
CORAL community.
James Lawrence
www.banggai-rescue.com
CORAL
7

correspondence from our readers
THE THREAT OF TANKED
I think that Mr. Mark Grabow, in his answer to my letter
about [the TV show] Tanked, is indeed missing the whole
point. (January/February CORAL Letters.)
The more we learn about the animals we keep, the
more we know that an aquarium is much more than
simple “laboratory” equipment in which we just need to
keep proper salinity, oxygen, pH, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
No matter how pristine your tank chemistry, stress
will be a serious issue unless the
environment has the required
“complexity” of the animals’ natural
habitats. And stress will lead
to disease and early death.
Moreover, those disgusting
posh fishbowls offer no educational
value at all. It is completely
impossible to observe anything
resembling the natural behavior
of a fish inside those phone
booths and gimmick-filled boxes.
Which of course leads to the attacks
to which aquarium keeping
is being subject right now.
Aquarium keeping can be
done in an ethical way. Aquarium
keeping can have an outstanding
educational value. But of course
I am speaking about aquariums,
not bizarre fish bowls. Tanked is
a real threat, maybe one of the
worst, to the credibility of aquarium keepers and the
whole aquarium industry.
Borje Markos
Algorta, Vizcaya, Spain
ZEN & THE ART OF AQUARIUMS
My husband and I were excited to hear of the Animal
Planet show Tanked from a non-aquarist neighbor, but
were very disappointed once we actually saw it. Tanked
more closely resembled a slap-dash DIY home remodeling
segment than an educational and environmentally
responsible introduction to the hobby we love.
We wondered what sort of hefty service contracts the
obviously wealthy clients of Tanked had agreed to pay for.
Obviously they knew nothing about their new equipment
or the new creatures in their care. Would they be
willing to take care of it all, or would they would simply
throw money at their cool new piece of “aquarium furniture”
by paying someone else to deal with the upkeep?
We decided they’d definitely pay.
While I was watching the first episode, the book Zen
and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance came to mind. The
book explains that having a motorcycle requires a steady
commitment to continually educate yourself in order to
understand the complex details of its essence. Gaining
understanding is part of the joy of ownership, and only
comes from time spent in handson
experience. We think having
a marine aquarium brings the
same responsibilities to its owner.
It would be interesting to see
some expert, one-on-one maintenance
mentoring in Tanked, but
instead, we get the “wow factor”
of flashy set-ups and super-fast
installations. This show, now
starting a second season, was
produced for our debatable entertainment
pleasure, not to promote
the love of nature or good
husbandry.
If Animal Planet had simply
stuck to what has made other
nature shows great (The Undersea
World of Jacques Cousteau, Wild
Kingdom, Nova), the result would
have been of much better quality
and much more interesting.
We are in complete agreement with the sentiments
expressed by reader Borje Markos and feel that Tanked
casts us all in a very unfavorable light.
Dianne Krogh
Oak Harbor, Washington
MARINE BREEDERS INVITATION
Kudos to CORAL for the excellent cover stories on breeding
successes in the March/April issue. Serious and
would-be breeders are invited to attend the 3rd Annual
Marine Breeders Initiative Workshop on July 28 at the
Cranbrook Institute of Science in Bloomfield Hills, MI.
Tal Sweet
www.mbiworkshop.com
Readers are invited to write the Editor:
Editors@CoralMagazine-US.com
8 CORAL

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before you buy! What it is, what it eats, if it’s
social, even where it came from and when it
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Visit www.qualitymarine.com for more information

NEWS
findings and happenings of note in the marine world
Remembering Bill Addison:
“Fishes would see him and spawn”
It was on the evening of February 17th that we received
word from long-time fish breeder and friend Joe Lichtenbert.
“Some very sad news,” wrote Lichtenbert. “Bill passed
away in his sleep last night…. Although Bill suffered
from diabetes requiring daily injections, pretty bad arthritis,
and macular degeneration, he never complained.
His famous words of wisdom were ‘So be it!’
“Bill was a WWII vet. His personal exploits would
make you proud to be an American. The family is not
planning any of the normal services. Instead, he will be
cremated and his ashes will be spread across the mountain
passes in his home state of Wyoming that he so
loved. I, and the world, have lost a great and inspirational
man.”
William Middleton Addison’s obituary was published
on February 22 in the Platte County Record-Times
and gives us insights beyond the man who was known in
the aquarium world as Bill Addison, pioneering marine
fish breeder and founder of C-Quest Hatchery.
In his 85 years of life, Addison accomplished and
saw more than most, and as Matthew L. Wittenrich retells
it,“He dug his first uranium mine by hand, amassed
a collection of antique cars, and set up a tropical fruit
plantation in Central America and a fish hatchery in
Puerto Rico.”
Indeed, Addision served in World War II as a Marine,
returning afterward to graduate from high school
and attend college. He married his wife, Arline, in 1952.
Addison mined uranium and, later, white marble in
Wyoming. Ultimately, Addison sold the mining business
to pursue his other interests, including the C-Quest
Marine breeding
pioneer Bill Addison
at his C-Quest
hatchery.
M.L. WITTENRICH
10 CORAL

Hatchery in Puerto Rico, which was moved to Wyoming
in 2010, as reported on Reefbuilders.com in August 2010.
C-Quest, founded in 1988, is the oldest operating
marine ornamental fish hatchery in the country. In
1997, Joyce Wilkerson wrote an extensive piece about the
C-Quest facility in Puerto Rico. The author of Clownfishes
(Microcosm, 1998), Wilkerson worked with Bill
Addison for a number of years before her death in 2007.
It is interesting to note Wilkerson’s concern over the
loss of several hatcheries in the late 1990s, leaving only
C-Quest and Joe Lichtenbert’s Reef Propagations, Inc.
producing captive-bred marine fish for the aquarium industry.
These businesses fought an uphill battle for profitability
that seems to rage on today.
When Lichtenbert retired in 2010, only C-Quest was
left standing from that early era. C-Quest, now under
the leadership of Addison’s daughter, Katy, continues to
operate, continually extending the longevity record for a
commercial marine ornamental hatchery.
—Matt Pedersen & the staff of CORAL
Keep your eyes open at the fish market!
If you want to discover a new fish species, you don’t necessarily
have to go diving in the depths of the ocean.
Sometimes it is enough to take a look at the offerings of
a fish market, as species unknown to science have been
found there astonishingly frequently. However, to spot
such fishes you need not only an extensive knowledge
of the fish groups in question but a well-trained eye for
detail.
For example, a group of taxonomists were recently
wandering around at the Tashi Fish Market in northeastern
Taiwan. They were primarily looking for freshly
landed sharks to compare with preserved material caught
decades previously, in order to check for changes that
had occurred. But what they actually discovered was a
basket containing sharks of the order Squaliformes that
even they, as experts, couldn’t identify. Male and female
specimens were taken back to the research laboratory
and examined in detail. The scientists established that
the fishes were strikingly different from the new species
previously known. This ultimately led to the scientific
description of the species as Squalus formosus, with the
species epithet formosus referring to the former name
of Taiwan: Ilha Formosa, which is the Portuguese for
“beautiful island.”
That this was no isolated case is illustrated by the famous
discovery made by the South African lay biologist
Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer. On December 23, 1938,
she found an unusual fish, 59 inches (150 cm) long, in a
large catch of fishes. She immediately realized that it had
to be a species that science had previously regarded as extinct:
the coelacanth. This is an ancient fish with fleshy
Nadelkopf?
The influence of German on reef aquarium
keeping is evident in the use of words like
“Kalkwasser.” But something gets lost in
the translation when you talk about a pin
cap in German. Like “pinhead” in English,
“nadelkopf” is slang for “stupid person.”
A pin cap on a glue dispensing bottle is
not a stupid idea. On the contrary, it’s one
of those handy Little details that’s pretty
clever. Next time you need a big quantity
of adhesive for your aquascaping and
coral fragging activities, just reach for our
CorAffixPro, ten ounces of fast-curing,
easy to use, ultra pure cyanoacrylate gel
with a 2 year shelf life, and a pin cap
to keep the tip from clogging.
Need something big?
Think Little.
www.twolittlefishies.com
12 CORAL

Keep your eyes open at the fish
market, as species unknown to science
can turn up there.
D. KNOP
fins that it can use alternately
when swimming, which may have
facilitated its descendants moving
onto land. For this reason is
has been surmised that this fish
and terrestrial vertebrates share a
common ancestor that represents
the transition from aquatic to terrestrial
vertebrates. As head of the
Museum of Marine Biology in the
South African town of East London,
Courtenay-Latimer was able
to select interesting specimens
for her museum from every major
catch made locally, even before it was offered for sale in
the fish market. She attempted to preserve this rare specimen
as a matter of urgency by wrapping it in formalinsoaked
cloths, and she made a drawing of it. When it was
subsequently scientifically described, the genus newly
erected for the fish, Latimeria, was named in her honor
and the species after the place where it was discovered
(chalumnae). It wasn’t until 1987 that the German biologist
and animal photographer Professor Hans Fricke discovered
the natural habitat of the coelacanth.
In 1997 and 1998 the German biologist Dr. Mark
Erdmann and his wife, still students at the time, created
a further sensation by discovering dead coelacanths
at a fish market in Manado at the northernmost tip of
Sulawesi (Indonesia), around 6,200 miles (10,000 km)
from the spot where Latimeria chalumnae was originally
discovered. Professor Fricke began a new underwater
search there and eventually tracked down this second
CORAL
13

The coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae—this is
a plastic model—was discovered by Marjorie
Courtenay-Latimer at a fish market.
Latimeria species, the Manado Coelacanth
(Latimeria menadoensis), in its
natural habitat. So far more than 500 live
coelacanths have been found and many
of them have been intensively observed
and studied. So, keep your eyes open at
the fish market!
—Daniel Knop
REFERENCES:
White, W.T. and S.P. Iglesias. 2011. Squalus
formosus, a new species of spurdog shark
(Squaliformes: Squalidae) from the western
North Pacific Ocean. J Fish Biol, doi:10.1111/j.
1095-8649.2011.03068.x
Acidification
of the Mediterranean
The world’s seas absorb around a quarter
of the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions
that result from the use of fossil
fuels and deforestation. That represents
around a million tons of carbon dioxide
per hour. This leads to changes in the
chemical composition of the seas, in particular
an increase in acidity. The increase
poses a threat to the organisms that form
skeletons or shells of calcium carbonate—corals
and mollusks, for example.
Jean-Pierre Gattuso of the Laboratory for
Oceanography in Villefranche-sur-mer
(CNRS/UPMC) and his colleagues have
conducted an international study on this
theme. The results have been published in
the journal Nature Climate Change.
The researchers chose corals, crustaceans,
and mollusks from around the
island of Ischia (Gulf of Naples, Italy),
as the water there is already excessively
acidified by natural sources of CO 2 as a
D. KNOP
14 CORAL

The warming of the seas is not the only cause of the demise of numerous calcium
carbonate–forming organisms. Decreasing pH is an additional factor.
Calcium carbonate–forming organisms such as
corals and mollusks (this is the Green Chiton,
Chiton olivaceus) are reaching their limits of
tolerance with regard to ocean warming. The
concomitant decrease in pH often results in
mass die-offs.
D. KNOP
result of the volcanic activity of Mount
Vesuvius. Using radioactive isotopes, they
were able to show that calcium carbonate
production by these organisms is possible
even at the acidity level expected for the
year 2100 (pH 7.8, compared to a current
pH of 8.1). The tissue and the organic
layers that coat the skeletons and shells
of these organisms play an important
role in protecting their calcium carbonate
structures. The parts that aren’t protected
by tissue or organic molecules are
more vulnerable and dissolve rapidly, depending
on the acidity of the water. The
researchers demonstrated that resistance
is significantly reduced the longer these
organisms are exposed to unusually high
temperatures (83.3°F [28.5°C]). Thus
their mortality rate rises in line with the
acidity.
Some marine invertebrates are already
living at temperatures close to their
limits of tolerance, and this periodically
leads to mass die-offs. The combination
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or go to www.cprusa.com
CORAL
15

of the warming of the Mediterranean and the acidification
of its water will lead to a further increase in this
phenomenon.
—IDW/Marie de Chalup
REFERENCES
Rodolfo-Metalpa, R. et al. 2011. Coral and mollusc resistance to
ocean acidification adversely affected by warming. Nature Clim
Change 1: 308–312.
300 little giant octopuses
The sight of the 300 recently hatched larvae of the Giant
Pacific Octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) in the Vancouver
Aquarium Marine Science Center engenders
mixed feelings. The reproduction of
animals in captivity is usually a reason
for celebration, but this case is different
for two reasons. First, these mollusks are
relatively short-lived (their natural life
span is only three to five years), and they
typically die after breeding. The male dies
shortly after mating with the female, and
she survives only till the young hatch at
the end of the punishing brooding phase,
during which she takes no food. That is
what happened to Vancouver’s male, and
the female was expected to die as soon as
her young had hatched.
The second reason is
that it is really difficult
to rear the larvae of this
species. It has proved possible
to get them past the
planktonic stage on one
or two occasions, but this
phase lasts an extremely
long time (7–10 months),
and losses are enormous during this period,
even with optimal maintenance. Of
course, the staff at the aquarium will do
everything in their power to rear at least a
few of the larvae, if only to broaden their
knowledge of breeding cephalopods. They
are all prepared for some exciting months
of very hard work and happy to take up
the challenge, but their expectation of
success is not very high.
Enteroctopus dofleini lives in the cool
waters of the northern Pacific between
California and Japan. It is the largest of
all the octopuses; its body attains around
24 inches (60 cm) in diameter and the
arms about 80 inches (200 cm) in length,
although the literature is full of gross exaggerations
regarding length and body
mass, such as an overall span of 30 feet
(9 m) or a weight of up to 660 pounds
(300 kg). As a rule they attain around
100 pounds (45 kg), although they can
get up to 165 pounds (75 kg). The largest
specimens weighed supposedly tipped the
scales at 300 and 401 pounds (136 and
182 kg).
In summer the adults migrate to
deeper water to mate; in autumn the females
return to shallow water to produce
their clutches, which typically consist of
20,000–70,000 eggs, sometimes up to
100,000. The female guards her eggs con-
16 CORAL

Enteroctopus dofleini is the
largest species of octopus
known, shown here in the
aquarium with chilled water.
The tentacles of
Enteroctopus dofleini.
D. KNOP
tinuously until they hatch and, as mentioned earlier, takes no food during
this period. Her genetic programming dictates the approaching end of her
life, so it would be counter-productive to leave the eggs in order to go hunting
and feed. The number of larvae that hatch appears to be significantly higher
when the female octopus sacrifices herself to guard her clutch permanently
than is the case when the eggs are incubated separately.
—Daniel Knop
REFERENCES
Norman, M. 2000. Tintenfisch-Führer—Kraken, Argonauten, Sepien, Kalmare, Nautiliden.
Jahr Verlag, Hamburg, Germany.
CORAL
17

Parenting comes at a price for male
cardinalfish
Being a great father can mean starving to protect the
kids, putting up with a jealous spouse and, often, dying
young—at least, if you are a marine cardinalfish.
A survival strategy that has been a triumphant success
for cardinalfishes for going on 50 million years
could come unstuck due to rapid global warming, say
scientists from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral
Reef Studies and James Cook University.
“We studied how cardinalfishes have evolved over
millions of years and found that these mouthbrooders
haven’t changed much. Their jaw cavities have become
larger for keeping more young in their mouths, and their
colors are different, but that’s about it,” explains Professor
David Bellwood, a researcher in the study.
While other fishes have evolved by changing shape
and broadening their diet, the mouthbrooding fishes remain
simple feeders that eat mainly plankton. This can
be bad news when food is scarce.
With a lifespan of about two years, cardinalfishes
breed several times a year, mostly in summer. Instead
of laying thousands of eggs in a batch as other fishes do,
they lay hundreds of slightly larger eggs. When the female
releases the eggs, the male gathers them into a tight
bundle, which he keeps safe in his mouth for a couple
of weeks until the young hatch and become
free-swimming.
“These eggs occupy up to 100 percent
of the oral cavity, and the dad’s
mouth expands and looks like a large
bubble,” says Dr. Andrew Hoey, who
conducted the study. It’s a wonder that
they can even breathe. They don’t feed,
but live on stored energy and stay sedentary
in and around corals.
“The females play the role of jealous
wives. They stay close to the males,
not to help rear the kids, but to prevent
other females from swimming off with
such a desirable mate. Our guess is
these stay-at-home dads are very much
in demand.”
Although the 50-million-year-old
breeding technique has proved successful
so far, providing large and happy
families for cardinalfishes, their future
is looking grim, Bellwood says.
Apart from being left behind in
terms of evolution, mouthbrooding
makes them more vulnerable to the effects
of climate change. “As ocean temperatures
warm, these fishes will need to
breathe more, and having a mouthful of
offspring will hinder their ability to take
in oxygen.” The other problem is the increasing
lack of shelter as corals around
the world die from bleaching and disease—cardinalfishes
are popular prey for
larger predatory fishes like coral trout.
“These fishes are very attached to
their homes; they like to stay under
branching corals, and they come back to
the same little patch day after day,” Bellwood
says. He points out that branching
corals are one of the types that are most
vulnerable to climate change, so if they
perish as a result of bleaching or disease,
the cardinalfishes will be exposed and
18 CORAL

Above: A male cardinalfish Siphamia
argentea carries its young in its mouth.
Right: Small eyes look out from the safety
of a parent’s mouth: do cardinalfishes pay a
price for good parenting? A male brooding
Cheilodipterus sp.
vulnerable. “When the coral cover declines,
they’re going to be homeless, just
sitting there with babies in their mouths
and struggling to breathe. Their problems
will be exacerbated by a shortage
of food because of their narrow diets. In
short, these stay-at-home dads have sacrificed
job options, and even their lives,
to provide top-notch parental care for
their young. Just imagine what your life
would be like if you had a toddler hanging
from your teeth!
“This has proved a highly successful
survival strategy for 50 million years, but
under rapid global warming, there is a big
risk it could come unstuck. This is another
example of the profound impact that
humans are having on life on Earth.”
KORALIA &
SMARTWAVE
CONTROLLER
P U M P
RUDIE KUITER
REFERENCES:
The paper, “To feed or to breed:
morphological constraints of
mouthbrooding in coral reef cardinalfishes,”
by Andrew S. Hoey, David R. Bellwood, and
Adam Barnett, appears in Proceedings of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
ON THE INTERNET:
Hoey, A.S., D.R. Bellwood, and A. Barnett.
2012. Proceedings of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences, 2/8/12:
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/
content/early/2012/02/06/rspb.2011.2679/
suppl/DC1
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CORAL
19

Inspired
by Mother
Nature.
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Swiss or Hairy Commensal Shrimp—Sandimenes hirsutus
It’s difficult to think of anything more unusual: this tiny partner shrimp
from the South Pacific was previously completely unknown to us, and even
the Internet has very few pictorial references for Sandimenes hirsutus. The
specimen pictured here was probably an accidental import to Switzerland,
where I found it at SwissAquaristik. In the absence of any alternative, and not
entirely seriously, I have permitted myself to name it the Swiss Commensal
Shrimp because of its bright red body color with white lines, the colors of the
Swiss flag. Formerly known as Periclimenes hirsutus, this little shrimp, barely
0.75 inches (2 cm) long, was given its own genus in 2009 to recognize the
unusual tufts of setae on its body and appendages. It probably lives commensally
with sea urchins in its natural habitat, possibly with the poisonous and
equally attractive red Astropyga radiata.
—Inken Krause
ON THE INTERNET:
http://www.chucksaddiction.com/car042.html
20 CORAL
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CORAL
21

Text & images by SCOTT W. MICHAEL
Exquisite example
of a Dragon Moray,
Enchelycore pardalis, in
the Izu Islands, Japan.
The Dragon Moray
Enchelycore pardalis
There may be no other fish on a coral reef that is as menacing
and beautiful as the Dragon Moray (Enchelycore
pardalis). With its curved jaws, ever-bared teeth, and
flaring, horn-like nostrils, it gives the impression that it
is waiting for a chance to strike, to sink its razor-sharp
fangs into you—or some unsuspecting fish passing by.
But this malevolent countenance is offset by an alluring
color pattern that includes dark-edged spots,
bands, and, in some individuals, flaming orange pigment
that would make any designer of Aloha Hawaiian
shirts proud. Its relative rarity in areas where most fish
collecting occurs, as well as its ornate physique and the
resulting demand for it among advanced aquarists, has
made the Dragon Moray a pricey acquisition. But unlike
some of the rarest, most unique marine species, such
as the Rhinopias scorpionfish (see CORAL, March/April
2012), this animal is relatively easy to keep and can live
for many years in captivity.
Here we will look at the scant information available
on the natural history of this distinctive moray, as well
as explore how to best keep this muraenid beauty in your
home aquarium.
DRAGONS IN THE FIELD
Relatively little is known about the life history of Enchelycore
pardalis. It is wide-ranging, occurring from Zanzibar
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CORAL
23

off the coast of East Africa, east to the Hawaiian and
Marquesas Islands, north to southern Japan, and south
to New Caledonia, off northeastern Australia. But while
it has an expansive distribution, it is reportedly scarce
over much of its known range. I had been diving for decades
before encountering one of these amazing morays
in situ. It wasn’t for lack of trying—they are just not that
common in the areas where most people go to observe
and photograph fishes.
Then I was asked to escort
a good friend of mine, underwater
photographer extraordinaire
Roger Steene, to Osezaki
and the Izu Islands in Japan.
On my first shore dive at Osezaki,
I saw a relatively blandcolored
E. pardalis and was
“gutted” when I realized I was
out of film (yes, it was back
in the age of film, which some
of us still refuse to let fade).
Although it had been an excellent
dive prior to this moment,
I came out of the water
grumbling, because I was sure
I had missed my only opportunity
to photograph this eel
in the wild. But, boy, was I
wrong! Over the next several
weeks we saw more than 50
Dragon Morays. In fact, this
species, along with the Kidako
Moray (Gymnothorax kidako),
were the most common muraenids
we encountered.
In southern Japan, the
preferred habitat of E. pardalis
is boulder-strewn bottoms.
They refuge within the interstices
among large corallineencrusted
boulders. During
my weeks in southern Japan,
I also saw these morays partially
hidden between smaller
rocks, in crevices under limestone
overhangs, and in large
fissures in large rocky pinnacles
and outcroppings. In
other locations (for instance,
in the Hawaiian Islands), they
are reported to live among
branching Porites corals.
In the majority of cases,
only the head of the Dragon
is seen protruding from its
refuge. It is likely that most
relocation and hunting occurs after dark. The younger
E. pardalis are apparently even more cryptic than larger
conspecifics—they are rarely seen or collected. Off southern
Japan, I observed the Dragon Moray at depths of 5
to 88 feet (1.5 to 27 m); however, it has been reported
down to depths of 163 feet (50 m). Hawaiian underwater
photographers Keoki and Yuko Stender say the species
is “relatively rare at scuba depths around the main
Dragon Moray sharing its
lair with a Banded Coral
Shrimp. Note the eel’s
jaws, which become more
elongated as it grows.
24 CORAL

Hawaiian Islands, but common in the cooler waters of
the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.”
These eels usually live a solitary life style. While I
never saw them sharing a “hide,” I occasionally have
found more than one within “spitting distance” of others.
Nothing is known about the spawning behavior of
this eel, nor is information available on its diet in the
wild. The large mouth and long, sharp teeth are indicative
of a piscivorous diet. There are also reports in the
popular literature, including my own book (Michael
1998), that this species relishes cephalopods (namely,
octopuses). While this is likely, once again I have yet to
find food habit studies that confirm it.
These morays may look too fearsome for most predators
to tackle, but young Dragons are eaten by sea kraits
(Laticauda spp.). These amphibious snakes have small
heads, which they use to probe into reef crevices and
holes and extract hiding morays. In fact, there are a
number of species in the genus Laticauda that specialize
in eating conger and moray eels.
DRAGON CARE
As noted above, price will dissuade most aquarists from
keeping one of these eels, but for those who are willing
to drop some Benjamins, there are some things you
will want to bear in mind before making the investment.
One of the first things to consider is whether you are going
to keep the eel on its own or with other fishes. I think
these eels are spectacular enough to hold
their own in a species aquarium. You
will want to house a solitary, full-grown
E. pardalis in a tank of 75 to 135 gallons
(284–511 L).
If you are going to keep your Dragon
with other fishes, it is imperative that
the tank be large enough and that you
select tankmates very carefully. This is
important not only for the well-being of
the moray’s tankmates, but also for the
Dragon itself. You need a tank of at least
180 gallons (681 L) for a fish community
tank that contains a medium-sized E.
pardalis. If you have a full-grown Dragon
Moray, the tank should be even larger
(minimum of 240 gallons, or 908 L). The
more room there is, the more likely the
eel and its tankmates are going to live in
harmony. Of course, in addition to a sizable
aquarium, the moray and its tankmates
will need adequate filtration to
handle the bioload.
Larger fishes make the best Dragon
neighbors—the body depth of the potential
tankmates should be at least twice
that of the eel’s girth. Possible Dragon
tankmates include groupers, snappers,
grunts, sweetlips, batfishes, large surgeonfishes,
and rabbitfishes. Dragons do
have a mixed reputation when it comes to
“playing well with others.” For example,
the company I work for keeps a 30-inch
(76-cm) Dragon in a large tank with medium-to-large
fishes, and it rarely, if ever,
has caused problems. In fact, we have not
been able to attribute any fish death to
the eel.
That said, I have seen them knock off
or injure sizable piscine tankmates. I certainly
wouldn’t trust this moray enough
to keep it with a prized Pygmy Angelfish
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Dragon Moray: colors can
range from bright orange
to muted brown and tan
tones.
or fairy wrasse. Long, skinny fish are certainly going to be
ingested by your moray. Also remember that morays often
cue in on and attack fishes that are injured or stressed.
In the case of larger fishes, a Dragon Moray may engage
in “knotting” behavior, which looks similar to a python
constricting its prey. This enables the eel to compress the
prey item’s body so it can swallow it whole, or, if it is too
large to ingest, to rip chunks from the larger prey item.
Beware: some large fish species that are often considered
suitable Dragon neighbors may turn the tables and injure
your moray. Large triggers, puffers (Arothron spp.), and
porcupinefishes have been known to bite at morays—especially
at a tail protruding from the rockwork.
What about keeping a Dragon with other morays?
This is potentially risky, but less so than housing them
with other fishes. There are other morays that will eat
Dragon Morays, namely the Honeycomb Moray (Gymnothorax
favagineus) and the Spotted Moray (G. moringa).
Dragon Morays are not likely to eat other morays,
but they may bite at them when defending a preferred
refuge or competing for food. Their large teeth can inflict
serious wounds on other eels. Morays introduced after
a Dragon Moray has made itself at home are especially
likely to end up with some puncture wounds, but even
resident morays may elicit this eel’s wrath if they are slow
to give up a preferred hiding place. I have seen other eels
that were nearly as long as the Dragon Moray (and well
established in the tank before the E. pardalis was added)
flee to the upper corner of the tank when threatened by
one of these menacing-looking beasts. The threat display
of the Dragon Moray is spectacular—it opens its jaws as
wide as possible, laterally flattens the gill region, cocks its
head to one side, and erects its dorsal fin. The key to keeping
it with other morays is to provide plenty of hiding
places. This means more than one for each moray kept.
Like most morays, the Dragon wants an appropriate
hide in which to refuge during the day. The size of the
caves and crevices are obviously a function of the eel’s
girth and length, so you will have to construct hiding
places accordingly. I am all about natural, so I like to use
live rock (or some of the beautiful faux rock that looks
as though it is encrusted with coralline algae) to create
28 CORAL

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30 CORAL

eef structure. One thing to keep in mind when creating
a Dragon lair is that they have been known to dig under
rockwork by rapidly swishing the tail back and forth,
causing unstable rockwork to cave in. If the rocks are
large enough, they could harm the moray when they collapse.
Place the rockwork on the bottom of the tank (not
on top of the sand bed), using cable ties and putty epoxy
to create sturdy hides. (The Real Reef company creates
awesome-looking rock that looks coralline-encrusted
and is bioactive. They can custom-make fantastic, sturdy
caves for your moray.) Some hardcore moray keepers
prefer PVC pipe of varying diameters. If your Dragon eel
is fully acclimated (eating voraciously), you can take out
some of the rockwork so you can better observe your muraenid
charge. I have seen individuals kept in tanks with
lots of faux coral that only showed themselves when
food was added to the tank.
A newly acquired Dragon Moray will spend much of
its time hiding within the structure of the reef. In fact, if
you have created suitable hiding places, you may not see
much of it for the first week or so. If a moray does not feel
comfortable, it is not likely to eat. So, if your new moray
is refusing food, you should provide more or better hiding
places in order to ensure it “feels” comfortable in its
new home. Other things that can cause fasting are poor
water quality, other fishes (puffers, triggers) picking at
the moray, or overfeeding for an extended period of time.
Long fasts are usually not a great cause of concern, but
it is not a bad idea to do a water change and try different
foods if the eel does not eat for more than a month.
Most Dragon Morays will eat non-living food. The
best foods are strips of fish flesh (such as smelt, orange
roughy, or haddock) and squid. Impale the food on the
end of a feeding stick (a length of rigid airline with a
sharpened end to pierce the food will do) and move it
in front of the eel’s head. One thing we moray lovers
are prone to doing that is not good for our eels is to
feed them too often. This leads to an accumulation of fat
that can affect liver function. Field studies suggest that
morays eat infrequently, so in order to prevent this condition
I recommend feeding your eel to satiation twice a
week. Also, an overfed moray may regurgitate its partially
digested meal, which can make a mess of your tank.
On rare occasions, a frisky Dragon Moray, possibly
incited by the presence of food, may snap at passing fish
(even those too large to swallow) and cause injuries. I
find that controlled food presentation—that is, putting
food in front of the moray’s face with tongs or a feeding
stick—is the best way to keep the eel calmer. Throwing
live feeder fish in the tank is more likely to make the
moray dart about and indiscriminately snap at passing
tankmates.
The Dragon Moray can be kept in a reef tank if you
are willing to put up with the mechanical damage it may
cause to your corals. The best way to prevent this is to
make sure the corals are firmly affixed to the larger rock-
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work. The Dragon Moray may also eat some motile invertebrates
(namely ornamental crustaceans), but they
can be kept with cleaner shrimps (Lysmata amboinensis,
L. debelius) and boxing shrimps (Stenopus hispidus). It is
best to acclimate these shrimps to the aquarium before
adding the moray.
PRECAUTIONS
A few final words of caution to anyone thinking about
keeping a moray: These animals are the Houdinis of the
bony fish world. They will slip out of any opening in the
aquarium top and end up dried up on the floor (possibly
many feet from their aquarium home). Larger individuals
have even been implicated in pushing the glass top
off a tank before making their escape. Any moray aquarium
should have a secure top with no escape holes; put
something heavy on the top (I have used dive weights) if
you are keeping a larger specimen. They have also been
known to slip into corner overflow boxes and wind up on
the pre-filter in the sump or in the sump itself.
Then there is the issue of being bitten by your pet
Dragon. This species is not known for aggressive behavior
in the wild, but it can inflict serious puncture and
slash wounds if not treated with respect. Any eel bite
wound should be cleaned and washed with warm water
and soap; rubbing alcohol and hydrogen peroxide are no
longer recommended for first aid treatment of cuts and
bites. You may wish to rinse the wound with a sterile saline
solution and use an antibiotic ointment or rinse. If
the bite is deep, medical attention should be sought. The
worst outcome from a minor moray bite is usually an
infection triggered by bacteria in the eel’s mouth; such
an infection can become serious or even prove fatal if
not treated.
Bites should be easy to avoid: never, ever hand-feed
an eel, and generally follow the rule about keeping your
hands out of the tank. Use long-handled tools to feed
and move items in the tank. If you need to reach in, consider
using a long-handled net of an appropriate size as a
screen to block the eel from attacking. Most eel bites in
aquariums result from the moray instinctively defending
its territory or mistaking a finger for a food item.
While they are not for everyone, a Dragon Moray can
make a stunning display animal and a fascinating pet.
If you take the necessary precautions and practice good
aquarium husbandry, your Dragon should happily dwell
in its aquarium lair for many years.
REFERENCES
Michael, S.W. 1998. Reef Fishes, Volume 1. Microcosm/TFH,
Neptune City, New Jersey.
ON THE INTERNET:
Keoki and Yuko Stender’s Marinelife Photography:
http://www.marinelifephotography.com/fishes/eels/
enchelycore-pardalis.htm
32 CORAL

thrIVE
CORAL
33

opinion by MATT PEDERSEN
POINT
The Aquarium Ark
Can marine aquarists provide a safety net
for endangered species and aquatic diversity?
The first time I publicly expressed my concerns for the future of coral
reefs, I got a bit choked up and teary-eyed. Standing in front of a small
gathering of marine fish breeders, I said that I wanted to make sure
my children, when I had them, would be able to experience the coral
reef life forms and species we all treasure. It was embarrassing—a guy
about to start his fourth decade on the planet, getting emotional in
front of a group of people he had just met.
The author with
an invasive
lionfish in the
Florida Keys.
Years later, I’m married and that hypothetical child is my son, Ethan. As the father of an
enchanting young soul whom I come to appreciate more each day, I ask myself again—will
it all be here when he’s old enough to appreciate it? The short answer is that it depends on
what we marine aquarists collectively do next.
With the cacophony of anti-marine-aquarium sentiment raging all over the country, it
is amazing to contemplate that there’s an entire “second” hobby out there that is at least 10
times bigger and easily more than twice as old, probably harvesting more wild fish (in volume)
each year than ours—yet no one is attacking it. Walk into any store that sells live
tropical aquarium fish and, chances are, you’ll be offered the opportunity to purchase
a species that is at risk, endangered, or even extinct in the wild. Yet there’s no public
outrage, no call to stop the trade in these fishes. You don’t need any special permits to
own them, and no one will hold you in contempt if you accidentally kill them.
Many freshwater fish species are being commercially bred on fish farms, most notably
in Southeast Asia and Florida. Other, less popular species are being bred by a few
individual aquarists who are working, without grants or funding of any sort, to preserve
our planet’s bioheritage. Some species owe their very existence to these volunteer
preservationists. In truth, the freshwater aquarium hobby and industry is a modernday
ark—the last chance for many fish species. What will the marine aquarium hobby
learn from all this?
IST
AQUARIUMS—LUXURIES FOR THE RICH?
There’s no question that keeping a home aquarium is a luxury. Think about it: if you’re
reading this, you probably live in one of the better-off areas of the world. You’re probably
not worried about where your next meal will come from or how you’ll pay for it.
In a world of humanitarian priorities, research funding goes to food-fish culture. We’re far
more concerned about putting protein in people’s bellies than putting fishes in their aquari-
Matt Pedersen is a CORAL senior editor and lives in Duluth, Minnesota.
MATTHEW L. WITTENRICH
34 CORAL

ILLUSTRATION: JOSHUA HIGHTER
ums. For many years now, active aquarists have sensed
that sooner or later, the marine aquarium industry
would become a target of off-kilter environmentalists.
Whether or not the aquarium industry is actually causing
problems, it is highly visible and completely unnecessary
for the basic daily survival of most human beings.
People connect with the fish we keep in our aquariums
on a very emotional level. Children don’t find
Bluefin Tuna particularly cute, but a clownfish stops
them in their tracks. So for someone looking to say they
did something to change the future of our oceans, the
marine aquarium industry—the purpose of which is to
put fishes in tanks just to look at them—makes the perfect
scapegoat. The activist who wants to think she did
something to help can sleep soundly at night, believing
that whether shutting down the aquarium fishery actually
changes anything or not, at least she tried.
AQUARIUMS AND REAL PEOPLE
If we dig deeper, we realize that the aquarium hobby is
not just a luxury pastime. Far from it: It is based on
a multi-million-dollar industry that provides incomes
for untold numbers of people. The indigenous collectors
of wild fishes for aquarium use derive an income from
the fishery that otherwise would be unavailable to them.
Catching damselfishes or wrasses, useless for food, puts
money into their meager household budgets to buy food
for their tables and school supplies for their kids.
Proponents of sustainable aquarium fisheries are
quick to point out that without these aquarium fisheries,
those collectors would turn to more destructive fishing
activities, such as “blast fishing” for edible species.
But despite the many benefits that humankind derives,
in the eyes of those who hate us the costs and possible
negative impacts of aquarium keeping are unjustified.
The truth is that for some fish species, aquariums
aren’t luxuries; they are saviors.
THE ARK IN THE AQUARIUM
Breeding is one of the cornerstones of the freshwater
aquarium hobby, and the majority of freshwater aquarium
fishes are now cultured. Many that are commonplace
in aquarium shops are threatened, endangered, or
even extinct in the wild.
The poster child is a fish I first learned about a few
years ago, the Redtail Shark (Epalzeorhynchos bicolor,
formerly Labeo bicolor). Up until recently, the IUCN Red
List considered this fish extinct in the wild. That status
has been changed to “critically endangered” for the moment—yet
you can walk into any tropical fish shop and
see several of these for sale. Large fish farms in Asia are
rearing huge numbers of this species.
Anti-aquarium activists hear a story like this and often
assume that the aquarium industry is to blame for
the demise of wild populations. Original IUCN writeups
suggested that the cause was a combination of pollu-
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35

36 CORAL

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37

tion and “much needed” dams that were built without
regard for the impact they would have on fish. (IUCN
has tempered the wording, and now lists the likely cause
as “habitat modification.”) It appears that the Redtail
Shark is a victim of human population growth and is
being saved only because we happen to find it attractive.
Another ubiquitous species, the White Cloud
Mountain Minnow (Tanichthys albonubes), is listed
Redtail Shark,
Epalzeorhynchos
bicolor
Endler’s Livebearer, Poecilia wingei:
both of these species are being preserved by aquarium breeding.
on the IUCN Red List—currently as “data deficient”
but formerly as “extinct in the wild,” according to the
C.A.R.E.S. Preservation Program’s citation of its IUCN
status. Despite this, it is one of the undisputed best “beginner
fish,” as it is able to thrive in both unheated and
heated aquariums, easy to breed, extremely resilient,
and quite attractive. This species is not going anywhere
as long as people continue to keep aquariums. I would
be genuinely shocked to walk into an aquarium store
and not encounter one of the many flamboyant variants
of the White Cloud now being offered.
Even though I’ve been aware of the plight of Redtail
Sharks and White Cloud Mountain Minnows, I was surprised
to learn that C.A.R.E.S. considers even the commonly
available Boesmani Rainbowfish (Melanotaenia
boesemani), endemic to only three lakes in Irian Jaya,
Indonesia, to be either at risk or endangered in the wild
(the IUCN lists it as endangered). Even so, I could have
a guilt-free colony of Boesmani Rainbowfish at my doorstep
within a week’s time. This is all possible because of
captive propagation.
DOMESTICATION HAPPENS
Other species are not so lucky. The livebearers are a
group of very popular aquarium fishes that are farmed
in large numbers. However, many of the swordtails and
platies and guppies that we see in every shop are not
what we think they are.
The great majority of them are domesticated forms
that have been selectively bred for decades—a hybrid
cocktail of numerous closely related wild species.
To put this in perspective, the average
swordtail or guppy is the equivalent of the
Snow Onyx or Black Photon designer clownfish.
What’s at risk in the livebearer world
isn’t the next Platinum Percula; it’s the good
old original wild forms—the classic Ocellaris
Clownfish from salt water, Endler’s Livebearer
from fresh water, the natural “default” colorations
and forms of species from which all our
domesticated forms were derived.
Just as Ocellaris and Percula Clownfish
have “cousins” that are rare or unpopular in
the trade, so do the livebearers. These cousins
of the guppies and swordtails don’t share the
relative safety offered by commercial popularity.
They are hanging on only because dedicated
aquarists see the value of natural forms
that wouldn’t stand a chance of capturing the
casual hobbyist’s superficial tastes.
Ameca splendens, the Butterfly Goodeid, is
considered extinct in the wild by C.A.R.E.S.,
Fishbase, and the IUCN. However, according
to the Goodeid Working Group, this species
may still persist in one or more isolated remnant
populations—for example, a lone springhead—but
all it takes is one good drought to
dry up the spring. Despite the extremely precarious existence
of the Butterfly Goodeid, you can acquire this
“extinct” livebearer with relative ease. As I write this in
early April 2012, there are three distinct auctions for
this species on Aquabid.com, and the going rate ranges
from $4.33 to $10 per fish (plus shipping).
How is this possible? Quite simply, it’s an attractive
but currently unpopular species of fish, so it isn’t commercially
produced, but a handful of breeders keep it
solely because it would otherwise be lost. It’s amazing to
think that this species persists only because aquarium
keepers no different than you or I value the natural biodiversity
of our planet and are working to sustain it.
Ameca splendens is far from the only species with this
story. Another critically endangered Goodeid, Zoogoneticus
tequila, is available via multiple online auctions; one
seller calls it “one of the rarest fish kept in the hobby,
thought for over 40 years to be extinct in the wild, now
known to be critically endangered.”
Or consider the plight of the Charco La Palma Pupfish
(Cyprinodon longidorsalis). R. Kik, IV tells the story
TOP: TATJANA RITTNER/SHUTTERSTOCK; BOTTOM: DOBERMARANER/SHUTTERSTOCK
38 CORAL

TK
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39

PUBLIC AQUARIUMS CANNOT DO IT ALONE
Too often we assume that institutions will somehow
take care of all these problems. After all, we aren’t breeding
gorillas, rhinos, cheetahs, Bali mynahs, or California
condors in our homes. In the public’s eye, species
preservation is in the purview of zoos, institutions, and
nonprofits.
Species preservation is making a lot of demands on
our public aquariums, which are already strapped for
resources in every capacity. Perhaps the best-known institutional
effort in freshwater circles (and a particular
passion of mine) is the Lake Victoria Species Survival
Program (LV SSP) at the Toledo Zoo Aquarium, whose
North American studbook is currently managed by curator
Jay Hemdal.
According to the current LV SSP studbook, there
were 400 historic species of cichlids in Lake Victoria.
Today, the number of species that persist in the lake (or
even only in captivity) is estimated to be 200. Of those,
the SSP currently maintains eight of their highest-priority
species. The rest are left to fend for themselves, be it
in the lake or in the hands of private and commercial
aquarists. Despite truly fantastic beauty that rivals that
of many marine fish, Victorian Cichlids seem to lack
wide commercial popularity. I assume this is due to the
drab coloration of most females and the disappointing
hybrids created by ignorant or indiscriminate breeders
passing off culls as more desirable forms. Victorian
Cichlids have become a “hobbyist” fish for the most
part. Indeed, cichlid experts and conservation breeders
Dr. Paul V. Loiselle and Jay Hemdal credit a single Swedish
aquarist, Bo Selbrink, with allowing the extinct-inthe-wild
Prognathochromis perrieri to persist in captivity.
That’s right: it only took a single private aquarist to save
a species from extinction.
The Butterfly Goodeid, Ameca splendens: extinct in the wild?
best: “This small Mexican pupfish was only just recently
described in 1993. By 1998, it was extinct from its home
in Nuevo Leon. This fish originally inhabited a small
pool of water that was spring-fed. Due to groundwater
use and over-exploitation, the pond dried up and all
fish were exterminated. Luckily someone had the foresight
to take a few of these fish for study, and in doing
so saved the species from total extinction.” Today, this
pupfish species persists in the collections of a few public
aquariums, such as the Steinhart at the California Academy
of Sciences, and it owes its survival to a handful of
aquarists.
THE C.A.R.E.S. PRESERVATION PROGRAM
To that end, C.A.R.E.S. seeks to address the need for
captive preservation of fishes in the tanks of hobbyist
aquarists, which would provide far more capacity than
anything institutions can provide. To date, C.A.R.E.S.
mainly covers freshwater species (the only marine species
evaluated and listed are the seahorses, Hippocampus
spp.). The priority list maintained by C.A.R.E.S. provides
an at-a-glance assessment of troubled fish species
within various interest groups. Leaders in the freshwater
aquarium hobby have embraced C.A.R.E.S. to the extent
of encouraging every hobbyist breeder to maintain
at least one tank in his or her fish room dedicated to
propagating a C.A.R.E.S. priority listed species.
Should C.A.R.E.S. cross the halocline and examine
more marine fish? I believe they should, and I think we
should be ready to support and embrace the effort. As
the marine breeding subculture grows and the pressures
facing our coral reefs continue to pile up, there is a definite
need for thoughtful leadership and responsibility
among marine aquarists. We should learn from and follow
the example of our freshwater counterparts. If we
choose to be proactive and conservation-minded, I am
confident that we can make sure that the biodiversity we
treasure (including the species we find less than attractive)
is around for our children to admire in the future.
MARINE FISH OF CONCERN
It’s my opinion and understanding that
freshwater fish are inherently more at
risk of extinction than marine fish for
a simple reason: they are often far more
geographically restricted. If a species is
found only in one 40-acre body of water,
we only need to over-collect that species
or poison, drain, or dry up its habitat to
wipe it out.
For most of our coral reef species,
it’s not necessarily so easy. Long pelagic
larval phases allow species to drift,
like seeds in the wind, from reef to reef
across vast expanses of ocean. Many
species have wide or even circumtropical
distributions, which means that the
loss of a particular reef may not extirpate
the species from the planet. In fact,
I have tried but failed to find a specific
MARIE FRANCE JANELLE/CREATIVE COMMONS
TK
40 CORAL

ecord of a single ornamental marine fish extinction.
Of course, the larger looming concern is the
global threats to coral reef habitats that know no
specific geographic boundary. All it takes in our
game of oceanic roulette is for the wrong reef to
suffer a catastrophic event, and we could lose something
quite irreplaceable.
TOP: PAUL V. LOISELLE; BELOW: DRAY VAN BEECK/SHUTTERSTOCK
A CONTROVERSIAL EXAMPLE:
THE BANGGAI CARDINALFISH
The Banggai Cardinalfish (Pterapogon kauderni) is a
perfect example of this. The most recent collection
data suggests that we harvest as much as 50 percent of
the population of this species every year for the marine
aquarium trade, yet it is one of the most geographically
restricted species we keep in our aquariums. The total
available habitat within its natural range is cited as 34
square kilometers, or roughly 13 square miles. To put
this in planetary perspective, my boyhood hometown of
Riverwoods, Illinois, covers about 4 square miles, and
my current city of residence, Duluth, Minnesota, covers
approximately 87 square miles. So the entire population
of Banggai Cardinalfish may well reside in a space about
the same size as the city you live in.
While we can say with some certainty that the Banggai
Cardinalfish will likely persist in captivity with captive
breeding, its status in the wild is a hot topic of debate.
Marine species with restricted geographic ranges
(and likely smaller population sizes) are the most susceptible
to catastrophic population crashes from any
cause. The Banggai Cardinalfish is not alone in this regard;
it is simply the most publicized species due to the
IUCN’s listing of it as an endangered species in 2007.
AT-RISK ANGELFISH
The extremely rare-in-the trade Resplendent Angelfish
(Centropyge resplendens) is found only at the Ascension
Banggai Cardinalfish, Pterapogon kauderni: listed as endangered in
its native waters but entrenched in the aquarium world.
Prognathochromis perrieri: one of many Lake Victoria cichlid species
extinct in the wild but kept alive by conservation breeders.
Islands in the mid-Atlantic. It used to be commonly
available, but governmental restrictions on wild collection
have made it extremely expensive and only available
as a captive-bred fish in recent years. Meanwhile,
another rare-in-the-trade angelfish, the Joculator Angel
(C. joculator) from the Cocos-Keeling Islands, is slightly
more obtainable, but because only one individual has
permits and export capability, all the specimens you’ll
see come from that one source (John Coppolino, pers
comm). Both C. resplendens and C. joculator have been
successfully bred in captivity by Frank Baensch, but
commercial production is not happening. It’s still conceivable
that C. joculator could once again be produced
through captive breeding if fresh broodstock were obtained,
but whether we should expect to see any more C.
resplendens in the future remains to be seen.
While the IUCN lists Centropyge resplendens and C.
joculator as species of least concern at this time, the
same cannot be said for the related Nahakyi’s Pygmy
Angelfish (C. nahakyi), found only at Johnston Atoll, a
starkly restricted geographic range. IUCN currently considers
C. nahakyi to be “near threatened,” citing the limited
range combined with the threat of El Niño weather
events, which cause localized environmental problems.
If C. nahakyi could be introduced to the marine aquarium
trade and maintained by breeding, it would provide
a valuable backup population, should
something happen to the wild population
at Johnston Atoll.
The Clipperton Angelfish (Holacanthus
limbaughii), known only from Clipperton
Island, is thought to have a total range of
less than 4 square miles (10 sq km). This is
less than one-third of the habitat available
to the aforementioned Banggai Cardinalfish.
Once again, IUCN lists this species as
“near threatened” for the same reasons as
Centropyge nahakyi.
TK
PROTECTED SEAHORSES
All species of seahorses are considered endangered
and regulated by CITES (Convention
on International Trade in Endangered
Species). Still, thanks to captive breeding,
many of us are able to keep these animals
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41

Nahakyi’s Pygmy Angelfish, Centropyge nahakyi
in our homes. Regardless of the natural future for seahorses,
a handful of popular aquarium species should
persist well into the future as long as we keep buying
them from breeders.
On the IUCN Red List, most Hippocampus are listed
as either “data deficient” or “vulnerable” in status,
with one notable exception. The Knynsa or Cape Seahorse,
H. capensis, is listed as an endangered species due
to fragmented populations and habitat loss as a result
of development. Ironically, this species was being bred
and sold in the aquarium trade for a number of years
by Ocean Rider in Hawaii. According to posts on
the popular Seahorse.org discussion forums, it
appears that this species may be lost to the hobby
and now couldn’t be legally reintroduced because
CITES regulations and South African law prevent
collection. The only way hobbyists might acquire
them is to obtain excess captive-bred individuals
released from a public aquarium that still has
them, but this is generally a rare occurrence.
Ironically, with Ocean Rider producing Hippocampus
capensis commercially, the handful of
hobbyist seahorse breeders apparently didn’t see it
as a species in need of immediate and deliberate
private propagation efforts. Ocean Rider tells us
they still produce and maintain H. capensis, but
are eager to diversify their broodstock population.
It’s disappointing to consider that if the Cape Seahorse is
lost in the wild, it may have missed its chance to persist
in captivity because hobbyists didn’t have the foresight to
help “ark” it when we had the chance.
CLOWNFISHES:
“CLASSICS” OF THE MARINE WORLD
I have been known to rant about clownfishes, because
they are the most popular group I’ll mention, and yet
they include some of the most at-risk species. Case in
point: the Mccullochi Clownfish (Amphiprion mccullochi),
which is only known from Lord Howe Island and
possibly Norfolk Island. With just one or two small,
localized weather catastrophes, this species could quite
easily become extinct in the wild. Thankfully, we do
have a small captive population going, but in order for
the Mccullochi to be preserved in captivity, we need
more people maintaining breeding pairs and watching
their lineages closely.
Of course, the Mcc isn’t the only clownfish in a precarious
position. The Chagos Anemonefish (Amphiprion
chagosensis), unknown to the trade, shares a similarly
restricted geographic distribution. Since the Chagos
Clownfish isn’t collected and isn’t being bred, a captiveark
failsafe doesn’t exist for this species. Chagos lost 90
percent of its reefs during a bleaching event in 1997–
1998. Luckily, it has recovered to about 50 percent coral
cover, according to the Zoological Society of London,
but I have to wonder: What if that bleaching event had
been 100 percent? Would I now be writing about the
first documented extinction of a clownfish species?
Of growing concern is the fact that we have only
recently become more aware of the many geographical
variants that exist among clownfish. Certain commercial
breeders (most recently Sustainable Aquatics) are
taking steps to obtain and breed these unique varieties,
including the many forms of the Cinnamon Clownfish
(Amphiprion melanopus). In March/April of 2012, Sustainable
Aquatics made available both the polymorphic
stripeless Coral Sea variant and a beautiful Blue Stripe
SCOTT W. MICHAEL
42 CORAL

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variation from New Caledonia.
These geographical variants are
important because we don’t always
have a firm understanding
of what a species is. A classic
example is Amphiprion barberi
from Fiji, which was considered
first a wayward population of
the western Australian A. rubrocinctus,
and then an unusual
form of A. melanopus, before
finally being recognized as the
distinct species it is. Keeping
clean geographic breeding lines
ensures that we preserve biodiversity
that we may not fully
understand. However, the most
critical issue is again one of limited
geographic range—while
we may not ever lose the Cinnamon
Clownfish as a species,
we could easily lose the whitetailed
variation from the Solomon
Islands.
But perhaps the most interesting
dilemma in the saltwater
breeding today is the ongoing
struggle between “designer”
clownfish varieties and their
wild ancestors. I alluded to this
earlier when discussing the
classic fishes of the freshwater
hobby. If the general hobbyist’s
preference for “Picasso” Percs
and “Black Photon” hybrids
continues, will we even be able
to get the wild forms of clownfish
as captive-breds? It’s important
to realize that you can’t often
“go back” to the wild forms
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44 CORAL

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from domesticated varieties, and even more important,
you can never “undo” hybridization. Faced with a never-ending
onslaught of brand new cultivated varieties
commanding top dollar (the latest is a new Picasso-type
form of Amphiprion sebae shown off by Bali Aquarich), is
it going to fall to the basement hobbyist to keep propagating
the original wild forms of our clownfish species?
Or will my now hypothetical grandchild only know that
clownfish had three stripes because he watched a 4-D
holographic version of the movie Finding Nemo?
OUR CHILDREN’S FISHES
Author’s son Ethan, enthralled by Rock Beauties and
Florida gorgonians in one of the family’s display aquariums.
So what aquarium fishes will be here when our children
or grandchildren come of age and have their first aquariums?
I believe that the concept of “arking” fishes, not
to mention corals, is really about the entire next generation.
So long as we are still able to keep aquariums,
aquarists around the world will continue to propagate
fishes, plants, corals, and other livestock. As long as our
children appreciate and admire the natural world, as
long as we make it a point to instill that appreciation in
them, we will preserve at least part of our natural heritage
for future generations. Perhaps they will judge us
less harshly if we have tried to save as much as we could.
At latest count we’re hovering around 200 species
of ornamental marine fish that have been bred at least
once, out of 1,500 to 2,000 marine species we currently
keep (not including the additional number of
geographical and manmade variants).
Being bred once is not a golden ticket to
salvation for a marine fish species. An
informal survey of commercial producers
suggests that approximately 60 species
are being produced routinely and
benefit from a precarious status in our
marine aquarium world: if we continue
to purchase them as captive-bred fish, if
commercial breeders keep working with
them, they will have the luxury of being
already “arked” by our hobby and by our
industry. They could be eliminated from
the world’s oceans (or banned from wild
harvest) and still exist in captivity.
Where we go next is yet another great
debate, but one thing is clear to me. If
we can breed it, we should, so we’re not
caught off-guard by changing climate or
legal barriers to wild harvest. If we can’t
yet breed it, we should be given the opportunity
to try, so the species has a chance
to get into the safety net. This isn’t to
say that captive-bred fish are the only
answer, but rather that captive breeding
provides a backup in case our other options
evaporate. Captive breeding is the
aquarist’s gift back to the world. Our
freshwater counterparts have more than
demonstrated that while commercial
demand will secure many species, dedicated
hobbyists must accept the responsibility
of preserving and advocating for
the rare, unusual, or less colorful species
that commercial breeders ignore.
The marine aquarium hobby and
industry may be vilified by some, but
let’s keep our eyes on the prize—ensuring
that as many species as possible will
persist with our stewardship—regardless
of what’s happening in the larger world,
outside our sphere of influence.
RENEE PEDERSEN
46 CORAL

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47

TK
Pygmy
Gobies
by Daniel Knop
D. KNOP

Size impresses humans. We marvel at skyscrapers,
jumbo jets, and mammoth suspension bridges. Anything
extraordinarily large automatically attracts our attention and earns
our respect. The same applies when it comes to the animal kingdom:
be it a tiny earthworm or giant snake, a wee mouse or hulking
elephant, pygmy blenny or monstrous whale shark, we don’t give a
second thought as to which of these animals is more impressive. The
giants win hands-down over the dwarfs.
Yasha Whiteray Shrimp Goby, Stonogobiops yasha
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49

But we shouldn’t underestimate the elves. Mythology attributes
superhuman strength to them. They are crafty, sly, and versed in
magic, and that commands respect. Whether or not this applies to
pygmy gobies is a matter of opinion, but it is obvious at first glance
that they are fascinating fishes despite their small size. And being
small can have its advantages. The smaller the fish, the more easily it
can hide from predators. To the diver or snorkeler on the coral reef,
it sometimes looks as if there are no fishes there at all. Only a careful
look at the rocks coated in calcareous algae or the massive stony
Bluestriped Dwarf Goby, Trimma tevegae
D. KNOP, AQUARIUM OF J. LOHNER
50 CORAL

CORAL
51

corals will reveal that you are surrounded by hundreds of pairs of tiny
eyes—eyes that belong to little Eviota or Trimma gobies, among others.
Their bodies are only a few centimeters long. We can easily miss seeing
them, but they are watching us very closely. If we come too close
they disappear like lightning.
Not only do gobies seek out surroundings, such as pink-red calcareous
algae, that match their coloration in order to camouflage themselves,
but they also utilize the strategy of lying still on the reef, a coral,
or a sponge. Any fish that remains completely motionless and blends
Orangesided Goby,
Elacatinus dilepis
52 CORAL

TK I. KRAUSE
CORAL
53

into its surroundings has the best chance of staying undiscovered.
Being small, gobies can also disappear from the scene rapidly, as
they will fit into any hole or crevice—or even the outlet of a sponge,
the inlet of a giant clam, or the digestive cavity of a sea cucumber.
Moreover, the reaction times of smaller fishes can be astonishing, as
they must be constantly vigilant to escape being picked off by trolling
predators.
But being small also has its drawbacks, as the pygmy gobies clearly
show: their life span is sometimes very short. Surgeonfishes live on
average for 20 years, but many pygmy gobies live for only three to five.
Some of the tiniest gobies have been found to live, reproduce, and die
within 60 days. And that makes every day of their lives particularly
valuable—all the more reason for us to keep them carefully and lovingly
in the aquarium.
Tiger Goby, Elacatinus macrodon
54 CORAL

Redhead Goby,
Elacatinus puncticulatus
LEFT AND TOP: I. KRAUSE; MIDDLE: D. KNOP, AQUARIUM OF J. LOHNER
Masked Goby,
Coryphopterus personatus
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55

TK
NANO
Gobies
diversity and aquarium husbandry
by Inken Krause
56 CORAL

TK
Like mythical dwarfs, elves, and fairies, pygmy gobies lurk
among the coral forests of tropical reefs. Some of these little creatures are
so tiny, and often timid as well, that you have to look very closely in order
to fully appreciate their enchanting beauty.
The goby family (Gobiidae) contains more than 2,000 species in around
210 genera, and includes fishes with a level of variety in anatomy, habitat,
and behavior rarely seen in other families. Traditionally, systematics employs
six subfamilies (for example, the true gobies, subfamily Gobiinae) and
Blackray Shrimp Goby, Stonogobiops nematodes
I. KRAUSE
CORAL
57

Trimma cana, the Candystripe
Goby, is eminently suitable for
keeping in pairs.
numerous genera (for example, the coral gobies, genus
Gobiodon) to group together those species that are more
or less similar. But the family Gobiidae is a taxonomic
catch-all for the largest family of fishes, born of the necessity
to create some sort of unified designation for a
group of fishes that have about as much in common as
cats and dogs.
That comparison is in no way inappropriate: the
family Gobiidae is—in contravention of the taxonomic
ideal—not monophyletic. In other words, the genera do
not all trace their ancestry back to a single original form.
The family can be compared to a tree with several trunks,
or even to a number of trees that have separate roots.
Most gobies live in marine environments, but there are
also brackish water and freshwater species—and some
that migrate between fresh and salt water.
And there is more: some of the species we term “pygmy
gobies,” for example those of the genus Tryssogobius,
actually belong not to the family of the “true” gobies
(Gobiidae), but to the dartfish family (Ptereleotridae).
It’s no wonder, then, that the systematics of the gobies is
a subject of continuing zoological debate.
However, necessity is often the mother of invention,
and thus it has proved expedient in aquarium circles to
consider size alone as a differentiating character rather
than obvious systematically relevant factors (body form,
fin rays, etc.) and genuine phylogenetic relationships.
Because there are numerous goby species that are notable
for their particularly small size, the term “pygmy
gobies” seems very appropriate. But what size does a goby
have to be to count as one of these dwarfs?
WHICH GOBIES ARE NANO SIZE?
There is no generally accepted definition of the term
pygmy goby, so the CORAL editorial team has decided
to set the upper size limit at 2 inches (5 cm) SL. One
advantage of this arbitrary division is that it means we
are talking about gobies with very similar requirements
for aquarium husbandry. Coincidentally, the majority of
the marine members of the family Gobiidae that measure
less than 2 inches (5 cm) in body size are strongly
bound to the reef and sedentary in their habits, primarily
feeding on plankton and substrate-spawning in their reproduction.
On this basis, these externally variable fishes
can be grouped together. Note, however, that the species
discussed here have very little in common with the freshwater
“pygmy gobies” of the subfamily Gobionellinae.
Another rather arbitrary limitation: in selecting the
pygmy gobies to be discussed in this article, we have
concentrated on those species that are both suitable for
maintenance in the nano reef aquarium and also imported
for the aquarium hobby, albeit sometimes rarely.
ANATOMY
Naturally, it is impossible to generalize regarding the
anatomy of such a heterogenous group, but there are
D. KNOP
58 CORAL

nonetheless a number of typical characters that are
found in the majority of species. First, many gobies lack
a swim bladder, an organ that would be redundant in
species that are strongly substrate-oriented, but not surprisingly
we do find swim bladders in a number of pygmy
gobies that are active swimmers. Another typical feature
of all tiny gobies are the small, rounded fins that serve
more for navigation than for vigorous propulsion, as
well as the possession of ventral fins fused to form a sort
of sucker-foot (in Stonogobiops, Gobiodon, for example)
that is useful for support on the substrate.
Depending on their way of life, the majority of
pygmy gobies have eyes sited more or less on top of the
head, assisting these substrate-dwellers to better spot
any attacker approaching from above. The body form
is variable depending on the requirement for swimming
ability, and ranges from elliptical and high-backed
(Gobiodon) to a perfect torpedo shape (Tryssogobius).
The round mouth in pygmy gobies is optimized for the
capture of zooplankton; its size varies from tiny (Aioliops)
to surprisingly large (Stonogopiops), depending on
the preferred plankton type.
HABITAT
Pygmy gobies are found everywhere on and around the
coral reef. Bryaninops, Eviota, Gobiodon, Trimma, and
others live on and among cnidarians—gorgonians, stony
corals, soft corals, and anemones. Stonogobiops species
and the White Cap Goby, Lotilia graciliosa, are found
mainly on sandy bottoms. Elacatinus pygmy gobies are
found both on various host animals (from sponges to
sea urchins) and on exposed parts of the reef structure,
where they maintain cleaning stations.
Given the sheer number of ecological niches
occupied by pygmy gobies, the range of water
depths they have colonized likewise
comes as no surprise: they are found
from very shallow water (Eviota)
down to fairly considerable depths
(260 feet/80 m, Tryssogobius colini).
Most pygmy gobies are pair-forming
substrate-spawners that attach
their eggs to a surface such
as reef rock and guard them until
they hatch. Without exception,
the eggs of all species hatch after
a few days into helpless larvae
that drift away in the current as
plankton and grow on without
any further parental care. The majority
are eaten or fall victim to the
elements before they achieve metamorphosis
into the adult fish.
One interesting aspect of the reproduction
of pygmy gobies is sex change. In particular,
protogynous sex change (from female to male, for example
in the Masked Goby, Coryphopterus personatus)
has been well documented scientifically. But it is possible
that there are also pygmy gobies that can change
sex either protandrously (from male to female) or even
in both directions, as suggested by research on Paragobiodon
species.
Various Elacatinus species, as well as Coryphopterus
personatus, have already been bred and reared in the
aquarium. While the former are now being reared commercially
for the aquarium trade and some species (Elacatinus
multifasciatus, E. oceanops, E. puncticulatus) are
regularly available as captive-bred stock, the breeding of
all other species is still in its infancy. A pioneer in goby
breeding, Oceans, Reefs & Aquariums in Fort Pierce,
Florida, currently has six species of Elacatinus in commercial
production.
GENUS AIOLIOPS
Of the four species of the genus Aioliops, the most interesting
to aquarists is the Dwarf Dartfish, A. megastigma,
which is the only species that is imported as an
aquarium fish, albeit rarely. Measuring only about 0.75
inch (2 cm), this very slender goby truly deserves the
name of pygmy goby, but differs radically from most
other members of the group in terms of its ecology. Spe-
Gobiodon albofasciatus,
the Whitelined Coral Goby.
D. KNOP
REPRODUCTION
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59

Mini Dart Goby, Aioliops megastigma
cifically, these fishes don’t spend their lives resting on
the substrate, but swim in the open water above and at
some distance from large stony corals, into which they
flee when danger is imminent. They feed on the finest
of pelagic zooplankton and are so efficient at obtaining
their food that they can be difficult to keep in the
aquarium—because its constant movement expends so
much energy, such a tiny goby must eat continuously in
order to avoid starvation. The requisite heavy feeding can
cause problems in the limited volume of water in a nano
reef aquarium.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 4 gallons (15 L) and up.
Food: Very fine frozen food and plankton (for example
lobster eggs, tiger copepods, CYCLOP-EEZE).
Degree of difficulty: High.
Hints for maintenance: Should be kept in small groups;
feed small portions as often as possible, at least three
times daily.
GENUS BRYANINOPS
Without exception, the 10 species of the genus Bryaninops
are true dwarfs measuring 0.5–1.5 inches (1.5–4
cm), and their ecology is typical of all coral gobies. In
hardly any other genus is the commensal relationship
with cnidarians as hosts so close. These tiny gobies either
inhabit gorgonians (in the case of Bryaninops amplus or
B. yongei, for example), or (for example, Bryaninops natans)
live in association with large specimens of smallpolyp
stony corals, usually those of the genus Acropora,
above which they hover to capture plankton. When danger
threatens they disappear lightning-fast among the
coral branches.
While the members of the genus associated
with stony corals are active swimmers,
those that inhabit gorgonians are very passive
and simply sit quietly on a branch, employing
a finely honed camouflage strategy:
all Bryaninops are more or less transparent,
and an elongate goby of this type, nestling
tightly against the branch of a sea whip,
merges almost completely with the substrate
to become invisible. The free-swimming species
are also well camouflaged by virtue of
their translucent, often very light-colored
bodies: these tiny little streaks, swimming in
large groups above the corals and dancing in
the sunlight of the shallows, are probably not
recognized as worthy prey by many predators
but rather as something totally different—
Whip Coral Goby, Bryaninops yongei, true
to its name, is usually found on gorgonians.
This specimen on a Junceella sp. is exhibiting
normal coloration in the first photo (top). In
the second (bottom), it is camouflaged using
mimetic adaptation to the host coral; polyp-like
structures resembling the contours of the coral
have been created inside the body using color
pigments. This change took place in the space of
a few seconds and could be reproduced.
TOP: P. SCHMEIDEL; BOTTOM: D. KNOP
60 CORAL

The aquarium for pygmy gobies
The perfect home for pygmy
gobies: a nano reef aquarium
with a volume of around 8
gallons (30 L).
TOP: I, KRAUSE; BOTTOM LEFT: E. THALER; RIGHT: D. KNOP
There is, of course, no fish that
cannot be housed in a large
aquarium—after all, there are no
restricting sheets of glass in the
natural habitat. If a large reef aquarium
can be so designed that tiny
pygmy gobies are neither eaten by
larger tankmates nor “swallowed”
by equipment (overflows, siphons,
pumps), then they can do very
well in an artificial biotope of
this kind.
The fact is, however, that the
proud owner will be able to see
his rather timid charges regularly
and study their behavior only
if they are kept in a fairly small
aquarium. There are also practical
reasons for accommodating these
fishes in small tanks: feeding, in
It is important to feed several times
per day: two Stonogobiops yasha, one
well nourished, left, and the other
half-starved, right.
particular the feeding of demanding
species, can be performed in a more
targeted manner, with less effort
and hence more efficiently.
There is also a lot to be said for
keeping pygmy gobies primarily in
a nano reef aquarium. A “classic”
nano reef aquarium of around 4–8
gallons (15–30 L) can accommodate
one pair of a single suitable species.
Anyone who would like to try keeping
groups, which can be very interesting
with Eviota or Coryphopterus,
for example, would be well advised
to use an “XXL nano” of around 15
to 30 gallons (57 to 114 L). Several
pairs of different species can be
housed in an aquarium of this size.
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61

Redeye Goby,
Bryaninops natans
large particles of “marine snow” brought in by the current,
or just too small to bother with.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 5.25 gallons (20 L) and up.
Food: Very fine frozen food and plankton (for example
lobster eggs, tiger copepods, CYCLOP-EEZE).
Degree of difficulty: High.
Hints for maintenance: Must always be kept together
with corals (appropriate to the species); feed small portions
as often as possible, at least three times daily.
GENUS CORYPHOPTERUS
All of the 15 species of the genus Coryphopterus currently
known originate from the Atlantic. These fishes measure
up to 1.5 inches (4 cm) in length and are neither as
active as the “real” swimming gobies (for example, Aioliops
or Tryssogobius) nor as strongly substrate-oriented
as Trimma species, for example; instead they alternate
between swimming close to the reef to capture plankton
and settling on corals to rest. It is primarily the two
Caribbean species—the Peppermint Goby, C. lipernes,
and the Masked Goby, C. personatus—that are important
for the aquarium hobby. They are very uncomplicated
in their maintenance, but surprisingly are imported extremely
rarely.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 5.25 gallons (20 L) and up.
Food: Fine frozen food; adults will also eat
larger morsels.
Degree of difficulty: Low.
Hints for maintenance: Keep in pairs or
small groups in tanks of 16 gallons (60 L)
or more.
GENUS DISCORDIPINNA
Although the genus Discordipinna has
achieved an almost glamorous prominence in the hobby,
systematically it has little to offer, as it contains only a
single species, D. griessingeri. This is well known as one
of the most sought-after aquarium fishes in the era of
the nano reef aquarium, although it is also one of the
shyest. Hence it is no wonder that few divers are familiar
with the Spikefin Goby in its natural habitat, although
its distribution encompasses the entire Indo-Pacific and
it can be assumed that this tiny, extremely slender goby,
which measures only around 1.25 inches (3 cm) in
length, is by no means rare.
There have recently been rumors (which remain to
be substantiated) of a mysterious second species of this
genus. The reason for such speculation is a now-famous
photo that clearly shows a Discordipinna goby whose coloration
clearly deviates from that typical for D. griessingeri.
This creamy-white, caramel, and vanilla-colored
fish looks just as fabulously beautiful as the scarlet red
“standard form,” but all the photos currently on the Internet
apparently show the same specimen, so it may be
a color morph rather than a new species.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 4 gallons (15 L) and up.
Food: Very fine, if possible live food (for example tiger copepods,
Moina salina, Artemia nauplii, CYCLOP-EEZE);
Peppermint Goby,
Coryphopterus lipernes
Spikefin Goby,
Discordipinna
griessingeri
62 CORAL

Greenbanded Goby,
Elacatinus multifasciatus
Broadstripe Goby,
Elacatinus prochilos
some adults will eat somewhat larger frozen foods.
Degree of difficulty: Medium.
Hints for maintenance: Very timid fishes that rarely show
themselves; keep in pairs or in small groups in tanks of
6.5 gallons (25 L) or more.
OPPOSITE PAGE, TOP AND RIGHT: I. KRAUSE; LEFT: D. KNOP. THIS PAGE, TOP RIGHT: D. KNOP; OTHERS: I. KRAUSE
GENUS ELACATINUS
Above: Tiger Goby, Elacatinus macrodon
Below: Neon Goby, Elacatinus oceanops
The neon gobies of the genus Elacatinus are among the
most interesting of the pygmy gobies. The 35 species currently
described include both cleaner gobies (for example,
the Sharknose Goby, Elacatinus evelynae, and Neon
Goby, E. oceanops) and species that enjoy commensal relationships
with other reef-dwellers, for example sea urchins
(Greenbanded Goby, E. multifasciatus) or sponges
(Linesnout Goby, E. lori). Other species (such as the
Redheaded Neon Goby, E. puncticulatus) live in loose association
with corals.
In the past the majority of Elacatinus species were assigned
to the genus Gobiosoma, from which they were
gradually removed. But it is incorrect to regard Gobiosoma
as simply an obsolete name or a synonym for the entire
genus Elacatinus, although this error is widespread.
Gobiosoma continues to exist as a distinct genus containing
a few species, though they are not particularly relevant
for the aquarium hobby.
Anatomically speaking, Elacatinus gobies are characterized
by a very streamlined body form with small fins
carried tight to the body. The cleaner gobies of the genus,
at least, are generally good swimmers, an ability that is
less marked in the more substrate-oriented species.
Two basic types of coloration can be distinguished: the
cleaner gobies all exhibit an almost uniform longitudinal
stripe pattern extending the length of the body and always
consisting of either blue, yellow, or white bands on
a dark background—the typical garb of a cleaner, in other
words, similar to that seen in wrasses and shrimps. The
non-cleaner species exhibit a somewhat more variable,
sometimes very gaudy color pattern. A striking feature of
this group is a repeating pattern of crossbands. In some
species, for example the Greenbanded Goby, E. multifasciatus,
which sometimes lives on sea urchins, this can be
interpreted as a camouflage pattern that makes the fish
invisible against a background of long spines. But it also
occurs in the Orangesided Goby, E. dilepis, for example,
which is actually associated with corals and sponges.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 5.25 gallons (20 L) or more.
Food: Various frozen and dry foods, including larger
types for adults.
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63

Degree of difficulty: Low.
Hints for maintenance: Keep as a pair if compatible specimens
can be obtained; the non-cleaner species, such as
E. dilepis, E. multifasciatus, and E. puncticulatus, are those
best suited to maintenance in the nano aquarium.
GENUS EVIOTA
Orangesided Goby,
Elacatinus dilepis
Often mentioned in the same breath as the genus Trimma,
the 64 species of the genus Eviota are precisely the
type of fishes that first come to mind when the term
“pygmy gobies” is used. In their natural habitat, the coral
reefs of the Indo-Pacific, these little creatures live in close
association with stony corals, above which they swim to
capture plankton, so that if danger threatens they can
retire instantly to the shelter of the branches or polyps.
In fact only two of the 64 species, the Twostripe Pygmy
Goby, Eviota bifasciata, and the Gold Neon Pygmy Goby,
Eviota pellucida, are relevant for the aquarium hobby. The
fantastic Blackbelly Goby, E. nigriventris, with its lilac
and black coloration, is hardly ever imported.
Because of their very small size—only around 0.75
inch (2 cm)—pairs of Eviota gobies are popular as occupants
for nano reef aquariums, where they do well
provided they receive adequate food. It is not always easy
to distinguish unknown species of this genus from the
anatomically very similar Trimma gobies. One useful differentiating
character, however, is the eyes, which are
somewhat further apart and not as high on the head in
Eviota species.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 4 gallons (15 L) and up.
Food: Fine frozen and dry foods.
Degree of difficulty: Medium.
Hints for maintenance: Keep in pairs or groups in aquariums
of 15 gallons (57 L) or more.
GENERA GOBIODON AND PARAGOBIODON
The 20 species of the genus Gobiodon are collectively
known as coral gobies. They not only hide among the
branches of corals when danger threatens, as other
pygmy gobies do, but spend their entire lives on stony
corals, preferably those of the genus Acropora. They are
poor swimmers—they lack a swim bladder—and cannot
survive without their host cnidarians, at least not in
the natural habitat. Although they all have practically
the same body form and are a similar size (0.75–1.5
inches/2–4 cm), Gobiodon species exhibit an astonishing
range of colors, from bright yellow (G. okinawae) or
red (G. quinquestrigatus) to red and green (G. histrio) or
pitch black (G. acicularis). These apparently striking colors
are actually adaptations to the preferred host coral.
It is mainly the Yellow Clown Goby, G. okinawae, and
the Green or Broadband Clown Goby, G. histrio, that
are imported for the aquarium hobby. The Citron Clown
Gold Neon Pygmy Goby,
Eviota pellucida
Twostripe Pygmy Goby,
Eviota bifasciata
BOTTOM LEFT: D. KNOP; OTHERS: I. KRAUSE
64 CORAL

Top left: Green Clown Goby, Gobiodon histrio, in a Sinularia
leather coral. Bottom left: Yellow Clown Goby, Gobiodon
okinawae. Above: Blackfin or Panda Coral Goby, Paragobiodon
lacunicolus.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 5.25 gallons (20 L) and up.
Food: Fine frozen and dry foods; adults will also take
larger morsels (for example Artemia and Mysis).
Degree of difficulty: Low.
Hints for maintenance: Keep in pairs; suitable; host corals
must be present (if necessary leather corals, for example
Sinularia or Sarcophyton).
TOP RIGHT: E. THALER; OTHERS: I. KRAUSE
Goby, G. citrinus, seen just as frequently in the trade, is
not a pygmy goby as defined earlier, as it attains a length
of around 2.25–2.75 inches (6–7 cm); however, it is no
different in behavior from its smaller relatives and can
be kept in the same way in the aquarium.
Their relatives belonging to the sister genus Paragobiodon
differ from Gobiodon species in being somewhat
smaller and daintier, and at first glance there are hardly
any visible anatomical differences between the two genera.
They are only of extremely minor significance for
the aquarium hobby, although the pretty little Blackfin
or Panda Coral Goby, P. lacunicolus, as well as the secretive
Emerald Coral Goby, P. xanthosoma, would be very
interesting to keep in a nano reef aquarium.
All Gobiodon and Paragobiodon species also lay their
eggs, which they guard until they hatch, among the
branches of the host coral. Part of the coral skeleton is
cleared of tissue for the purpose. However, coral gobies
do not obligatorily feed on coral polyps as is sometimes
assumed, and healthy corals will withstand the damage
caused by the tiny gobies without a problem.
GENUS LOTILIA
The genus Lotilia is monotypic: its one species is the distinctive
Whitecap Goby, Lotilia graciliosa, which is an especially
spectacular fish with an attractive bi-color garb
of nougat brown and ivory. It lives in symbiosis with the
Redspotted Pistol Shrimp, Alpheus rubromaculatus, and
in so doing behaves in a very similar fashion to the partner
gobies of the genus Stonogobiops, with which it is
sympatric in some parts of the Indo-Pacific.
The unusual coloration of L. graciliosa is a shining
example of the way that form always follows function
in the wild: the dividing line between the light and dark
Whitecap Goby,
Lotilia graciliosa
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65

genus, it is mainly the Northern Convict Goby, P. boreus,
followed by the Girdled Goby, P. cincta, and the White
Tiger Goby, P. nocturna, that are regularly imported for
the ornamental fish trade.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 5.25 gallons (20 L) upward.
Food: Fine frozen food; adults will also take larger morsels,
for example Artemia and Mysis.
Degree of difficulty: Low.
Hints for maintenance: Keep in pairs; feed frequently using
small portions.
Northern Convict
Goby, Priolepis
boreus, is a cave
dweller that often
poses upside down.
parts of the body runs diagonally precisely above the eye
of the fish. The eyes are the most vulnerable part of any
animal and the primary target for predators—not least
because the latter always aim to seize their prey securely
by the head. But the bold contrast between light and
dark immediately above the eye makes the latter practically
invisible.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 8 gallons (30 L) and up.
Food: Fine frozen food, perhaps even dry food;
adults will also take larger morsels, for example
Artemia and Mysis.
Degree of difficulty: Medium.
Hints for maintenance: If possible, keep in pairs
and always with Alpheus rubromaculatus (if that
isn’t possible, A. randalli).
GENUS STONOGOBIOPS
We regard Stonogobiops as the only genus from the symbiotic
goby group that belongs to the pygmy gobies.
Apart from their size, its seven species closely resemble
their larger relatives (for example, the genera Amblygobius,
Cryptocentrus) and are characterized by anatomical
features such as fused ventral fins and a comparatively
large mouth. An extremely long, lance-like first dorsal
fin is characteristic of the Filament-finned Prawn Goby,
S. nematodes, S. medon, and the Yasha Goby, S. yasha,
but the Dracula Goby, S. dracula, Larson’s Shrimp Goby,
S. larsonae, The Fivebanded Goby, S. pentafasciata, and
the Yellownose Prawn Goby, S. xanthorhinica, have only
a moderately enlarged, rounded first dorsal fin.
These enchantingly beautiful gobies live in symbiotic
partnership with pistol shrimps of the genus Alpheus on
sandy bottoms in the vicinity of Info-Pacific reefs—a fascinating
relationship that also works extremely well when
they are kept together in the reef aquarium. Two species
play a role in the aquarium hobby above all others: Stonogobiops
nematodes and the much-coveted Yasha Goby, S.
yasha, which, despite the price, is much in demand on
Dracula Goby,
Stonogobiops dracula
BOTTOM: E. THALER; BOTTOM RIGHT: D. KNOP; OTHERS: I. KRAUSE
GENUS PRIOLEPIS
All the so-called convict goby species of the genus
Priolepis swim upside down. These unusual
little gobies from the Pacific are all cave dwellers,
which normally move around belly up as an adaptation
to their way of life, thereby maintaining
contact with the ceiling of the cave. With their
large heads and mouths to match, these little
fishes, usually only around 1.25 inches (3 cm)
long, can capture astonishingly large items of
plankton, but their lack of a swim bladder makes
them only moderately good swimmers that move
adroitly only in their own special environment,
that is, among rocks. Of the 34 species in this
66 CORAL

Candystripe Goby,
Trimma cana
Redface Pygmy Goby, Trimma benjamini
Redspotted Dwarf Goby,
Trimma rubromaculatum
TK
account of its brilliant red and white coloration.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 8 gallons (30 L) and up.
Food: Fine frozen food, perhaps also dry food; adults will
also take larger morsels, for example Artemia and Mysis.
Degree of difficulty: Medium.
Hints for maintenance: Keep
in pairs and together with the
appropriate pistol shrimp (depending
on the species, usually
Alpheus randalli); feed frequently
using small portions.
If underfed, these gobies will
become emaciated and are
then very sensitive.
GENUS TRIMMA
Its wealth of species (69 taxa)
and wide geographical distribution
(the entire Indo-Pacific)
make the genus Trimma
probably the most important
genus in the pygmy goby
group, not least, of course,
because a comparatively large
number of species are available
for maintenance in the
reef aquarium and do very
well there if treated correctly. These little fishes, which
measure only 1.25–1.5 inches (3–4 cm) long, are very
sedentary in their habits, and unlike Eviota species, for
example, swim hardly at all—not even to capture plankton,
preferring to remain “sitting” on a coral. This
means they require very little space and are thus very
popular for populating even exceptionally small nano
reef aquariums.
The most striking anatomical feature of the genus
Trimma is the position of the eyes relatively high on the
head, a characteristic of a substrate-oriented fish that
has to deal mainly with attack from above. Males often
exhibit a not particularly striking, but noticeable prolongation
of the first dorsal-fin ray. This character can make
it significantly easier to select pairs for aquarium maintenance.
The best-known member of this genus is the
bright red and white striped Candystripe Goby (T. cana),
followed by the Firecracker Goby, T. rubromaculatum, the
Greybeard Pygmy Goby, T. annosum, the Redface Dwarf
Goby, T. benjamini, and the Caesiura Goby, T. caesiura.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 4 gallons (15 L) upward.
Food: Fine frozen and dry food, CYCLOP-EEZE.
CORAL
67

Greybeard Pygmy Goby,
Trimma annosum
Stripehead Pygmy Goby,
Trimma striata, is a typical
cave dweller that often hovers
belly up.
Dart Goby, Tryssogobius colini. Anyone seeing these extraordinary
little fishes from the Western Pacific for the
first time will be left in no doubt that they are related to
the fairytale elves. The gleaming silver-white body of this
little dartfish is edged with delicate blue and gold and is
best appreciated under bluish lighting, as in its natural
habitat at depths of up to 260 feet (80 m). Here T. colini
lives in small groups and swims in the open water to
capture plankton, exhibiting a certain similarity to the
much larger dartfishes of the genus Nemateleotris, which
likewise belong to the family Ptereleotridae. Like practically
all open-swimming pygmy gobies that live on the
finest zooplankton (Aioliops, for example), T. colini has a
very high energy requirement in relation to its body size,
and this must be catered to. For this reason attempts at
aquarium maintenance are not always successful.
In the aquarium
Aquarium size: 5.25 gallons (20 L) upward.
Food: Very fine frozen food and plankton (for example
lobster eggs, tiger copepods, CYCLOP-EEZE).
Degree of difficulty: High.
Hints for maintenance: Keep in pairs; group maintenance
is possible only in large aquariums. Feed small portions
as often as possible, at least three times daily.
REFERENCES
Degree of difficulty: Medium.
Hints for maintenance: Keep in pairs or in groups in
aquariums of 16 gallons (60 L) or more.
GENUS TRYSSOGOBIUS
With only five species this genus is very small, but in
no way uninteresting, even though only a single species
is of aquarium-hobby importance, namely the Blue Eye
Debelius, H. and R. Kuiter. 2006. World Atlas of Marine Fishes.
Kosmos, Stuttgart, Germany.
Michael, S.W. 2005. A PocketExpert Guide: Reef Aquarium Fishes.
Microcosm/TFH, Neptune City, New Jersey.
Moyle, P. and J. Cech. 2004. Fishes. An Introduction to
Ichthyology. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Nelson, J. 1994. Fishes of the World. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Storch, V. and U. Welsch. 1997. Systematische Zoologie. Fischer,
Stuttgart, Germany.
Blue Eye Dart Goby, Tryssogobius colini
BOTTOM: P. SCHMEIDEL; OTHERS: D. KNOP
68 CORAL

69
CORAL
69

TK
You Baster !
OVERVIEW:
Pygmy
Gobies
in the sea
and the aquarium
How can one provide an overview of a “fish
family” that isn’t one at all? I will summon
up the courage to try. As already mentioned
in the preceding articles, the fishes termed
“pygmy gobies” by aquarists aren’t actually
a discrete systematic unit, but rather a random
assemblage of small, attractive species,
usually less than 2 inches (5 cm) long and
generally suitable for aquarium maintenance.
The problem is, in fact, two-fold. On the
one hand there are so many small gobies
measuring less than 2 inches (5 cm) that
it would take many pages of CORAL to list
them all. In addition, we are really looking
at several fish families: some familiar species,
for example the Blue Eye Dart Goby,
Tryssogobius colini, have not been regarded
as “real” gobies (family Gobiidae) for some
years, and are now assigned to the dartfishes
(Ptereleotridae), which constitute a separate
family.
The list that follows is simply an overview
of the genera mentioned in the preceding
articles, with color-coding to show their status
in the aquarium hobby.
—Inken Krause
KEY
ORANGE =
regularly imported for
the aquarium hobby
Genus Aioliops
A. megastigma
plus 3 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Bryaninops
B. ampulus
B. natans
B. yongei
plus 7 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Coryphopterus
C. lipernest
C. personatus
plus 13 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Discordipinna
D. griessingeri
Genus Elacatinus
E. chancei
E. dilepis
E. evelynae
E. figaro
E. genie
E. horsti
E. lori
E. macrodon
E. multifasciatus
E. oceanops
E. prochilos
E. puncticulatus
E. randalli
E. xanthiprora
plus 21 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Eviota
E. albolineata
E. bifasciata
E. nigriventris
E. pellucida
E. zebrina
plus 57 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
GREEN =
very rarely seen in the
trade
70
CORAL

Genus Gobiodon
G. acicularis
G. albofasciatus
G. atrangulatus
(G. citrinus)
G. histrio
G. oculolineatus
G. okinawae
G. quinquestrigatus
G. reticulatus
G. rivulatus
G. spilophthalmus
G. unicolor
plus 8 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Lotilia
L. graciliosa
Genus Paragobiodon
P. echinocephalus
P. lacunicolus
P. modestus
P. xanthosoma
plus 1 species for
which no
details of
aquarium
maintenance
are available.
Genus Priolepis
P. boreus
P. cincta
P. hipolti
P. nocturna
P. nuchifasciata
plus 3 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Stonogobiops
S. dracula
S. nematodes
S. xanthorhinica
S. yasha
plus 3 species for which
no details of aquarium
maintenance are available.
Genus Trimma
T. anaima
T. annosum
T. benjamini
T. caesiura
T. cana
T. okinawae
T. rubromaculatum
T. striatum
T. tevegae
plus 60 species for which no details
of aquarium maintenance are
available.
Genus Tryssogobius
T. colini
plus 4 species for which no details
of aquarium maintenance are
available.
You Not
Baster !
Julian’s Thing ® is a NEW
multi-purpose device.
Use it for feeding corals,
for feeding anemones,
for feeding zoanthids,
for feeding seahorses and
other timid fishes. Use it
for applying solutions onto
Aiptasia and manjano
anemones. Use it for
siphoning up detritus or
for blowing jets into the
substrate to clean along the
windows. With replaceable
tips. Length extendable to 36
inches. Patent pending.
Designed by Julian Sprung.
Julian’s Thing is
NOT for Turkeys.
TK
Two Little Fishies Inc.
1007 Park Centre Blvd.
Miami Gardens, FL 33169 USA
www.twolittlefishies.com
CORAL
71

A CORAL BY ANY OTHER NAME…
Before the question may be addressed, it is
necessary to define what is meant by “coral.”
While the vernacular term “coral” is not
all-encompassing, it does include more than
its fair share of living creatures. There are
many different types of animals that can legitimately
be called corals. The term “coral”
is a vague common name, and a recent brief
scan of some Internet reef aquarium hobby
sites found that everything from A, for “algae,”
to Z, for “zoanthids,” was found listed
as coral. But scientifically speaking, neither
the alga (in this particular case Sargassum)
nor zoanthids are actually corals.
Using a bit of biological categorization,
a coral may be defined as either a cnidarian
animal possessing an internal or external
skeleton of calcium carbonate and/or
protein in a massive form or in the form of
crystalline structures embedded in the animal’s
tissues, or as a cnidarian animal derived
from an ancestor that possessed such
a skeleton. The first animals to be referred
to as corals were individuals of the gorgonian
species, Corallium rubrum, the so-called
“precious coral” from the Mediterranean
Sea. Presently, at least some biologists would
consider as corals all octocorals, all stony—
or scleractinian—corals, all mushroom polyps,
all black corals, and all hydrocorals. Zoanthids
and sea anemones are not corals, as
they lack several specific structures found in
the stony corals.
All corals are members of the Phylum
Cnidaria, a distinctive animal group having
a number of specific and unique characteristics.
Most of these characteristics do not
help to answer the question of how long a
coral may live. However, there is one characteristic
that is very important in this regard:
Many cnidarian animals do not seem to
show old age or senescence. Phrased another
way, they don’t get old, whatever “getting
old” means. The only cnidarian animals
that appear to die of old age are jellyfishes,
and we are really not sure that they die of
something similar to what we call old age
in other animals. It may truly be said that
most cnidarian animals are potentially immortal.
They can live until they die of injury,
disease, predation, or some other environ-
Lophelia pertusa, a deepwater scleractinian,
photographed at 1,475 feet in the Gulf of Mexico.
Orange Cup Coral, Balanophyllia elegans,
a cool-water species found from southern
California to British Columbia. Photographed at
the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Previous page: Australian
Institute of Marine Science researcher studying an
ancient Porites lobata on the Great Barrier Reef.
UPPER: TEWY/CREATIVE COMMONS. LEFT: NOAA OCEAN EXPLORER.
74 CORAL

PREVIOUS SPREAD: ERIC MATSON/AUSTRALIA INSTITUTE OF MARINE SCIENCE
mental factor (boredom, perhaps).
So the answer to the question “How long can a coral
live?” has to be determined statistically. Every moment
of a coral’s life, it has a small but finite probability of
being killed by something. It is a statistical truism that if
enough time elapses, all events with a finite probability
of occurrence will eventually occur. So, sooner or later,
a coral’s time will run out. However, it will not die after
a normal “life span” of years such as the human’s three
score and ten. While human bodies effectively wear out,
coral bodies do not.
ANOTHER COMPLICATION
In organisms that reproduce only by sexual reproduction,
there is no difference between the age of their body and
that of their genome. The genome exists only in the cells
of the one unique organism created with the fusion of
an egg and a sperm forming the zygote, or fertilized egg.
This first moment when a sexually reproduced organism
has its genome provides an unambiguous starting point
for a life span. Determining such an organism’s age is an
obvious process, provided it is possible to find some way
to measure it.
Of course, sexual reproduction isn’t the only way organisms
can reproduce. Reproduction sans sex produces
clones, body fragments, or spores that already have the
complete genome necessary for life. While sexual reproduction
always results in a unique genome for each
unique offspring, asexual reproduction results in duplicate
individuals, each with the “parental” genome and
some part of the parental body. In these cases, while the
“parental” individual may die, the genome and at least
some of its body may live on, sometimes for a very great
length of time.
THE TIME OF THEIR LIVES
Some aquarists may be familiar with the miniscule rotifers,
animals having only about 1,000 cells. Many rotiferan
species—such as Brachionus plicatilis, commonly
used as a live food in marine aquarium systems—reproduce
sexually; however, one rotiferan group, the “bdelloid
rotifers,” reproduces wholly and entirely by asexual
means. Lacking males or hermaphrodites, bdelloid rotifer
lineages have absolutely no means of sexual reproduction.
There is no evidence whatsoever that bdelloids
have either genetic recombination or exchange. Each
parthenogenic bdelloid female gives “virgin” birth to babies
that are perfect clones of their mother. While each
individual only lives a short time, often just a few days,
the unique individual genetic lineages, or genomes, appear
to have been distinct and unchanged for at least 40
million years. Although it is enormously unlikely, it is
still theoretically possible that some infinitesimal fraction
of maternal material could have been passed from
mother to daughter through all of that time, so that at
least some of the original progenitor could be present in
today’s daughter, making at least some small part of her
really, really old.
The winners for potential life spans from asexually
reproducing organisms, though, are neither rotifers nor
animals, but probably some halophilic (salt-loving) archaebacteria
sampled from inside of microscopic brine
bubbles enclosed in chunks of solid rock salt mined from
deep in an Austrian salt mine. These microbes, Halococcus
salifodinae, were isolated in 2002 and subsequently
scientifically described. They are presumed to have remained
viable since their entrapment within the rock
salt about 250 million years ago! Although such a life
span may sound utterly beyond belief, there are now a
significant number of studies indicating that these, and
numerous similar examples of living bacteria, actually
have lived that entire length of time, slowly metabolizing
various nutrients from the fluid inclusions where
they are found. These organisms may be clones of their
ancient progenitors or they may actually be the same
organisms that were alive at the beginning of their entrapment,
well before the first dinosaurs were the dream
for the future of some archaic reptile; in either case,
CORAL
75

the same genome is likely present, and both the genome
and the asexually reproducing individual could have the
same immense age.
Scientists who study corals recognize two major lineages
of scleractinian corals: “robust” corals and “complex”
corals. Although it is too much of a simplification
to say that all robust corals, such as Porites, form massive
colonies and all complex corals, such as acroporids, form
branching colonies, there is a trend that way. Tropical
reef corals generally have the capability to reproduce
asexually by fragmentation, but this is much more prevalent
in the branching corals. Probably the best example
of this would be a shallow-water Indo-Pacific Acropora
thicket or the “used-to-be” Acropora cervicornis meadows
in the Caribbean. Every time a reef-pounding storm
blew through, the coral fragmented and started anew.
This was natural coral fragging on a huge scale; but how
old is any piece of that mass of fragments? The genome
that was in the original founder polyp might conceivably
be centuries old, but it would be very hard to find it and
confirm that, although if the original attachment skeleton
was still present, radiometric means would be capable
of determining it. The original coral may be either
long, long, long dead or very much alive. But the coral’s
genome lives on in a lot of places. A question one might
ask is, “Once established, how long does the genome in
one of these coral thickets live?” I suspect the answer
will be: “Until global climate change wipes out the whole
clonal population.”
Porites lobata, one of several
massive, mounding species in a
genus whose oldest known member
has been found to be more than
1,000 years of age.
COUNTING THE CANDLES ON THE CORAL
CAKE
How can the age of a coral be determined? This is where
the nitty of the coral “type” meets the gritty of age. The
ages of different coral types have to be determined differently,
and as such are not strictly
comparable. Many scleractinians,
particularly the massive
forms, such as Porites, deposit
their skeletons continuously in
a manner analogous to the way tree rings are formed.
The polyp sits in the skeletal cup, or corallite, and secretes
new skeleton at the interface between the coral’s
epidermis and the adjacent skeleton. Skeletal density
varies depending on the available light and the temperature,
and these physical factors, in turn, vary in a
predictable manner thoughout the year. As a result, just
like tree rings, the skeleton produced by a massive coral
shows growth banding.
At the other extreme of the animals called “corals”
is the black coral, whose skeleton is wholly a hardened
proteinaceous material. These animals may deposit yearly
growth rings or increments, but they are usually too
small to measure, particularly in slowly growing individuals.
However, as they grow, these animals incorporate
carbon isotopes in their skeletons, and with careful sampling
the differences in the isotope ratios can be used to
determine age by radiometric means.
Finally, some of the octocorals, such as gorgonians
and sea pens, have an internal skeleton containing sizable
amounts of both protein and calcium carbonate.
PETER ISDALE/AIMS
76 CORAL

Australian researchers
taking core samples from a
large Porites colony to track
weather patterns going back
centuries and recorded in the
coral’s growth layers.
ERIC MATSON/AIMS
Depending on the species, either banding or radiometric
means (or both) may be necessary to determine the individual’s
age.
LIFE SPANS
Ages have been determined for some representative corals,
and they range from about 11 years to over 4,000
years (Table 1). A quick perusal of Table 1 shows that
the ages appear to vary by coral taxonomic type and by
depth. Presently, the few data we have tend to indicate
that deep-water corals live a lot longer than shallowwater
corals. This is probably due to increased predation
and environmental perturbations in shallower habitats.
However, keep in mind that the ages of very few coral
species or specimens have been determined, so generalizations
should be considered very tentative. As more corals
are investigated, corals that, as a species, tend to grow
older will be found. Likewise, older individuals of what
are normally considered to be short-lived species will be
found, so the known life spans of corals will become longer.
Additionally, the listed data are only approximations
of the maximum ages of the species listed; in virtually
all cases these data are from very small sample sizes (in
some cases, the sample size was one). Therefore, these
numbers should all be regarded as minimal and tentative
estimates of the maximum ages.
Given the wide array of animals covered by the blanket
name of “coral,” it stands to reason that there is a
wide variety of “oldest” ages for the various types of corals.
As part of the process of determining the age of a
coral, it is necessary to specify the type of coral in question.
Most aquarium hobbyists probably assume that the
corals are scleractinians or “stony” corals, but even here,
the answer is complicated by the fundamental diversity
of the group, the habitats occupied by the various species,
and the evolutionary history of the specific species.
Consequently, I divided the table into various sections by
the type of coral.
THE ELDERS
Although corals are commonly thought of as tropical
animals, fewer than half of the described coral species
CORAL
77

are found on shallow-water tropical reefs, and most of
the unknown species are presumed to be in deep-water
habitats. In terms of higher-level taxonomic diversity,
far more types of corals are found in areas other than
tropical reefs. This richness in different coral varieties is
particularly evident in deeper waters, as has become increasing
apparent over the last decade or two. So far, over
3,300 species of stony corals alone have been recorded
from the deep sea.
It is worth remembering that the largest coral reef
in United States waters is in neither Hawai’i nor Florida
but in Alaska, off the south edge of the Aleutian arc, and
it is, for all intents and purposes, biologically unknown.
Very old Porites lobata on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia,
forming an intertidal ‘micro-atoll’ where its top has eroded.
But it is true that a few shallow-water temperate stony
corals are amongst the better known of all coral species.
In these cases, it appears easier to focus on the biological
attributes of a single coral species, if there are only one
or two species found in the region.
In the shallow waters of the west coast of North
America, the most common coral is the beautiful solitary
cup coral, Balanophyllia elegans. Large individuals reach
about an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. Lacking zooxanthellae,
they are completely dependent on feeding for their
nutrition; as a result, small B. elegans polyps grow slowly.
In most areas they probably take about a decade, or a bit
more, to reach sexual maturity. After that their growth
rate slows as excess energy is put into gamete production
rather than growth. As with many tropical corals,
B. elegans broods its larvae. They are released from the
parent in the autumn or winter, when the planulae glide
like flatworms out of their mother’s mouth. Unlike most
tropical corals, these larvae only disperse about 4 inches
(10 cm) before metamorphosing into small polyps.
Native to the region from central California to south
central Alaska referred to as the Oregonian biome, arguably
the most ecologically dynamic temperate marine
area known, these small corals face a perilous existence.
The bottom is rife with predators, from crabs to snails
to flatworms, and although it might be theoretically
possible for any given individual to have a long life, the
odds of being eaten set an upper age limit for any B.
elegans population. In the southern
parts of the species’ range, a
few individuals from each year’s
spawning cohort will last to the
ripe old age of 40 years or so before
their number is up. In more
northern areas, it appears that
the hazards facing the polyps are
much more intense, and the longest-lived
individuals do not live
much beyond 10 to 11 years. Few
temperate shallow-water corals
have been investigated, but short
life spans appear to the rule: two
Mediterranean species, B. europaea
and Leptopsammia pruvoti,
have measured life spans within
the extremes known for B. elegans.
Being colonial rather than
solitary, and possibly living in
tropical rather than temperate
waters, may confer a survival advantage
on shallow-water stony
corals. That statement, however, has to be taken as a cautionary
note rather than as a dictum. Relatively few data
on the maximum ages of tropical reef stony corals are
available, and these are, almost without exception, from
massive species, such as Porites. As some of these Porites
colonies are the largest known coral colonies, the ages for
them are probably good approximations of the maximum
ages for tropical massive stony corals. Porites species are
found throughout the tropics and large individuals have
been commonly found, in both the Caribbean and Indo-
Pacific, to reach ages of about 300 to 400 years. Generally,
these are large individuals that have been “cored”
and their growth bands counted. A few exceptionally
large colonies of (presumably) Porites lutea have been
described from various parts of the Indo-Pacific. Based
on comparison with smaller colonies and using known
grow rates, these massive individuals are estimated to be
from about 350 to over 1,000 years old. These animals
are simply too large to reliably core, so estimated ages are
ED LOVEL/AIMS: HTTP://CORAL.AIMS.GOV.AU/
78 CORAL

TABLE 1.
Measured or determined coral ages. Depth of the specimen: S = less than 100 m, D = more than 100 m. Zoox = Zooxanthellae
present. Est = Values estimated or “quantitatively” determined based on measured growth rates and other data.
AGES
CLASS ANTHOZOA SPECIES (YEARS) DEPTH ZOOX REFERENCES
Hexacorallia
Scleractinia Balanophyllia elegans 11 S No Fadlallah, 1985
Leptopsammia pruvoti 13 S No Goffredo et al., 2010
Balanophyllia europaea 20 S No Goffredo et al., 2004
Balanophyllia elegans 30–40 S No Gerrodette, 1979
Desmophyllum cristagalli 200+ Est D No Risk et al., 2002
Enallopsammia rostrata 200 D No Adkins et al., 2004
605 Houlbrèque et al., 2010
Porites lutea 221 S Yes Hudson, 1985
360–800 Est Brown et al., 2009
Lophelia sp. 366 D No Breeze et al., 1997
Porites sp. 425 S Yes Hendy et al., 2003
Porites lutea 1000+ Est S Yes Soong, 1999
Octocorallia
Pennatulacea Ptilosarcus gurneyi 25 S No Birkeland, 1972
Halipteris willemoesi 44 S No Wilson et al., 2002
Gorgonacea Corallium secundum 71 D No Roark et al., 2006
Antipatharia
Muricea sp. 100 S Yes Grigg, 1974
Corallium rubrum 105 S No Gallmetzer et al., 2010
Primnoa resedaeformis 112 D No Andrews et al., 2002
Corallium sp. 220 D No Druffel et al., 1990
Paragorgia arborata 200–400 D No Tracy, D. et al. 2003
Primnoa resedaeformis 300+ Est D No Risk et al., 2002
Savalia sp. 450 D No Roark et al., 2006
1,800 Druffel et al., 1995
2,742 Roark et al., 2009
Antipathes dichotoma 32 S No Roark et al., 2006
Leiopathes sp. 4,265 D No Roark et al., 2009
Leiopathes glaberrima 2,377 D No Roark et al., 2006
CLASS HYDROZOA
Milleporina Millepora sp. 10 S No Lewis, 2006
probably all that we will ever have for them.
In 2009 the largest and, probably, oldest massive coral
yet to be found, a huge mushroom-shaped Porites lutea
colony, was described as being located in 56 feet (17 m)
of water in American Samoa. It appears healthy; about
98 percent of the upper surface area is covered with living
tissue. Excluding the surface covering the non-living
basal skeleton upon which it rests, the maximum arcs
across the upper surface measure 112 x 66 feet (34 x
20 m). Assuming a smooth hemispherical surface and
a polyp size of 1 mm 2 , the living tissue contains an estimated
200 million polyps. The skeleton was estimated to
CORAL
79

Savalia savaglia, formerly known as
Gerardia savaglia, a deepwater species
photographed by NOAA’s Hawai’i Undersea
Research Laboratory.
have a dry weight of approximately 440 billion pounds
(129 metric tons). Taking into account the annual mean
water temperature, the core skeletal density, and published
upward growth rates of about 0.4 inch (1 cm)
per year for massive Porites, this giant was estimated to
be between 360 and 800 years old, although there are
enough fudge factors built into the calculations that it
could be considerably older. Similar, and possibly older,
Porites colonies have been described from Taiwan; however,
because they are significantly damaged, their age
determinations are somewhat questionable.
Although it certainly is the case with Porites, it doesn’t
necessarily follow that other old stony coral colonies are
huge. Small individuals with very slow growth rates undoubtedly
exist. Nor does it necessarily follow that the
most massive colonies are the oldest of the scleractinia.
Individuals of very old branching species, such as staghorn
Acropora, may well exist but be indistinguishable
from young individuals due to the pattern of fragmentation
and regrowth exhibited by these species. Growth
rates of Acropora cervicornis in its heyday were as much
as 10 inches (25 cm) per year in elongation. These corals
propagated and spread primarily by fragmentation.
In other words, their whole physiological growth pattern
precluded colonies that were large and old. If these acroporids
had a philosophy of growth, it would be: “Live
Fast, Break Young, Grow Everywhere, Repeat as Necessary.”
The possibilities for growth patterns resulting in
very old, shallow-water, tropical coral reef corals appear
almost endless, but much more work to determine ages
must be done.
STONED IN THE DEEPS
Both solitary and colonial stony corals that are more
than a century old have been found in cold deep-water
regions. A large, solitary cup coral, Desmophyllum cristagalli,
has fist-sized polyps reaching
about 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter.
Specimens of D. cristagalli over 200
years old have been found throughout
the world’s oceans at depths from
about 328 feet (100 m) to over 2.5
miles (4000 m).
Colonial stony corals, such as
Enallopsammia rostrata and various
Lophelia species, have also been found
together with D. cristagalli throughout
the world in similar depths. Although
smaller, nowhere near as robust, and
often white, E. rostrata colonies bear
a passing resemblance to the large, greenish, branching
Tubastraea micrantha found commonly in shallow
waters in the Indo-Pacific. Individuals of many E.
rostrata colonies have been determined to be between
200 and 600 years old.
Some Lophelia colonies are bizarre-looking,
growing into three-dimensional meshes over 10
feet (3 m) high that somewhat resemble the skeletons
of geodesic domes, with the 1.2-inch (3-
cm) diameter polyps being found at the points
where various branches connect. Smaller Lophelia
species, under 3.25 feet (1 m) high, often
contribute the majority of the structure in many
deep-water reefs. Lophelia specimens have been
commonly found to be in excess of a century old,
and many samples are older than 300 years. Although
as old as some Porites, these deep-water
colonies are not particularly large; their growth
rates are much slower, which is probably due to
food limitation rather than temperature.
OCTOCORAL AGES
The octocoral groups are taxonomically as much
of a mess as are the scleractinians. In particular,
the leather corals have recently been found to
be essentially unidentifiable using current/traditional
methods. Fortunately for this article, the
ages of leather corals cannot effectively be determined—a
fact that, in this case, likely saves a lot
of authorial arm waving.
The sea pens form one good octocorallian
group whose taxonomy actually makes sense, being
supported by both genetic and anatomical
characteristics. Given the situation in the rest of
the corals, this fact deserves a GASP! of taxonomic
astonishment. Sea pens are mobile soft corals
LEFT: HURL WWW.SOEST.HAWAII.EDU/HURL/ RIGHT: BRIAN J. SKERRY/NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC STOCK
80 CORAL

that anchor themselves in soft, unconsolidated sediments.
Lacking any protective skeleton, they are meals
for any predators that can eat them, and at least one
species, Ptilosarcus gurneyi, has even been described as a
primary resource species because of the number of predators
that the sea pen populations support—four species
each of sea stars and nudibranchs. It literally forms the
basis for its community, but does so by “acting” more
like a plant than an animal. The life histories of a couple
of shallow-water, temperate region sea pens have been
determined, and their maximum ages range from 25 to
40 years. Like the small, temperate stony coral Balanophyllia
elegans, sea pens survive by avoiding predation, at
the same time running the predation gauntlet of huge
populations of predators. Although they probably have
the potential to live much longer, the odds don’t favor
longevity for these shallow-water species. There are many
populations of deeper-water sea pens, however, whose
life histories are essentially unknown, and these animals
may, like other deep-water corals, live much longer than
some of their shallow-water cousins.
FANNING OUT
Appearing rather flimsy compared to stony corals, sea fans
don’t get the respect they deserve. Being built to bend, flex,
and go with the flow, gorgonians appear to be unlikely
candidates for extreme longevity. However, as is often the
case with marine animals, appearances are deceiving. The
longest-lived of the shallow-water species that have been
aged to date appear to live a century or two. Some deep-sea
species, however, are some the longest living of all animals.
Paragorgia and Primnoa species, common in all seas
below 328 feet (100 m), appear to routinely live around
300 to 400 years. The record holders, however, are species
of Savalia. It is difficult to be sure just what species is being
examined, though; the usual taxonomic problems of corals
strike here, too. Nonetheless, that the specimens are
from Savalia there is no doubt. Referred to as “gold coral”
for the color of the jewelry their skeletons are turned into,
Savalia are moderately sized gorgonians, reaching around
3.25 feet (1 m) in height.
Several specimens were recently collected in waters
around some of the islands of Hawai’i from depths of
Dr. Enric Salas discovering a previously unknown lobed
stony coral, believed to be 500 years old, on Kingman
Reef in the northern Line Islands.
CORAL
81

around 1,476 feet (450 m), where the water temperature
is between 46 and 54°F (8–12°C), or roughly the
same as that found in Puget Sound, Washington; the age
of one of these was determined to be 2,742 years. The
specimens were not very large, less than 6.5 feet (2 m)
in height, and the radial growth rates of the branches,
or how fast a branch got thicker, were extremely low at
0.013–0.001 inch (4–35 μm) per year. Savalia individuals
of such ancient age are not restricted to Hawai’ian
waters; a Savalia skeleton that had lived 1,800 years before
it died was recently recovered near the Bahamas.
Large stand of staghorn Acropora.
Because they reproduce by fragmenting,
a particular genome could theoretically
be millions of years old.
THINGS ARE LOOKING BLACK
The Antipatharians, or black corals, are corals that have
wholly proteinaceous skeletons and small polyps with
only six tentacles. Typically found in deeper waters, a few
species are common at diving depths, and occasionally a
specimen is collected for the aquarium hobby. They may
be quite large, particularly the whip-like wire or whip
corals, Cirripathes species, which may reach over 16 feet
(5 m) in length as they extend from deep reef walls, but
most branching black corals look rather like gorgonians
and are found in the same size range, up to 65 feet (a
couple of meters) high. The common name, black coral,
reflects the color of the skeleton, not the color of the living
tissue, which typically is in hues of orange or yellow
for shallower forms.
Some of the deep-water species are stark white, as are
individuals of a number of other deep-water species, particularly
those of the stony coral Lophelia. Because the
skeletons of black corals are proteinaceous, their ages are
typically determined radiometrically, primarily using the
abundance of the radioactive 14 C isotope of carbon incorporated
into them as it was deposited. This isotope decays
into the stable 12 C at a known and highly calibrated rate.
By measuring the proportional abundances of both carbon
isotopes, the age of the sample can be determined.
To measure the ages of these corals, very small samples
of the skeleton are vaporized and the isotope abundances
are determined; then, using some reference data, it is
relatively easy to determine the age of the sample. Examination
of a few specimens of Antipathes dichotoma
from shallow, 164-foot-deep (50-m) Hawai’ian waters
showed ages from 12 to 32 years. These colonies were
also growing quite rapidly, adding as much as 0.04 inch
(1.1 mm) in branch diameter per year. On the other
hand, samples from several individual corals in what are
probably several different species of Leiopathes are the
“All-Coral” winners of the “olde age lottery.” One specimen
each of an indeterminate species and Leiopathes glaberrima
from near Hawai’i were 4,265 and 2,377 years
old, respectively. The radial growth rates of these colonies
were less than 5μm per year. Leiopathes species are ubiquitous
in the deep sea and have been collected from the
Northwest Pacific, near Antarctica, and many areas in
between. Given that the ages of fewer than a dozen speci-
CBPIX/SHUTTERSTOCK
82 CORAL

TK
CORAL
83

mens from this genus appear to have been determined,
the odds must be considerable that the ages of older animals—maybe
vastly older animals—await discovery.
FIRE IN THE HOLE
There is really no way to age the calcareous skeletons
of hydrocorals, and that presents particular problems in
determining their ages. They form small colonies, but it
certainly appears that some of them, particularly some
of the colder water stylasterines, may live quite long.
The few ecological studies on them indicate that once
the colony gets about a year old, it may last decades, but
there are no definitive data on how long they last. No
ecological studies have been undertaken that give any
idea of the parameters of individual growth rates, mortality
rates, or causes of death.
On the other hand, the milleporines, or fire corals,
of tropical reefs that form the other end of the coral age
scale from the deep-water “oldies” are reasonably well
studied. Fire corals are rapidly growing, highly adventitious,
and temporally transitory animals. In other words,
they are the coral equivalent of weeds and possess an
ecological growth strategy that can be summed up with
the phrase: “Live Fast, Die Young, and Leave a Butt-Ugly
Corpse.” Varying from reef to reef and species to species,
a reasonable average for the maximum age of most fire
coral colonies is about a decade. Maximal growth rates
appear to be around an inch (2.5 cm) a year.
SO…HOW OLD CAN A CORAL GET?
Obviously, it depends on the coral—both the coral type
and the specific coral species within any given type.
What it doesn’t seem to depend upon is geographical
region; old corals of one sort or another may be found
anywhere and everywhere. In Table 1, I have given a few
representative data about the extreme life spans for various
types of coral living in various habitats. Perhaps a
general rule of coral longevity may be developed, but if
so that rule—and the work to support it—are still largely
in the future. In the interim, it is probably best to deal
with those few coral species whose longevities have been
determined on a case-by-case basis.
Given the paucity of examples, it is prudent to avoid
drawing too many conclusions about coral ages, but
gingerly stepping out on the limb of the fragile branching
Acropora, I will make some. First, it appears that on
average, deep-water corals probably live longer than do
shallow-water ones. Second, it appears that long-lived
corals are slow-growing corals. Finally, there is the wild
card of asexual reproduction. To date, there has been
no study that gives us a handle on the longevity of the
genomes of highly fragmenting corals, such as various
84 CORAL

species of Acropora. Acroporids made their evolutionary
appearance about 35 million years ago, and if some of
the early species had the tendency to fragment, it is possible,
albeit unlikely, that some of the early genomes are
still with us, in a manner analogous to bdelloid rotifers.
Each individual fragment of the clone might only live
a few years, but clonal offspring could be around for a
long, long time.
It has been said many times by many biologists, including
the one writing this article, that at least some
corals may have the unrealized potential to live forever,
but obviously that is not necessarily true. Recent work
has shown that individual polyps may be subject to senescence
in Madracis mirabilis, and that, while the colony
may live a long time, any given polyp
may live no longer than a decade or two.
Thus, in colonial corals, while the whole
colony may live much longer, the polyps
comprising it may be replaced regularly.
Polyp replacement has not been investigated
in other corals, leaving a lot of
unanswered questions. For example, is
this property found only in zooxanthellate
corals? Or is it found only in certain
evolutionary lineages of colonial corals?
Recall that there are two main groups of
stony corals, the robust and the complex
lineages; colonial corals are found
within each group, but the dynamics of
polyp formation and replacement have
not been compared either within or between
them.
Do all colonies replace polyps? If so,
does the manner of polyp replacement
have a bearing on longevity? If not, is
the presence or absence of replacement
correlated in any way to life span? And if
polyps are replaced in all/some colonial
corals, what happens in solitary corals?
Is there, for example, some inherent factor
that limits the ages of coral polyps
and, by inference, solitary corals? And
what about the non-scleractinians?
Obviously, corals probably don’t live
forever; but some of them may live a
very long time, indeed. The growth rates
of corals given in this article vary over
a factor of 6,250, from about 4 μm/
year to about 25,000 μm/year; if these
growth rates were all assumed to be linear
extensions, then in a million years
these rates would give length extensions
of 13 feet (4 m) to 15.5 miles (25 km)
for corals at each of these extremes.
While a coral growing 15 miles in length
seems very unlikely, a coral growing 13
FIRST
feet seems entirely possible. And what about a coral that
breaks frequently? Could the cumulative linear growth
of all of the “offspring” from one branch be miles in
length after a million years of fragging? I certainly think
it is possible, even likely. And then there is the question
of how old some of the biggest of the very slow-growing
deep-sea corals are. The number of individual corals
from the deep sea whose ages have been determined and
published is far less than 100. Who knows what awaits a
diligent researcher curious about coral ages?
REFERENCES:
http://www.coralmagazine-us.com/content/elders-referencesage-corals
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CORAL
85

The author with a
rich haul: juveniles
of the Bermuda
Blue Angelfish,
Holacanthus
bermudensis.
Long Island Gold Rush
article and images by Todd Gardner
Each summer, a sort of gold rush
takes place in the waters off
Long Island, New York, as
crazed marine aquarium
hobbyists flock to the
inlets and bays of the
south shore in search
of exotic marine life.
The appearance of
these organisms—
most of which are
fishes—is the result
of a combination of
oceanographic and
biological phenomena.
Here is a brief explanation
of why it happens.
86 CORAL

Aquarists armed with nets go hunting for the exotic
coral fishes that suddenly appear by the thousands
off the coast of Long Island in the summer months.
The Gulf Stream flows northward along the Atlantic
coast of North America. It is part of a larger current system,
called the North Atlantic Gyre, that encircles the
entire North Atlantic Ocean. Although the Gulf Stream
is a surface current, it runs deep enough that it is bound
by the continental shelf. This explains why tropical
reef communities can be found in the inshore waters
of south Florida, well outside of the tropics, where the
continental shelf is very close to the shore. It also allows
tropical communities to flourish offshore on a narrow
band of the continental shelf as far north as Cape
Hatteras, North Carolina. The shape of Cape Hatteras
and its submarine extension, the continental shelf—
along with some help from the Coriolis effect—acts to
deflect the rapidly flowing Gulf Stream to the east of its
northward course. This puts the tropical, clear blue current
several hundred miles east of the coastline by the
time it reaches the latitude of Long Island. At its closest
approach to Long Island, the Gulf Stream averages approximately
200 miles away (to the southeast). North of
Cape Hatteras, the Gulf Stream is free of any continental
boundaries and its course becomes more erratic, shifting
and oscillating as a result of wind and the opposing
Labrador Current.
The Gulf Stream is just one of many factors contributing
to the climate and the species composition of
marine communities in New York and the rest of the
northeastern United States. Sport fishermen in search
of migratory species like tuna, mahi-mahi, and billfish
track eddies that spin off the main current and bring
The warm waters of the Gulf Stream, indicated in red, flow
northward, carrying tropical species to the cold North Atlantic.
pockets of tropical water closer to shore. Some of the
best fishing takes place at the boundary between the
warm tropical water of the Gulf Stream and the cool,
nutrient-rich water of the Labrador Current.
The ubiquitous Bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, uses
the Gulf Stream to disperse its larvae along the U.S.
coastline. The larvae develop as they ride the Gulf
Stream; then, taking cues from wave patterns, they head
for the coast when they reach a critical point in their
development. Like most marine fish species, the Bluefish
has a small pelagic larval stage. This reproductive strategy
is about producing an enormous number of offspring,
but putting very little energy into each one (the opposite
of our human reproductive strategy). It’s a common
CORAL
87

Among the species caught
off the Long Island coast
in the summer, attractively
colored damselfishes like
this Cocoa Damselfish,
Pomacentrus variabilis,
are the most suitable for
domestic aquariums.
approach among invertebrates and fishes, and when it
is applied in a dynamic aquatic environment like the
ocean, it has tremendous dispersal value. Just look at the
diversity of marine life around even the most remote of
tropical islands, or the extensive geographic range of a
single successful species like the Moorish Idol, Zanclus
cornutus, in the Pacific.
Of course, this strategy has its drawbacks, most notably
a very low survival rate among offspring. Furthermore,
if a marine fish larva spawned in an ocean current
like the Gulf Stream is lucky enough to survive its planktonic
stage by avoiding predators and finding enough to
eat in the nutrient-poor tropical water, there is still another
big hurdle to leap, and whether it can do so or not
falls largely to chance. The probability of any individual
larva ending up in a suitable habitat is small. Keep in
mind that most fish species live in relatively shallow water
and maintain a close association with some benthic
substrate (reef, sand, grass bed), but the average depth
of the ocean is more than 12,000 ft (3,790 meters). So
when a larval fish, adrift on the open ocean, reaches that
critical point of settlement—when it needs to leave the
plankton community and head for the substrate to continue
its juvenile development—there’s a good chance it
will be riding on top of the dark, near-freezing waters of
the abyss. Even if a larva is lucky enough to come into
contact with an island, reef, or continental margin, it
still may not reach a place that can provide the requisite
habitat within a suitable climate zone. For the tropical
fishes that end up in the waters off New York, this is
where their luck runs out. Although they may be luckier
than the ones that become stranded over the abyss, in
that they have an opportunity to survive and grow for
at least part of a season, most of them will die when the
water temperature dips below their tolerance threshold.
As soon as the ocean water warms to about 68°F
(20°C), which usually occurs in late June or early July,
the first post-larval tropical fishes can be found in the
shallow waters of any bay that opens directly to the
ocean. Often the first arrivals include groupers (Serranidae),
goatfishes (Mullidae), and jacks (Carangidae).
Other species, including butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae),
filefishes (Monacanthidae), and bigeyes (Priacanthidae),
tend to show up a few weeks later. As the summer
progresses, the abundance and diversity of tropical
species continues to increase until it reaches its peak
sometime in early September.
For local aquarium hobbyists this phenomenon presents
an opportunity to get a taste of
life on the opposite end of the supply
chain, and although many collectors
will tell you that they do it to save
money on stocking their aquariums,
they won’t think twice about spending
all afternoon (some using diving
and collecting gear worth thousands
of dollars) to outsmart a $3 damselfish
occupying a difficult crevice. At
some of the most popular collecting
sites you can see a steady stream of
bucket- and net-wielding fish col-
Juvenile Spotfin Butterflyfishes,
Chaetodon ocellatus, at Long Island
Aquarium and Exhibition Center,
formerly Atlantis Marine World.
88 CORAL

Above: A frequent summer visitor off Long Island, the
Short Bigeye (Pristigenys alta).
Right: Juvenile Queen Triggerfish, Balistes vetula.
lectors coming and going all day long, with peak
activity centered around the tides. Some of them
march proudly back from the shoreline displaying
their catch, while others are more secretive,
keeping their bucket lids as tight as their lips.
At high tide, when the seawater is clearest,
SCUBA divers dominate the scene, whereas snorkelers
and seine netters tend to prefer low tide,
when the subtidal zone is most accessible to the
unfortunate souls who are bound to the surface
for air. Another group waits until nightfall to
descend upon the marinas and tide pools with
spotlights and dipnets. Whether it’s a slumbering
Spotfin Butterflyfish (Chaetodon ocellatus) or
a nocturnal bigeye, almost any fish frozen in the beam of
a bright light is an easy catch.
Most of the people I run into collecting stray tropicals
are just doing it for fun. They are aquarium hobbyists
trying to feed their addiction by playing an active role
in the acquisition of their animals. Aquarists are generally
proud to show off their tanks, but when they’re able
to say “I caught all these fish myself, and there’s a story
behind each one—I nearly got swept out to sea trying to
catch that tang,” or “Here’s the scar from where that
jet ski grazed my head while I was trying to coax that
Blue Angel out from under a cement drain pipe,” it becomes
much more impressive—especially in a place like
New York that isn’t usually associated with tropical reef
communities. Of course, there will always be people who
can’t be satisfied to simply enjoy a hobby, and either try
to profit from it or just become obsessed. I fall into the
obsessed group. If I had had any aspirations of making
money, I would have chosen a very different career path.
The idea of trying to start a business that revolves
around this phenomenon has certainly crossed my mind,
and probably the minds of everyone who has been out
there filling coolers with butterflyfishes and lookdowns
in the near-perfect weather of a Long Island Indian summer;
but when you stop to consider that there are really
only two months of decent collecting, and that the species
abundance and diversity from year to year are completely
unpredictable, it becomes evident that it is just
not feasible. Nevertheless, every year I see or hear about
someone trying to do just that. Of course, in principle I
CORAL
89

love the idea. Can you think of any kind of fish collecting
that is more sustainable than this? Many of these fishes
will not make it through the first week of November.
From the moment they entered the Gulf Stream, they
were removed from their population permanently. For
every stray tropical that makes it into the trade, there
is one less fish that needs to be removed from its reproductive
population in the tropics…right? Well, that’s
a matter for debate. The marine aquarium trade craves
diversity, and the fact is that the most common species
we see in New York waters are not necessarily among the
Much prized by aquarists: the little Striped Burrfish,
Chilomycterus schoepfi. This one has inflated itself with water
in response to capture. It must be handled very gently to avoid
injuring it.
most in-demand species in the trade. Would an infusion
of Spotfin Butterflyfish, Lookdowns (Selene vomer), Short
Bigeyes (Pristigenys alta), and Snowy Groupers (Epinephelus
niveatus) really have any impact on the number of
fishes being imported from the Caribbean or the Indo-
Pacific? Probably not, so I’ll steer clear of the claim that
this could help fish populations in the tropics. But while
I don’t believe there is such a thing as zero-impact fishing,
collecting stray tropicals outside of their range must
be about as close as you can get.
Some of the most exciting days of my life have been
spent collecting tropicals in the cool, murky waters off
Long Island, but I’ve also had a lot of terrible days out
there. I’ve seen a lot of people collecting who are not exactly
striving for zero impact. In case you’re now considering
mounting an excursion to the coast to save some
doomed tropical fishes while stocking your aquarium,
here are some tips to help keep your activities rewarding,
fun, legal, and sustainable:
1. Know your species. An exotic-looking fish is not necessarily
tropical. For example, the Lined Seahorse, Hippocampus
erectus, is not a tropical, but a resident species,
and individuals from the northern population don’t
thrive in tropical aquariums. Also, we have two local species
of wrasse. They both require cold water and one of
them is strictly regulated as a food and sport fish. It’s
important to remember that although tropical species
abound in certain localities in August and September,
the vast majority of fishes are local species that require
cooler water, and many of them have strict size and number
restrictions. If you have a cooler full of
baby flounders, Black Seabass (Centropristis
striata), and Tautog (Tautoga onitis), you
are not only being irresponsible, but you
may be facing thousands of dollars in fines.
2. Be gentle. Don’t let the frustrations
of the hunt turn you into a ruthless killer.
When you have a seine net filled with
seaweed, silversides, anchovies, and a few
tropicals, it may seem as if the easiest way
to locate the gems is to pull the entire net
out of the water so you can pick carefully
and methodically through the haul. However,
this will result in the certain death of
thousands of individuals of non-target species,
and this technique is about as sustainable
as fishing with dynamite or cyanide. If
you are in an area with a lot of unattached
seaweed or massive schools of bait fish, try
somewhere else or think about snorkeling
with a small hand net, but if you are determined
to seine and you are unwilling to find a better
spot, try shorter hauls and leave the fish-laden center of
the net in the water while you search for your quarry.
You will be surprised at how easy it is to spot the tropicals
swimming among the native species in the shallow
water. It is also much better for the health of all fishes
involved if you don’t allow them to lie in the net out of
water. A sandy net is a very effective device for removing
the protective slime coat and skin from a fish, and pretty
much guarantees that any fish lucky enough to survive
the initial physical stress will be dealing with secondary
infections for weeks.
3. Know the law. All coastal states, counties, and towns
have laws regulating the use of marine resources, and
many states, including New York, require a saltwater
fishing license to take any marine life out of the water.
The use of certain types of gear, such as seine nets, may
also be restricted. It can be quite embarrassing to have
your day of sustainable fish collecting end in fines for
illegal fishing.
4. Don’t take more fish than you are prepared to house.
Keep in mind that many of the species that we find here
are not compatible. Many others should not be considered
safe for a reef tank. Angels and butterflyfishes are
90 CORAL

CORAL
91

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coral eaters, while groupers, snappers, and bigeyes are large-mouthed predators.
The majority of species we see here will also outgrow any home aquarium.
The carangids are pelagic and many of them require tank sizes in the
thousands of gallons. The resemblance of the Blue-spotted Cornetfish (Fistularia
commersonii) to its distant relatives, the pipefishes, makes it easy to
forget that this species can reach a length of around 6 feet (2 meters).
5. Keep an eye on the weather. The wave surge of a hurricane that is still 500
miles (800 km) away can wreck the visibility for a week or more, and a blustery
autumn day can make it nearly impossible to manage a seine net. It’s a
sinking feeling to arrive at the Ponquogue bridge after a two-hour drive only
to have to abandon your dive plan.
6. Pay attention to the tides. The narrow inlets connecting the large south
shore bays with the ocean make for very strong and dangerous tidal currents.
Timing your dive with slack tide is critical in this area.
7. Be courteous to fishermen and landowners. If someone is fishing where
you had planned to jump into the water, find another spot. If they are blocking
your only access to the water, politely ask them if you can sneak by and
explain what you’re doing. It might even lead to an interesting conversation.
On the other hand, if you decide to boldly help yourself to your right to go
wherever you want, you risk making the day a little less pleasant for everyone.
Access to great collecting sites often involves walking through the backyards
of people who own waterfront property. Here again you can exercise your
right to trample all over the intertidal zone without having to answer to
anyone (because they can’t own below the high-tide line), or you can be
respectful, quiet, and friendly, taking care not to leave a pile of seaweed and
dead silversides all over the beach.
Another point worth considering is that at least a few of the tropical
species may not actually be doomed. There is evidence that some of the carangids
are simply using New York waters as a nursery, then making a southward
migration in the fall. Appearances of adult burrfish in the Great South
Bay in the spring, and bigeyes in the depths of the Hudson Canyon, call into
question whether we should be considering some of these fishes tropical at
all. Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that even the truly stranded tropicals
like butterflyfishes, groupers, and damselfishes may play an important
role in our local ecology. As the water cools and they begin to succumb, they
become easy prey for local and migratory species that need to bulk up in
preparation for winter dormancy or migration.
Whatever their ecological niche, these temporary residents of the waters
of New York contribute to a diversity of marine life that few people realize is
just beneath the surface. As I look out at the icy, windswept bay today, with
harbor seals bobbing in the waves and flocks of mergansers aiming into the
winter wind, it’s hard to imagine that in just a few months I’ll be out there
snorkeling, in search of these gems of New York for my own tanks.
Todd Gardner is a biologist and a staff member at the Long Island Aquarium
and Exhibition Center (formerly Atlantis Marine
World) in Riverhead, NY. He lives on Long
Island.
More on the Internet at www.youtube.com/watch?v
=Vc6m7pZ3BTc
A “nugget of gold” found off
Long Island: a juvenile Atlantic
Blue Tang (Acanthurus coeruleus).
92 CORAL

CORAL
93

CUBA’S
UNDERWATER
PARADISE:
Los Jardines de la Reina
article and images by Werner Fiedler
Only two species of the
genus Acropora occur in the
Caribbean, one of them being
the Elkhorn Coral (Acropora
palmata).
94 CORAL

Far off the south coast of Cuba lies a chain of tiny, uninhabited islands.
Columbus christened this remote archipelago Los Jardines de la Reina—the
Gardens of the Queen. Nowadays, diving there is like making a journey into
the past—the splendid reefs in this, perhaps the most unspoiled coral landscape
in the Caribbean, are still unspoiled and richly populated.
Part 1: Picturebook Caribbean Reefs
The Caribbean Sea is bounded to the north and east by the island chains of the Greater and Lesser
Antilles. Cuba, with a length of some 750 miles (1,200 km), acts as a significant land barrier to the
Atlantic Ocean. This, the largest island in the Antilles, possesses a particular wealth of coral reefs.
A considerable contribution to this wealth is made by the fringing reefs of the approximately 1,600
additional islands scattered around the mainland. There are 660 such specks of land just in the
archipelago known as Los Jardines de
la Reina—the Gardens of the Queen.
If you want to look up this area
on a map, you will find it a good way
off the south coast, roughly in the
middle of Cuba, east of the historic
town of Trinidad with its colonial architecture,
where the Golfo de Ana
Maria significantly shapes the outline
of the mainland. This inlet of
the sea, at whose head lies the little
harbor of the fishing village of Júcaro,
resembles a relatively shallow lagoon.
Far out to sea, along the edge of the
shelf, it is bounded by a chain of
low-lying coral islands, the Jardines
de la Reina. This unique archipelago
was originally named by Christopher
Columbus, who intended thereby to
honor Queen Isabella I of Castile,
who significantly supported his voyages
of discovery.
If the cayos—the little offshore
islands—are viewed from the open
Caribbean, it is easy to see that they
are the flat tops of fossil reefs that
protrude only slightly above sea level.
Their much-furrowed limestone faces
have been and are still being shaped
by the force of the waves. Beaches of
white coral sand have formed in sheltered
areas. By contrast the inner, lagoon
side is characterized by extensive
The sheer faces of the
exposed fringing reefs
are covered in sponges of
many different types.
CORAL
95

stands of mangroves, which alternate between practically
impenetrable and more open areas. A typical feature of
the entire area is a confusing labyrinth of natural channels
through which water streams in the rhythm of the
tides. The predominantly bushy vegetation on the long,
narrow islands can best be described as a collection of
different coastal plants.
FIRST IMPRESSIONS
Our speedboat roars out across the gulf for about 50
miles (80 km) from Júcaro to reach the broad passage between
the two cayos of Caballones and Anclitas. Here the
hotel ship La Tortuga, the only permanent place to stay
in the Jardines de la Reina, lies at anchor in a sheltered
bay surrounded by mangrove thickets. The 93-mile-long
(150-km) archipelago is uninhabited, has been protected
since 1997, and now has the status of a national park.
There is no commercial fishing here; only fly-fishing by
licensed anglers is permitted. No more than 400 divers
per year are allowed to explore this unspoiled underwater
world, and each is limited to one week of fishing.
There are attractive dive sites all along the side facing
the Caribbean. The bottom profile is significantly determined
by the Yucatan Basin. On nautical charts the underwater
contour lines lie close together, showing how
steeply the bottom drops away. The 1.2-mile (2,000-m)
isobath lies not far from the cayos. The exposed position
of the Jardines de la Reina has had a considerable influence
on the development of the imposing fringing reefs
and their rich fauna, which includes numerous openwater
species as well.
Before diving, we wanted to look around in the shallows
of the extensive reef top. We quickly arrived at one
of the sites suitable for snorkeling. Here the rays of the
sun, broken up by the waves, danced brightly through
the clear water and created an ever-changing pattern on
the limestone plateau, which lay barely more than 16
This young
colony of Knobby
Cactus Coral
(Mycetophyllia
aliciae) exhibits
the characteristic
marginal
swelling; only
larger specimens
form more or less
radially oriented
ridges.
feet (5 m) below us and was rather bare, swept clean by
the sometimes rough seas. Above this solid base towered
Elkhorn Corals (Acropora palmata) of such monumental
stature that the endless play of sunlight looked like
flickering stage lighting amid surreal scenery. Because
this coral species requires constant water movement and
hence grows only in the shallows, its spreading branches
are sometimes snapped off during violent storms. We
saw the results of this in another, rather battered site,
where only short stumps of huge branches remained after
a tornado had swept through.
The sometimes immense power of the sea is also the
reason we found mainly stony corals (for example Faviidae,
Poritidae) of compact growth. Shoals of grunts (for
example the French Grunt, Haemulon flavolineatum) and
snappers (for example the Schoolmaster Snapper, Lutjanus
apodus) inhabited the panorama, even though the
fishes liked to retire among or beneath
the corals. The Great Barracuda (Sphyraena
barracuda) is one of the top dogs
in this terrain. These solitary predators
command a lot of respect; they
often followed us and fixed us with
glassy stares. But if we tried to get close
enough to photograph them, they immediately
beat a retreat.
BIZARRE UNDERWATER
LANDSCAPES
The Caribbean harbors the greatest
wealth of species of reef-building corals
in the Atlantic Ocean. But the edifices
The coloration of the Lettuce Sea Slug
(Elysia crispata), which grows up to 2.25
inches (6 cm) long, varies considerably.
96 CORAL

we found here were very different from the burgeoning
reefs of the Indo-Pacific. One immediately noticeable difference
was the abundance of gorgonians (above all Plexauridae
and Gorgoniidae), masses of which occupied the
limestone mountains built by stony corals. They formed
elastic, bushy, and fan-shaped structures that swung to
and fro in the swell. Like the numerous branching stony
corals found elsewhere (in particular those of the genus
Acropora, which is poorly represented in the Atlantic),
these gorgonians are important to the fish fauna because
The long anal-fin spine is a striking feature of the Longjaw
Squirrelfish (Holocentrus marianus).
they provide cover. The second peculiarity of the Caribbean
reefs is their abundant sponge fauna, which made
the underwater landscape appear more colorful. In the
areas flooded with sunlight there was also an abundance
of various algae, cloaking the limestone so it looked like
a tufted carpet.
The fringing reefs in exposed positions often dropped
off precipitously into apparently bottomless depths, their
foundations somewhere in the eternal dark blue. The
nearly vertical walls were traversed by impressive ravines.
In one spot we dived through a vertical, chimney-like
cave whose exit was way below the usual 98-foot (30-m)
maximum on the depth indicator of the computer. But
the sheer walls of most of these reefs ended at around
82 feet (25 m), where they rose from broad expanses of
sand, from which low-lying banks of coral and smaller
patches also sprouted here and there. Everything appeared
undisturbed and intact, as if the worldwide coral
die-off was just a bad dream.
Nevertheless, even in this fabulous underwater paradise
we were suddenly brought back to reality by the sight
of the attractively colored Red Lionfish, with its feathery
fin-rays with poisoned tips. For some years this species
(Pterois volitans), actually a denizen of the Indo-Pacific,
has been spreading rapidly in the Caribbean and has
now reached the Gardens of the Queen. We found stately
specimens of this unwelcome immigrant everywhere.
They find abundant prey here, but have no natural enemies
themselves.
The indigenous fish fauna here is amazing, with
some 500 species resident in the Caribbean. The Queen
Angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris) is undoubtedly one of
the most beautiful. The numerous wrasses, such as the
CORAL
97

super-agile Bluehead (Thalassoma bifasciatum) and the
Creole Wrasse (Clepticus parrae), provide flashes of color
on the reefs. The Hogfish (Lachnolaimus maximus) is notable
due to its size. It is hard to believe that the bright
yellow juvenile form of the Blue Tang (Acanthurus coeruleus)
will eventually change into the equally attractive
adult. On the other hand, the yellow of the Trumpetfish
(Aulostomus maculatus) was purely temporary; normally
the species is reddish brown.
Ungainly swimmers such as the Smooth Trunkfish
(Lactophrys triqueter) and the Bridled Burrfish (Chilomycterus
antennatus) prefer to stay under cover. Circumspection
is also beneficial to particularly small fishes, such
as the Peppermint Goby (Coryphopterus lipernes), the
Cleaner Goby (Gobiosoma genie), the Roughhead Blenny
(Acanthemblemaria aspera), and the Redlip Blenny (Ophioblennius
atlanticus). Naturally there are also numerous
invertebrates—shrimps, crabs and lobsters, nudibranchs,
and sea urchins, to mention just a few groups.
HARD TO GET USED TO
But the real attractions of the Jardines de la Reina are
the big fishes whose size far exceeds the capacity of a domestic
aquarium: the massive groupers and streamlined
sharks that we encountered at close quarters, with no
protective pane of glass. There was a simple reason why
these fishes, which normally keep their distance, had lost
their timidity: for many years these huge fishes have been
lured to the area by regular feeding by visitors. This is disappointing
in the sense that the fishes no longer exhibit
their natural behaviors, but on the other hand, divers
have the rare opportunity to see these impressive hunters
up close on almost every dive.
When we arrived at a dive site after a quick tour
through the mangrove zone in the boat, the sharks would
usually already be there. Most of the “powerpacks” doing
their rounds near the surface were larger than we were.
This might give a novice pause before he falls backward
from the safety of the gunwale into the company of the
predators, but these sharks prefer to eat fish—people
aren’t on their list of prey. And their finely tuned senses
allow them to distinguish one from the other very well. In
fact, our noisy arrival is more likely to scare them away,
even though they are presumably used to us by now.
Regardless of which dive site we visited, there were
Silky Sharks (Carcharhinus falciformes), Caribbean Reef
Sharks (Carcharhinus perezi), or both in attendance. As
we followed the face of the reef downward, the unusual
assembly “upstairs” gradually broke up and moved away,
and soon the fishes were ranging further afield in deeper
regions. They kept on disappearing from our field of
view, only to return again before long.
We often encountered Black Groupers (Mycteroperca
bonaci), whose flight distance is less than that required
to fill the viewfinder of the camera. Sometimes these respectably
sized fishes had a pattern of red-brown spots,
but the black edge of the caudal fin was a reliable diagnostic
character. The less common Nassau Grouper
(Epinephelus striatus), with its unmistakable pattern of
stripes, was less bulky in appearance. But the most impressive
member of this group was the Goliath Grouper
(Epinephelus itajara). The longest of them was almost
The invasive Red or Volitans Lionfish (Pterois
volitans) is as common in some parts of the
Caribbean as it is in its natural range.
98 CORAL

The Green Finger Sponge (Lotrochota birotulata)
usually forms branched bushes; this one is
growing on a Common Sea Fan (Gorgonia
ventalina).
as long as I am, but undoubtedly four times as heavy.
It stood up to the 6.5-foot (2-m) Reef Sharks, which
quickly got out of the way of the grouper as soon as it
launched an attack. When I tried to position myself for
an extra-close portrait, it occurred to me that the underwater
camera would have fit into the grouper’s mouth
with room to spare, but it simply rolled its eyes at me.
AN EXCITING FINALE
Given all this excitement, I had been paying less attention
to other creatures in the area. On the sandy bottom
these included the Southern Stingray (Dasyatis americana),
the Queen Conch (Strombus gigas), almost extinct
elsewhere, and various species of sea cucumbers (Astichopus
multifidus, among others.). The sociable Tarpon
(Megalops atlanticus) had retired into the clefts of the
reef. Their large, striking, silvery-metallic scales require
careful use of the flash, to avoid the reflection resulting
in unusable photos. Similar problems
can occur with the Horse-eye Jack (Caranx
latus), shoals of which crossed our path on
our way back up.
Meanwhile, the sharks had reassembled
around the waiting boat, so we were happy
to extend the usual safety stop for as long
as the remaining compressed air allowed.
To avoid getting divers in my photos, I remained
at a distance from the group and
recorded the patrolling sharks in a variety of
shots. They usually swam past at a distance
of around 6 or 7 feet (2 m). Sometimes they
approached head-on, but then turned aside
in plenty of time. They appeared to be using
all their senses to determine what these bubbling
creatures who had invaded their territory
might be. “Are they dangerous?” “Are
they competitors?” Perhaps these were the
questions that the sharks were asking and
trying to answer through their instinctive
examination of the aliens.
A hefty bump and the simultaneous gentler
blow of a tail awoke me violently from
such thoughts. While I was admiring the
powerful elegance of the sharks and waiting
for worthwhile photo opportunities, a young
Caribbean Reef Shark had approached unnoticed
from behind and was trying to solve
the puzzle in its own loutish way. I decided
to keep the unfriendly youngster in sight, but
this plan was doomed to failure, since 15–20
conspecifics were assembled around us. The
ruffian soon abandoned the anonymity of the group to
launch a new, unexpected attack. At first I wasn’t aware
that it was the same inquisitive fellow that I had been
watching through the camera’s viewfinder, because he
was on a course that would take him close to me as he patrolled.
I first realized when he suddenly changed course
and closed the remaining 6 feet (2 m) between us. There
was no time to readjust the camera, but I managed to
take two photos before the shark grabbed my camera.
Had he mistaken its silvery housing for a favorite fish, or
was he just curious? When I pushed him away, he let the
camera go without leaving behind any noticeable traces
of his razor-sharp teeth. This indicated a gentle bite with
the gums, perhaps to enable the shark to investigate this
object of special interest more closely and check out its
taste. Because Caribbean Reef Sharks can be persistently
troublesome, after this exciting experience I was more
careful to watch my back.
CORAL
99

Successful breeding of
the Yellowbanded Pipefish
(Doryrhamphus pessuliferus)
by Inken Krause
While seahorses
have long been bred
by hobbyists and
commercial breeders,
a success story about
rearing pipefishes is
always a cause for
celebration.
When German reefkeeper Michael Mrutzek succeeded in breeding
the Yellowbanded Pipefish several years ago, he became a pioneer
of pipefish breeding. Unfortunately, it appears that very few others
have been able to repeat his success, and we are still a long way from the
level of captive breeding that is now commonplace with clownfishes, for example.
Reefkeeper Patrika Dirmeier has successfully reared young Bluestripe
Pipefish (Doryrhamphus excisus) on several occasions (Deuss, 2010), and
now shares with us her simple but extremely successful breeding attempts
with the beautiful Yellowbanded Pipefish, Doryrhamphus pessuliferus. Although
she continues to improve her methods, she has already told us what
she believes to be the secrets of her success.
CORAL: At present you have around 40 little Yellowbanded Pipefishes, aged
from 1 to 13 weeks, swimming in your rearing tanks—a magnificent success!
But—hand over heart—how many failed attempts did it take before the first
larvae successfully underwent metamorphosis and grew on into juveniles?
Patrika Dirmeier: I had my first real success after around three months.
During that period I was transferring larvae every 10 days on average.
P. DIRMEIER
100 CORAL

CORAL: What do your rearing tanks look like, and
what do the larvae get to eat?
PD: The larvae spend their first six to eight
weeks in a 16- to 21-gallon (60–80 L) aquarium
equipped with an airstone, some Siporax biofilter
media, and live Nannochloropsis phytoplankton.
Thereafter the little pipefishes are transferred to
an 80-gallon (300-L) aquarium equipped with a
protein skimmer, Siporax, and a UV clarifier. The
larvae are fed a mixture of zooplankton (various
copepods and Brachionus that she simply harvests
from her established reef tanks). From the
age of two weeks they are also fed Artemia nauplii
(small types).
Larva of
Doryrhamphus
pessuliferus on its
first day of life.
CORAL: How high is the survival rate at present?
PD: When I first bred them successfully the survival
rate was only 20 percent, but now I am
achieving an estimated 50 percent. I am getting
50 to 80 larvae per spawning. The secret is frequent
water changes, as they are very sensitive to
foul water.
Developing larva at seven days.
CORAL: When does the critical phase in the life of
a young Orangebanded Pipefish come to an end?
PD: That is still very difficult to say, but in my
experience, transferring the larvae from the parents’
tank to the rearing aquarium is a very criti-
Metamorphosing15-day-old pipefish.
TOP: M. SPITALER; OTHERS: P. DIRMEIER
Juvenile at 21 days.
CORAL 101

PD: I can’t resist answering: “My electricity bill!” But, all
joking aside, I’ve had hardly any really insurmountable
problems. The only difficulty has been one familiar to
every breeder in the marine field: it is very difficult to
make sure an adequate supply of phytoplankton, zooplankton,
or Artemia nauplii is
constantly available.
Yellowbanded Pipefish
juveniles at 30 days.
CORAL: Can you foresee a time
when other aquarists, or even
the aquaculture industry, will
devote themselves to Doryrhamphus
pessuliferus so that it is
no longer necessary to collect
them from the wild?
cal point. The first five to seven days of life are likewise
tricky. This is the period during which the most larvae
die. In my view they are only “out of the woods” when
they are feeding on frozen Mysis shrimp. (Patrika feeds
her broodstock exclusively on frozen, high-quality Mysis,
using a brand with mostly intact, unbroken shrimp.)
CORAL: What are the main problems you have had to contend
with?
PD: Naturally I wish every success
to any aquarist who decides
to try his or her hand at
breeding this attractive pipefish!
That is precisely the reason
why I am happy to share
my own experiences. But I
don’t believe we will ever be able to go so far as to completely
dispense with wild-caught Yellowbanded Pipefishes.
If we look at the commercial breeding of clownfishes,
where the concept of dispensing with wild-caught stocks
has failed to become a reality, then I don’t think that we
will be able to achieve that with pipefishes any time soon.
Plus, pipefishes produce much smaller clutches compared
to clownfishes, which makes breeding them more
expensive and less economically viable.
REFERENCES
Deuss, T. 2011. Breeding the Bluestripe Pipefish (Doryrhamphus
excisus). CORAL 8 (3): May/June 2011.
Michael, S.W. 2001. Reef Fishes, Volume One, Family Sygnathidae,
pgs 427–39. Microcosm/TFH, Neptune, New Jersey.
Young pipefish at 53 days.
P. DIRMEIER
102 CORAL

aquarium portrait | INKEN KRAUSE
An energy-saving
Swiss aquarium
created by Ruedi Furter and Brigitte Utz
ALL: I. KRAUSE
I
Above: The blending of LED lighting and
natural sunlight during the day is very
attractive. Right: owners Brigitte and Ruedi
enjoy their 925-gallon (3,500-L) reef.
n documenting the construction of this aquarium
on our website, we explained that it all began with
a little Pacific Blue Tang in a 105-gallon (400-L)
aquarium. Two years later we had graduated to a
265-gallon (1,000-L) aquarium. But we soon outgrew
that as well, and we now enjoy the 925-gallon
(3,500-L) aquarium portrayed here.
Due to a number of adaptations we have made
over time, we can now happily describe our tank as an
energy-saving system. Initially, in the spring of 2007,
it was illuminated by two 1,000-watt units and run by
high-output pumps from Troptronic—four PW16s with
an output of 4,220 gallons (16,000 L) per hour for current
and one PW8 at around 2,110 gallons (8,000 L) per
hour as a return pump. Together with other equipment,
such as protein skimmers and the calcium reactor still
in use at that time, the total peak power consumption
added up to around 3,000 watts—not excessive for an
aquarium of this size.
The first noteworthy change we made, intended to
make our 925-gallon (3,500-L) reef aquarium more
economical, involved the pumps. Current is now created
by four Abyzz A400s (with 65 percent output during
“flood” and 5 percent at “ebb”), and the return pump is
an Abyzz A200 run at 100 percent output. These powerful
pumps have a combined power consumption of just
570 watts!
We also recently converted to LED lighting technology.
Ten 75-watt modules (Sol Blue from Aqua Illumination)
provide enough light for the aquarium, even when
it is operating at 85 percent output. This means that our
living-room reef tank can be operated with a total peak
power consumption of less than 1,500 watts.
THE CONCEPT
Because our aquarium was installed in the middle of our
newly built living room and can be viewed from all four
sides, we banished all the equipment to the cellar—there
CORAL
105

Thanks to the huge glass doors,
the aquarium can even be enjoyed
from the terrace in summer.
could be no visible equipment to spoil the view. This was
possible only because we had added a suitable extension
to our house, increasing the size of both the living room
and the cellar. The cellar beneath the existing 265-gallon
(1,000-L) aquarium was already occupied by our breeding
setup, and besides, an even larger tank would never
have fit into our old living room.
We wanted to create the illusion that the aquarium
was floating in space, so an enclosed cabinet the full size
of the aquarium base was out of the question. Our architect
suggested a central footer running longitudinally
and containing an integrated shaft for equipment. This
was constructed from reinforced concrete and integrated
with the floor. Our requirement was that the structure
be solid enough not only to carry the weight of the tank
safely, but also to withstand the earth tremors that are
common in our area of north-central Switzerland.
A steel-tube frame was firmly attached to the central
footer in several places. The aquarium was constructed
in place on a .8-inch (21-mm) plywood panel placed on
top of this frame. Ralf Geis and the team from Aquarienbau
Geis used laminated 2 x 10 mm Optiwhite glass
for all four sides of the tank. The bottom glass is made
of .75 inch (19 mm) float glass and is in four parts. All
joints are reinforced with internal glass strips. The superimposed
frame of reinforced, powder-coated aluminum
provides additional stability and prevents any curvature
of the glass edges that might damage the layers of glass.
The two-part central shaft contains a smaller outflow
shaft with a main outflow and 1.9-inch emergency overflow
(50 mm diameter) as well as the return pipe (1.25
inch [32 mm] diameter). The larger section houses the
four inlet tubes for the current pumps as well as their
return pipes.
THE OVERHEAD COMPARTMENT
The compartment above the aquarium, which extends
right up to the ceiling, has to perform several functions
simultaneously: no moisture must be allowed to escape
and turn the living room into a cavern full of stalactites,
and there should be no scattered light to spoil the view of
the aquarium. Our goal was to have the greatest possible
flexibility in the choice and siting of lighting equipment,
without having to worry about how it looked. And most
important of all, we didn’t want to lose fishes through
jumping ever again!
VENTILATION
The overhead compartment is connected via 3.5-inch
(90 mm) diameter PVC pipes (air inlet and outlet) to
106 CORAL

an air-handling unit located in the cellar, which also
serves the breeding and equipment areas and our shop
(Swiss-Aquaristik GmbH). This unit is fitted with a heat
exchanger with bypass control and a simple dehumidifier
control for use in winter. An air heater is built in but not
connected; so far, the heat loss from the aquariums has
been sufficient to heat all the areas involved. Ventilation
of the overhead compartment is regulated by the temperature
of the aquarium water and the humidity
in the compartment itself. A minimal
level of ventilation is thus guaranteed
around the clock, and water condensing on
windowpanes is a thing of the past.
so as to avoid blowing sand away.
volume is usually sufficient.
structure can be achieved by siting the outlets low. This
counteracts the accumulation of detritus and thus the
LIGHTING
Under the principle that equipment should
keep up with the times, the aquarium is
now illuminated with what we hope will
prove to be state-of-the art lighting. As
mentioned earlier, we decided on LED
lighting after some initial skepticism. Our
first experiments, using a Chinese product
on a tank for stony coral cuttings about a
year earlier, had proved very disappointing.
The light may have looked nice, but it didn’t
suit the small-polyp stony corals at all!
The Aqua Illumination Sol Blue modules
we now use eventually won us over
when we tried them on the same aquarium
containing cuttings. The corals obviously
liked the light, and we liked the system and
all the options it offered (14 timers, individual
light colors that can be controlled
separately, weather simulation). For about
four months now we have also been illuminating
the large aquarium with 10 of these
modules. Perhaps many people will think
that such a large tank can’t be fully illuminated
with 750 watts from LEDs—after all,
we are talking about water 32 inches deep
(80 cm). This argument has some merit,
but we don’t believe it is necessary to illuminate
every corner of an aquarium at
maximum output. Selective use of lighting
is not only more economical, but can also
conjure up visually attractive lighting and
shadow effects.
CURRENT
We must admit to being big fans of closedloop
systems with external pumps for producing current.
We would like to list some of the advantages here:
many internal pumps.
ously
removed from among the décor for cleaning.
Top: View through one of the end glasses of the aquarium:
Pacific Blue Tangs (Paracanthurus hepatus) perform their
evening display.
Bottom: The reef around the outflow shaft, which is masked
with Atoll-Riff-Deko faux rock. A wide variety of corals are
thriving alongside the impressive Tridacna derasa.
CORAL
107

Top: View of the second long side of the room-divider tank
with the lighting compartment open. Middle: View of the LED
modules in the lighting compartment. Bottom: Everything is
controlled from the “switching center” in the cellar.
formation of potential areas of putrefaction.
ulation)
can be achieved with just two
circulatory systems, which prevents the
formation of sediment deposits.
All of the plumbing for the current
pumps is housed in the built-in central
shaft. Water is taken in via slotted, openended
vertical pipes that terminate above
the water’s surface. This produces far less
suction than an intake strainer does. The
return pipes pass over the upper edge of the
shaft inside the faux reef rock shaft cladding
(from Atoll-Riff-Deko), then across
the bottom away from the shaft, each
terminating at one of the corners of the
aquarium. The outlets are positioned as
close to the bottom as possible and directed
toward the surface at a 45-degree angle.
It is important not to allow the stream of
water to hit one of the side panes or the
reef structure; this would considerably
slow down water circulation and stir up
the sand through uncontrolled turbulence.
A lot of energy can be saved by clever
reef construction and appropriate direction
of the current. There are four of these
circulatory systems installed in our aquarium,
each powered by an Abyzz A400. The
pumps are controlled by the Abyzz Control
System (ACS), which is programmed so
that two pumps are running at high output
(65 percent) and two at low output
(5 percent). This output ratio is switched
about every six hours, ensuring that the
water never comes to a standstill.
At 65 percent output, taking frictional
loss in the pipes into account, the pumps
achieve a turnover of around 3,700 gallons
(14,000 L) per hour, using a measured
195 watts in the process. The pumps
set at 5 percent output use about 15 watts
and turn over about 530 gallons (2,000 L)
per hour. The total turnover is thus around
7,915 gallons (30,000 L) per hour, which
is some 8.3 times the gross volume of the
aquarium, and uses a total of around 410
watts. If these figures are compared with
those for modern internal current pumps,
where (perhaps because of the sometimes
very optimistic manufacturer output data)
an up to 40-times nominal current output has to be recommended,
then we come to the following conclusion:
despite still being regarded as wasteful of energy, the
closed-loop system actually comes out a lot better.
108 CORAL

“Wow!”
AMAZONAS
Volume 1, Number 4
July/August 2012
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www.AmazonasMagazine.com
CORAL 109

AQUARIUM Details
SIZE, VOLUME, TIME IN OPERATION: 120 x 60 x 32 inches
(300 x 150 x 80); around 925 gallons (3,500 L); Five
years.
ZOANTHARIA (STONY CORALS, ETC.): Acropora (various species),
Caulastrea, Euphyllia, Duncanopsammia axifuga,
Hydnophora, Montipora, Oulophyllia bennettae, Porites,
Stylophora, and various encrusting anemones.
OCTOCORALLIA (GORGONIANS AND SOFT CORALS): Muricea atlantica,
M. pinnata, Plexaura flexuosa, Pterogorgia anceps,
Sinularia.
OTHER INVERTEBRATES: Several Actaeodes tomentosus, Alpheus
soror, 4 Archaster angulatus, various hermit crabs,
Heteractis crispa, 3 Maretia planulata, Tridacna derasa.
FISHES: 2 Amblygobius phalaena (pair), 2 Amphiprion percula
(pair), 5 Centropyge argi (harem with 1 male and
4 females), 2 Gobiodon okinawae (pair), 2 Halichoeres
chloropterus, 2 H. chrysus, 2 Hoplolatilus marcosi, Labroides
dimidiatus, 2 Macropharyngodon bipartitus (pair),
2 Neocirrhites armatus (pair), 2 Paracanthurus hepatus
(pair), Paracheilinus mccoskeri, 4 Pholidichthys leucotaenia
(2 pairs), 2 Platyglossus
melanurus, 2 Pomacanthus
navarchus, Pseudocheilinus
hexataenia, 2 Pseudochromis
bitaeniatus (pair), 2 Synchiropus
splendidus (pair), Valenciennea
muralis, 16 Zoramia
leptacantha.
DECOR: Plumbing screening
from Atoll-Riff-Deko; around
88 lb (40 kg) live rock,
remainder of rockwork made
of dry reef stone; deep layer
of fine coral sand .
LIGHTING: 10 Aqua Illumination Sol Blue 75-watt LED
simulation of twilight via dimming; daily photoperiod
11:30 A.M.–11:00 P.M.; some natural sunlight, especially
in winter.
WATER MOVEMENT: Closed-loop current with 4 Abyzz
A400s creating ebb and flow (two pumps working simultaneously
in each case); Abyzz A200 return pump.
WATER MANAGEMENT: Knecht K300 protein skimmer,
Aquacare Phosphat-Minus reactor, deep sand bed filter
(DSB) with mangroves (all in the equipment tank in
the cellar).
WATER PARAMETERS:
carbonate hardness 7°dKH, pH 8.1.
MINERALS, MAINTENANCE: Addition of major and trace
elements using the Balling method; trace elements from
SwissAquaristik .
OWNERS: Brigitte Utz and Ruedi Furter, Hölstein, Switzerland.
It all began with a Pacific Blue Tang
(Paracanthurus hepatus).
FISH POPULATION
Whenever possible, we attempt
to maintain our fishes
in pairs, harems, or shoals, to accord with their natural
way of life. Thus our Pacific Blue Tang (Paracanthurus
hepatus) was given a small partner while still in the
265-gallon (1,000-L) aquarium. After withstanding initial,
violent attacks, the little one asserted itself. After
that the two of them got along well for three years, but
when the “small” one attained the size of the older individual
the friendship was over. The younger individual
was literally “taken apart” on a daily basis. It was clear
that they must be two males.
At that time we had another Paracanthurus hepatus,
about 6 inches (15 cm) larger and probably female, in
one of our sales tanks. Our friend Helmut Strutz advised
us to put this female with our male in the big tank. Because
we had become convinced that such active fishes
should be kept only in very large aquariums (and didn’t
regard ours as such), we were strongly opposed to this
suggestion at first. But in the hope that the “old one”
would become more peaceful if he was given a real partner,
we gave it a go. Within just a few minutes of putting
them together it was quite clear that the two would form
a pair. And now, a year later, we are sure that we did the
right thing. Even so, the “space-consuming” spawning
ritual that takes place every evening, and the way they
sometimes swim up and down the aquarium sides, demonstrate
that even 800 gallons (3,000 L) of water are not
enough for such fishes!
110 CORAL

The Reef Care Program
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Enhanced
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Get rid of
nuisance algae
The Reef Foundation
Program
Provides biologically balanced levels of
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Carbonates and Magnesium) that
ensures the optimal water conditions
for a sustainable, vibrant coral reef.
The Reef Coloration
Program
Provide the essential minor and trace
elements that are part of the coral skeleton
and soft tissue and are specifically
important for SPS corals to display their
natural pigments.
The Algae Management
Program
Controlled nitrate & phosphate reduction
that prevents nuisance algae and provides
the fine control of Zooxanthellae
populations that significantly affect coral
growth rates and coloration.
Get with the program!
Over the past five years Red Sea’s
team has been researching the
physiological demands of corals in
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The results of this research have
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Understand the relationships among the many
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Tel: 1-888-RED-SEA9
redseainfo@redseafish.com
www.redseafish.com
CORAL 111

Pair of Flame Hawkfish, Neocirrhites armatus.
As members of SAIA (Sustainable Aquarium Industry
Association), we fight for increased awareness among
aquarists that certain fishes (for example, all Acanthurus
and Naso species, large Zebrasoma, all large angelfishes,
and numerous specialized feeders) should not be kept in
the normal domestic aquarium. The trade (apart from
a very small number of dealers) appears to be unable
to act responsibly and stop offering such fishes as part
of the standard species selection. We are, however, convinced
that it is possible to create an interesting, lively
reef aquarium without including problem fishes. This is
a subject that will undoubtedly be much discussed in the
future. The SAIA Fish Selector, a source of information
for responsible and conscientious aquarists, will shortly
be available as a web tool and should help us aquarists
select an appropriate fish population for any tank.
ONE THE INTERNET
SwissAquaristik: www.swissaquaristik.ch
Sustainable Aquarium Industry Association (SAIA):
www.saia-online.eu
The rare Skunk Tilefish,
Hoplolatilus marcosi.
112 CORAL

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CORAL
113

species spotlight | DANIEL KNOP
It’s easy to
keep the Ambon
Scorpionfish
(Pteroidichthys
amboinensis)
in pairs.
The Ambon Scorpionfish
Pteroidichthys amboinensis
Phylum: Chordata (vertebrates)
Class: Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
Order: Scorpaeniformes (scorpionfishes
and their allies)
Family: Scorpaenidae (scorpionfishes)
Genus/species: Pteroidichthys amboinensis
OVERVIEW
This bizarrely finned little scorpionfish demands a tank
of its own, as it is virtually impossible to keep one with
smaller fishes or crustaceans; it will generally regard these
as food. These scorpionfishes belong in a species tank,
where more than one can be kept. The
aquarium dimensions should accord
with the maximum size of the fish(es),
usually 20 gallons (75 L) or larger.
The dorsal-, ventral-, and anal-fin
rays have poison glands in their mucous
coating, but these scorpionfishes
use their weapons only for defense,
usually passively by erecting their fin
rays, but their enormously effective
camouflage greatly increases the risk of
the incautious aquarist sustaining an
injury. Be extremely careful when keeping
these fishes.
Ambon Scorpionfishes are sometimes
difficult to persuade to feed,
as they are initially reluctant to accept
dead prey, such as pieces of fish
ALL: D. KNOP
Very small specimens of Pteroidichthys
amboinensis are sometimes available in the
trade, but they quickly grow to the maximum
size of 4.75 inches (12 cm).
CORAL
115

Above: Ambon Scorpionfish (Pteroidichthys amboinensis) in Ellen
Thaler’s aquarium.
Left: The Weedy Scorpionfish (Rhinopias frondosa) can be
smooth or, like this specimen, covered in masses of appendages.
or shrimp. Once acclimated, however, they are easy to
maintain. It is important to use dim illumination, as
they are not happy under very bright light.
DISTRIBUTION
The natural distribution of the Ambon Scorpionfish is
in the western Indo-Pacific, from the Red Sea to Papua
New Guinea and north to Japan; occasional specimens
have also been found at the Ryukyu Islands, Sulawesi,
Vietnam, Madras, and the eponymous island of Ambon.
DESCRIPTION
The Ambon Scorpionfish can attain a body length of 4.75
inches (12 cm). Because their most important characteristic
is their ability to vary their external appearance
to match their surroundings, they are easily confused
with other very similar species—especially those of the
genus Rhinopias, in particular the Weedy Scorpionfish
(Rhinopias frondosa), which, however, is twice as big at
9.5 inches (24 cm) long. Both species exhibit the typi-
116 CORAL

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Redox (ORP) 400 mv
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American Marine Inc
54 Danbury Road, Suite 172
Ridgefield CT 06877 USA
Tel 914.763.5367
FAX 914.763.5367
www.americanmarineusa.com
info@americanmarineusa.com
International & wholesale inquiries
loudell@americanmarineusa.com
CORAL 117

The Ambon Scorpionfish (Pteroidichthys
amboinensis) is very similar to the Weedy
Scorpionfish (Rhinopias frondosa) shown in
the photos above and on page 116, bottom
left. Both species protrude their mouths in the
same way in order to enlarge the mouth cavity
and suck in prey with a jerk. The two species
are most easily distinguished by the difference
in head shape.
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cal head shape and have a huge mouth
opening that permits them to suck in and
swallow surprisingly large prey items. The
body is usually irregularly spotted, and
the numerous fringe-like appendages of
skin break up its contours and allow the
fish to merge into its surroundings, hiding
it from its prey and its predators alike.
HABITAT
These predators are regularly found lurking,
fully exposed, on the sandy bottom,
on the hard substrate of the reef, or on
corals. The large eyes keep the surrounding
area under constant surveillance
while the fish remains completely immobile,
waiting for incautious prey—small
fishes, crustaceans, or cephalopods—to
come close enough for the scorpionfish
to snap up and swallow them.
REFERENCES
Debelius, H. and R. Kuiter. 2006. World Atlas
of Marine Fishes. Hollywood Import & Export/
www.amazon.com
Lieske, E. and R.F. Myers. 2000. Coral Reef
Fishes. Princeton University Press, Princeton,
New Jersey..
Michael, S.W. 1998. Reef Fishes, Volume One.
Microcosm/TFH, Neptune City, New Jersey.
118 CORAL

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acids and essential fatty acids. Ideal food for filter-feeding invertebrates,
such as soft corals, anemones, feather duster worms, clams, sponges,
and sea cucumbers.
PhytoPlan is also a great supplement to enrich the nutritional value of dry
fish foods. Soak dried fish foods briefly in a mix of 1/4 teaspoon of
PhytoPlan with two tablespoons of water. PhytoPlan is also a great food
for raising live brine shrimp, or it can be used to enhance their nutritional
value immediately prior to feeding them to fishes.
• Source of vitamins, pigments, amino acids, & essential fatty acids.
• For filter-feeding invertebrates.
• For enhancing the nutritional value of fish foods.
• For feeding live brine shrimp and enhancing their nutritional value.
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ZoPlan ® Advanced Zooplankton Diet is a blend of dried crustaceans
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other filter-feeders. Also a food for fishes that feed on zooplankton.
• Source of vitamins, pigments, amino acids, and essential fatty acids.
• Particles sizes from less than 10 microns to more than 250 microns.
• For filter-feeding invertebrates.
• For zooplankton-eating fishes.
• Low moisture means concentrated nutritional value.
• Long Shelf life.
Zooxanthellate corals that feed on zooplankton can calcify more than 50%
faster. Ahermatypic corals and other filter-feeders depend on zooplankton to
meet their metabolic needs, but also obtain some nutrition from dissolved
or particulate organic matter (MarineSnow ® ), and phytoplankton.
Feed them our plankton and watch them grow!
120 CORAL

for novices in the marine aquarium hobby—DANIEL KNOP
Marine substrates:
worth their weight in gold
For a marine aquarium hobbyist, a good substrate
can be worth its weight in gold. Many
organisms important for biological or biochemical
processes in the reef aquarium live in the
substrate, and although they work underground and
are largely invisible to us, these little crustaceans and
worms form the basis of the diet of many fishes, including
the Mandarinfish (Synchiropus splendidus) and
other dragonets, and without them these fish may become
emaciated. Coral growth can also benefit enormously
from a healthy, species-rich microfauna in the
substrate, as the gametes and larvae of these creatures
are released into the open water and serve as food for
sessile actinians. In addition to these perks, these creatures
effect the all-important bacterial nitrification and
breakdown of nitrate in the aquarium.
Above: Coral sand. Below: Foraminiferan sand
CORAL SAND
Not all substrate materials are the same. Until a few decades
ago the choice was easy, as there was only one type
of substrate available—dry coral sand. It came in a variety
of grain sizes, from sugar-sized crumbs to chunks of
coral a centimeter (.4 inch) across, either in bulk, supplied
to the retailer in huge sacks to be portioned out as
needed, or pre-packaged in bags. Nowadays, however, we
have a choice of many different materials when setting
up a reef tank.
D. KNOP
FORAMINIFERAN SAND
Foraminiferan sand was fairly popular as substrate for
marine aquariums around 20 years ago. This material
consists of the shells of the unicellular organisms known
as foraminiferans or forams. Many free-living foraminiferan
species proliferate at a very high rate, and over time
the countless shells that they produce coat the seabed as
a coarse sediment. These shells are highly porous, permitting
colonization by bacteria and making them the
ideal substrate for a reef aquarium. However, in recent
years export restrictions have increasingly limited the
collection of foraminiferan sand in the wild, for exam-
Below: Crushed limestone; the sharp edges can be clearly seen
under magnification.
CORAL 121

Left: Oolitic sand, mixed with a
number of larger pieces of bivalve
shell; the roundish ooids can be
seen under magnification.
Right: Live sand, which is
available freshly imported or
preserved in plastic bags or
boxes. The basis is oolitic sand,
and the rounded grains can be
clearly seen when magnified.
ple in Indonesia, so that trading in it has become more
difficult and the product is less frequently seen on the
market.
LIMESTONE GRANULES
By contrast, limestone granules for use as substrate
are commonplace in the trade, and can also be used to
fill calcium reactors. This material consists of crushed
limestone deposits from fossil reefs, and is also used in
horticulture—for scattering on paths in parks, for example.
This substance was formerly part of living organisms—the
endo- or exo-skeletons of corals, gastropods,
bivalves, and sponges. The fact that it is readily available
without export restrictions is a plus, but the downside
is its unnatural appearance: all the grains are a similar
size and have relatively sharp edges. Its precise mineral
composition depends on the source; calciferous deposits
originating from living organisms differ somewhat from
one another, and the release of undesirable substances,
such as phosphate or silicic acid, can also vary considerably.
It is a good idea to test the material by putting a
small sample of it in seawater and measuring the rise in
phosphate or silicate using proprietary reagents.
OOLITIC OR OOIDAL SAND
Oolitic or ooidal sand is particularly popular in the U.S.,
where it comes mainly from the state of Utah. Ooids are
tiny balls of limestone that originated in the sea during
past geological epochs. They form in supersaturated
seawater when deposits of calcium carbonate form by
crystallization on tiny particles of calcium carbonate in
suspension (such as grains of coral sand or bivalve shell
fragments). Layer after layer is deposited until the little
ball of limestone has become heavy enough to sink permanently.
In earlier geological periods the resulting layers
of sediment solidified into rock (oolite or oolitic limestone),
and its globular components are today offered for
sale in some countries as oolitic sand for use as aquarium
substrate. However, ooids can also be formed from other
substances, such as iron- or phosphate-based minerals, so
not every ooidal sand is suitable for the marine aquarium.
LIVE SAND
Live sand is also now available. Originally this was
mainly supplied loose and stored in aquariums in the
store, but now it usually comes damp and pre-packed in
breathable plastic bags. Those who advocate its use point
to the fact that the material is so heavily colonized with
bacteria that the newly established reef aquarium gets
a boost and can be biologically loaded (livestock can be
added) considerably earlier. But critics maintain that the
bacterial fauna required by an aquarium cannot be preserved
for long periods in a bag, but has to develop in the
aquarium and will vary according to the specific organic
loading. The storing of live sand for weeks or months in
an aquarium—in a layer 8–12 inches (20–30 cm) thick
and without any livestock—inevitably leads to the demise
of the bacteria or, at the very least, a significant reduction
in the bacterial population.
The fact is that substrate that has been stored and
transported wet releases fewer minerals of the sort that
encourage algae (in particular diatoms) in the aquarium.
Why is that? On the one hand, there is less erosion
(by friction) of the surfaces of the grains in the transportation
liquid, and because the grains are already in
liquid, the mineral elements capable of being released
from their surface into a liquid medium will have been
released already. On the other hand, dry granulate is
produced by the crushing of fossil limestone. Its surfaces
are produced by the milling process and not depleted of
minerals by long contact with water. That is a good thing
when we want to dissolve a small amount in the calcium
reactor, but disadvantageous if we want to use a large
amount as substrate.
In the case of coral sand, the individual components
have already spent a lot of time in contact with water,
so their surfaces have already become mineral-depleted,
but the friction that occurs between the individual
grains when the material is handled, during transportation
and manual washing prior to introduction into
the aquarium, will rub away the surface layer and reveal
deeper layers that are not yet depleted of minerals.
In some cases this can lead to more silicic acid being
released, for example, and ultimately to a more serious
problem with diatoms during the maturation period. So
the more we rub the grains together during washing, the
more mineral substances are likely to be released.
In a future issue we will talk about grain size, sand
bed depth, and the correct method of cleaning aquarium
substrates.
LEFT: J. SPRUNG; RIGHT: D. KNOP
122 CORAL

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CORAL 123

eginner’s invertebrates—INKEN KRAUSE
Pederson’s
Cleaner Shrimp
(Periclimenes pedersoni)
DISTRIBUTION: Caribbean
DESCRIPTION: Periclimenes pedersoni is a dainty
dwarf shrimp only 1.125–1.5 inches (3–4 cm) long,
which can easily be distinguished from its congeners by
the intense blue-violet markings on the claws, posterior
body, and tail.
ECOLOGY: In its natural habitat P. pedersoni lives in
the shelter of anemones and is sometimes active as a
cleaner shrimp.
AQUARIUM MAINTENANCE: Because of its small
size, Pederson’s Cleaner Shrimp is well suited to maintenance
in the nano reef aquarium. It does best if a sea
anemone is available as host. It is particularly nice if
it can be kept together with one of its natural host sea
anemones, such as the Caribbean Corkscrew Anemone
(Bartholomea annulata) or the Giant Anemone (Condylactis
gigantea). Periclimenes pedersoni is uncomplicated
in its aquarium husbandry as long as sudden fluctuations
in salinity and poor water quality are avoided.
FEEDING: Pederson’s Cleaner Shrimp will take practically
any food offered and can even be maintained on
dry food.
REFERENCES
Michael, Scott W. 101 Best Marine Invertebrates. 2008.
Microcosm/TFH, Neptune City, New Jersey.
I. KRAUSE
124 CORAL

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Technical terms that
lexicon| appear in articles in this issue
Caudal fin: the tail of a fish.
Cnidarian: an invertebrate animal with stinging
cells known as cnidocytes or nematocysts.
Included are sea anemones, corals, and sea
pens, as well as jellyfishes, box jellies, and
hydrozoans.
Cryptic: prone to hiding or being difficult to
see.
Dorsal fin: in fishes, one or more fins on the
back, used primarily for stability and making
sudden movements. A fish may have up to
three dorsal fins. In the frogfishes, the anterior
dorsal fin is modified to resemble a fishing
rod and lure above the mouth.
Gravid: pregnant; in fishes, full of eggs.
Monophyletic: having shared characteristics
and thought to have a common
ancestor.
Nano: small. In aquariums, usually under
30 gallons (114 L); in fishes, usually under 2
inches (5 cm).
Octocorals: corals without stony skeletons,
including soft corals, gorgonians, and sea
pens. Also known as Alcyonarians. Distinguished
by polyps with eight tentacles each.
Pelagic: living in the open sea; pelagic
larvae are immature marine organisms carried
by tides and currents until they reach
metamorphosis and settle out of the water
column.
Pelvic fins: the paired fins on the ventral
surface of a fish, also known as ventral fins,
that correspond to the hind legs of higher
vertebrates. In gobies, these fins are often
fused in a single sucker-like organ.
Protandric or protandrous hermaphrodites:
in zoology, animals having male organs
when young and maturing into functional
females.
Protogynous hermaphrodites: in zoology,
animals that have female organs but are
capable of becoming functional males. Fish
that live in harems are often protogynous
hermaphrodites, with females capable of
transforming if the harem’s male is lost.
Scleractinian: a stony coral, having a skeleton
of calcium carbonate (aragonite).
Conservation breeding: maintaining a species
that is threatened, endangered, or extinct
in the wild in captive-bred populations carefully
managed to preserve genetic viability
and diversity.
REEF LIFE page 136
Cannibal Rock, Komodo National Park, Indonesia
Antennarius pictus, Painted Frogfish pair
Nighttime courtship: Small red male Painted Frogfish
courting a gravid yellow female. His nudging actions
finally stimulate her into a spawning ascent to release an
egg raft, which he immediately fertilizes before it drifts
toward the surface.
— Larry P. Tackett, co-author, with Denise Nielsen Tackett,
of REEF LIFE, Natural History and Behaviors of Marine
Fishes and Invertebrates (Microcosm/TFH, 2002).
126 CORAL

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CORAL 127

Sources
Look for CORAL Magazine in these
outstanding local aquarium shops.
UNITED STATES
Alabama
Aquarium Fantasies
340 Eastdale Cir
Montgomery, AL
334-396-5020
Arkansas
Northside Aquatics
7610 Counts Massie Rd Ste A
Maumelle, AR
501-803-3434
Worlds Underwater
2105 Creekview Ste B
Fayetteville, AR
479-521-7258
Arizona
Aqua Touch
12040 North 32nd St
Phoenix, AZ
602-765-9058
Reef Culture
406 S Price Rd
Tempe, AZ
480-446-3474
California
All Seas Marine, Inc
(distribution only)
1205 Knox St
Torrance, CA
310-532-7769
Quality Marine
(distribution only)
5420 W 104th St
Los Angeles, CA
310-645-1107
Amazing Aquariums &
Reefs
1842 N Tustin St
Orange, CA
714-928-5299
Aquarium Concepts
6920 Amador Plaza Rd
Dublin, CA
925-829-0583
Capistrano Reef
31896 Plaza Dr Unit E3
San Juan Capistrano, CA
949-248-7333
Natural Life Aquarium
131 Southwood Ctr
South San Francisco, CA
415-760-9395
Sierra Saltwater Systems
125 Lassen Rd
Tahoe City, CA
530-386-1768
Tong’s Tropical Fish
8976 Warner Ave
Fountain Valley, CA
714-842-2733
Colorado
Neptune’s Tropical Fish
1970 E County Line Rd Unit A
Highlands Ranch, CO
303-798-1776
Connecticut
All Pets Club
479 E Main St
Branford, CT
203-483-7387
All Pets Club
405 Queen St
Southington, CT
860-621-4664
All Pets Club
1167 N Colony Rd
Wallingford, CT
203-265-1899
Aquatic Wildlife Co
179D Deming St
Manchester, CT
860-648-1166
House of Fins
99 Bruce Park Ave
Greenwich, CT
203-661-8131
Florida
Barrier Reef
1921 NW Boca Raton Blvd
Boca Raton, FL
561-368-1970
Bio Reef LLC
3653 Regent Blvd #101
Jacksonville, FL
904-674-0031
Boardroom Aquatics
12795 Kenwood Lane
Fort Myers, FL
239-275-8891
Coral Corral
13510 Prestige Place
Tampa, FL
813-855-3888
Creatures Featured
314 SW Pinckney St
Madison, FL
850-973-3488
Orange Park Aquatics
793 Blanding Blvd Ste A
Orange Park, FL
904-375-9462
RV World
2110 N Tamiami Trl
Nokomis, FL
941-375-1397
Sea Life Aquarium
& Service
174 Semoran Commerce Pl
Apopka, FL
407-889-9887
Georgia
Aquarium Outfitters
175 Old Epps Bridge Rd
Athens, GA
706-546-1337
Hawaii
Coral Fish Hawaii
98–810 Moanalua Rd
Aiea, HI
808-488-8801
Kalihi Pet Center
1199 Dillingham Blvd Ste C-101
Honolulu, HI
808-841-5234
Idaho
Fish, Aquariums & Stuff
6112 West Fairview Ave
Boise, ID
208-377-1119
Illinois
Beyond the Reef
205 W Golf Rd
Schaumburg, IL
847-885-7333
Chicago Reptile House
14410 John Humphrey Dr
Orland Park, IL
708-403-1810
Sailfin Pet Shop
720 S Neil St
Champaign, IL
217-352-1121
Indiana
Inland Aquatics
10 Ohio St
Terre Haute, IL
812-232-9000
Iowa
Aquatic Environments
730 E Kimberly Rd
Davenport, IA
563-445-3687
Massachusetts
Krystal Clear Aquatics, LLC
700 Southbridge St
Auburn, MA
508-832-2777
South Coast Scientific
109 McArthur Rd
Swansea, MA
508-678-8306
Maryland
House of Tropicals
7389F Baltimore Annapolis Blvd
Glen Burnie, MD
410-761-1113
Michigan
Moby Dick Pet Store
3700 Sashabaw Rd
Waterford, MI
248-673-2520
MVPets
7429 S Westnedge Ave
Portage, MI
269-492-7387
Oceans and Seas
26085 Gratiot Ave
Roseville, MI
586-778-2223
Preuss Pets
1127 N Cedar St
Lansing, MI
517-339-1762
Missouri
Seascape Studio
3802 S Lindbergh
Saint Louis, MO
314-843-3636
New Hampshire
Aqua Addicts, LLC
52 Lowell Rd
Salem, NH
603-890-0011
Laconia Pet Center
1343 Union Ave
Laconia, NH
603-524-8311
New Jersey
Aquarium Center
1295 Blackwood Clementon Rd
Clementon, NJ
856-627-6262
Pets, Pets, Pets
2 JFK Blvd
Somerset, NJ
732-545-6675
Tropiquarium & Petland
Ocean Plaza, 1100 State Route 35
Ocean, NJ
732-922-2300
New York
A Reef Creation
4700 Genesee St Ste 112
Cheektowaga, NY
716-565-0700
ABC Reefs
527 Charles Ave
Syracuse, NY
315-882-0778
Atlantis Marine World
431 East Main St
Riverhead, NY
631-208-9200
Eddie’s Aquarium Ctr
1254 New Loudon Rd Rt 9
Cohoes, NY
518-783-3474
Manhattan Aquariums
522 West 37th St
New York, NY
212-594-2272
128 CORAL

Pet Friendly
845 Manitou Rd
Hilton, NY
585 366 4242
North Carolina
Aquatic Consultants
1610 US Highway 70E
New Bern, NC
252-638-4499
Blue Ridge Reef & Pet
103 WNC Shopping Ctr Dr
Black Mountain, NC
828-669-0032
Mountains to Sea
14 Sweeten Rd
Asheville, NC
828-707-1766
Ohio
Aquarium Adventure
3632 W Dublin-Granville Rd
Columbus, OH
614-792-0884
Salty Critter, LLC
4809 Liberty Ave
Vermilion, OH
440-967-1634
Oregon
Oasis Tropical Fish
1604 S Highway 97
Redmond, OR
541-504-0535
Saltwater Fanta-Seas
4814 NE 107th Ave
Portland, OR
503-255-1645
Pennsylvania
Something Fishy
511 E 21st Street
Northhampton, PA
610-502-9760
The Hidden Reef, Inc
4501 New Falls Rd
Levittown, PA
215-269-4930
South Carolina
Aquarium Oddities
1143 E Woodruff Rd
Greenville, SC
864-288-1191
Ocean’s Floor, LLC
179 Halton Rd
Greenville, SC
864-676-0104
Tennessee
Kermit’s Reef
8551 Macon Rd
Cordova, TN
901-755-8033
Texas
Austin Aqua-Dome
1604 Fortview Rd
Austin, TX
512-442-1400
Birddog & Catfish Petshop
115-D Old Boerne Rd
Bulverde, TX
830-980-8900
Dallas World Aquarium
1801 N Griffin
Dallas, TX
214-720-2224
Fish Gallery Houston
2909 Fountain View Dr
Houston, TX
713-523-3474
Virginia
Atlantis Aquariums
9602 Patterson Ave
Richmond, VA
804-377-0243
Fishworld
11634A Busy St
Richmond, VA
804-379-2466
Vermont
Pet Advantage
350 Dorset St
S Burlington, VT
802-860-1714
Washington
Barrier Reef Aquariums
1717 NE 44th St
Renton, WA
425-277-7670
CANADA
Reef Wholesale
(distribution only)
12 Vulcan St
Etobicoke, ON
613-867-8717
Alberta
Big Al’s Aquarium
Supercentres
3511 99th St NW
Edmonton, AB
780-435-3474
British Columbia
Paws N Jaws
4750 Rutherford Rd #147
Nanaimo, BC
888-952-7297
Progressive Reef
110–1790 Island Hwy
Victoria, BC
250-478-2151
Red Coral Aquarium
118–3604 52nd Ave NW
Calgary, BC
403-338-1880
New Brunswick
Maritime Reef
1595 Hickey Rd
St John, NB
506-721-6743
Ontario
Advanced Reef Aquatics
4–18 Thompson Rd N
Milton, ON
905-693-6363
Aquariums by Design
668 Erb St West
Waterloo, ON
519-603-1896
Coral Reef Shop
1371 Plains Road East
Burlington, ON
289-337-3398
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CORAL Magazine | C/O RETAILVISION
23 POND LANE | MIDDLEBURY, VT 05753
CALL (800) 381-1288 | Fax (802) 388-1290
Monday–Friday 9 am–5 pm
Fish Tail Aquariums
2208 Saint Joseph Blvd #101
Orleans, ON
613-845-0048
Living Aquariums
652 Bishop N
Cambridge, ON
519-653-5151
Mail Order Pet Supplies
2–558 Upper Gage Ave Ste 211
Hamilton, ON
888-648-6677
Marinescape
947 Carling Ave
Ottawa, ON
613-761-1743
Oakville Reef Gallery
579 Kerr St Unit 2A
Oakville, ON
905-338-2782
Sea Life Central
561 Southdale Rd East
London, ON
519-601-0062
Quebec
Raging Reef
10227 Ave Papineau
Montreal, QC
514-385-5333
Saskatchewan
Bayside Corals
501 45 St W
Saskatoon, SK
306-382-4222
Pats Pets
1303 Scarth St
Regina, SK
306-569-9070
INTERNATIONAL
Australia
Aqua Blue Distribution
Loganholme, Queensland
07-3806-4255
Netherlands
Stunning Corals
Wolvenlaan 285
1216EV Hilversum
Noord-Holland
06-1569-9743
South Africa
Aquarium Depot
#1 Mackenzie Park Capital Hill
392 Le Roux Ave
Halfway House 1685
11-805-8899
Sweden
Bioted Marine Ab
Korsgatan 16
434 43 Kungsbacka
0300-17960
United Kingdom
Midland Reefs
Mount Rd Trading Estate
Burntwood, Staffordshire
01543-685599
CORAL 129

advanced aquatics | J. CHARLES DELBEEK
Behind the scenes:
Mammoth reef, mammoth challenges
As marine aquarists, we all fantasize about having
a bigger, better reef aquarium. After four
years of working with the Steinhart Aquarium’s
new 212,000-gallon Philippines Reef
Exhibit, I can say that you may want to be cautious what
you dream about. Bigger is exciting but not always easy.
In the first three issues of CORAL in 2010, we described
the creation of such a large reef system under
the pressure of opening the much anticipated new Steinhart
Aquarium in Golden Gate Park. The original team
working on this system, Bart Shepherd, Matt Wandell,
Richard Ross, Seth Wolters, and myself, has seen some
changes as roles have changed within the department,
including the addition of aquarists Marisa Avila, April
Devitt, and Nick Yim. As the tank has progressed and
various issues have arisen and been addressed, we have
discovered nuances in the behavior of the system that
continue to challenge us.
With such a large system, keeping track of exactly
what is in the aquarium can be a job in itself. While
we knew exactly how many fish and corals we’d added,
in the winter of this year we began the first systematic
survey to see how many of the animals were still in the
system. We developed a method using photographs of
the tank from the main viewing windows and overheard
views from the walkways, as well as underwater photos.
The corals in each set of photos were then given an
identifying code and counted. Along with the number,
130 CORAL

genus, and species, the source of the coral was also recorded.
Though tedious and time consuming, counting
the corals was the easy part. Remembering where each
and every one came from, and being able to identify
them again in future annual censuses, proved to be challenging,
but obviously it was important.
FISH CENSUS
For the majority of the fish in the system, we knew the
genus and species, as well as the number originally added
and where we got them. The challenge was counting every
single individual—there were several hundred anthias,
for example.
For those species that number 20 or fewer specimens,
a visual census made from the windows and while diving
proved to be a viable option. However, for those species
that we had in much higher numbers, the only way to get
an accurate count was through photography. By feeding
the tank in a certain location, we could get most of the
fish to stream to one spot, where we took high resolution
digital photos. Then we looked at these images on the
computer and determined the number of fish by loading
the images into Photoshop and counting each individual
fish. Using the paintbrush tool, I placed a colored dot on
the fish once I had counted it to insure I did not recount
the same fish. While not perfect, this method allowed us
to get at least a rough idea of the numbers for each species,
some numbering in the hundreds.
The California Academy of Science’s Steinhart Aquarium
212,000-gallon (800,000-L) features a dramatic Philippine
Coral Reef Exhibit that has seen its fish population increase
dramatically in just under four years, as some larger species
that proved troublesome were removed and more small,
shoaling species added. With a depth of 25 feet (7.6 m), it is
one of the deepest exhibits of live corals in the world, and it
is still far from mature. Behind the scenes, various challenges
have arisen, often demanding creative solutions. Just keeping
an accurate tally of the livestock numbers has the author
and his colleagues devising ways to count the profusion of
swarming fishes. The current head count is approximately
1,300 fishes representing 117 species, with more than 600 live
corals. Above, fishes streaming toward a food source to be
digitally photographed and counted.
ALL IMAGES: J. CHARLES DELBEEK
CORAL 131

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Over the last four years we also identified fish species that were having
a negative impact on our corals and on the fish populations. We knew that
some of these, such as triggerfishes and large wrasses, might eat some of the
smaller fishes and soft corals, but there were others, such as Naso vlamingii,
that we were surprised to find eating our large Sarcophyton leather corals.
These fish were, for the most part, removed and replaced with larger numbers
of smaller schooling species. At present our list of counted specimens stands
at a little over 1,300 fish, representing 117 species. We also have more than
600 pieces of live coral, both softies and hard, along with some gorgonians
and sea whips.
COPING WITH PHOSPHATE
Not unlike most reef aquarists, we have been having challenges with inorganic
phosphate. In the last two years we were able to get it down to 0.08
ppm, using lanthanum chloride on three occasions, but we never really liked
the way our corals, and especially the tridacnid clams, reacted to it—we would
invariably lose one or two a few weeks after each treatment. We added two
small GFO (granular ferric oxide) reactors of our own design to the system in
the past year. Together they only hold about 20 gallons of media, but they did
have a positive impact on phosphate. Still, our phosphate reading has gradually
risen to around 0.2 ppm despite frequently recharging the GFO with
sodium hydroxide or replacing the media entirely. We are currently exploring
constructing larger reactors to be able to hold at least 150 gallons of media,
and be able to turn over all 212,000 gallons within 48 hours.
In addition to the GFO reactor, we also installed a commercially available
canister of activated carbon. This was designed to be fed water from our
deaeration tower, a three-story device designed to degas water from all the
skimmers and sand filters and then return it back to the tower. With this
system we are able to turn over the entire water volume in three weeks. The
results were evident in the lower level of dissolved organic carbon and the
reduction in cyanobacteria. We change the carbon about once a month or
whenever we see an increase in cyanobacteria in the shallows section of the
reef. The combination of ozone and activated carbon has been shown to have
a synergistic effect on the removal of organics, but we would like to have better
control of this part of the system.
We have just completed a total revamp of our ozone system for all the exhibits
that use it. Originally we were given a single large ozone generator that
provided ozone to all seven of our major exhibits. This involved a series of
valves, regulators, solenoids, and rotameters to measure gas flow rates. Each
time we adjusted flow in one system, the flow in the other systems would
vary; it became a real headache to balance the system. In addition, we were
only running the generator at 6 percent of its rated output. We are now using
dedicated ozone generators for each contactor, such as the fractionators.
The main goals were to eliminate points of failure, making the system
more reliable, eliminating the danger of over-ozonizing an exhibit by downsizing
the generators, and making the system safer to operate. Instead of
switching solenoids to direct ozone flow to the contactor or to a destruct unit
when ORP levels became too high, the computer will now simply turn the
generator on or off. By eliminating the solenoids, we removed devices that
we consistently had problems with. The new machines were sized to deliver
just enough ozone to the system without the danger of nuking the tank if set
to maximum.
FUTURE CHALLENGES
Despite the numerous improvements made to the system, we still have baffling
episodes where corals that had done well begin to lose color and, even-
What do biological
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polymers that provide a time-released source of
food for bacteria that assimilate nitrate and
phosphate. The bacteria grow on the pellet
surfaces, and excess growth sloughs off due to
the tumbling in a fluidized filter. These bacteria
can be harvested with a protein skimmer or serve
as planktonic food for filter-feeding invertebrates
such as corals, clams, and sponges. Anaerobic
zones also develop within the pellets, thus
promoting denitrification there. Why bother with
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CORAL 133

ADVERTISER Index
A&M Aquatics ............................ 14, 18
www.amaquatics.com
Amazonas Magazine ........................109
www.amazonasmagazine.com
American Marine ............................117
www.americanmarineusa.com
Aqua Craft Products® ................... 5, 36, 37
www.aquacraft.net
Aqua Engineering & Equipment ..............123
www.aquariumwaterfilters.com
Aqua Medic ............................. 23, 113
www.aqua-medic.com
Aqua Top ...................................127
www.aquatopled.com
Aquatic Life ...................................6
www.aquaticlife.com
Aquatic Pixels ...............................135
www.aquaticpixels.net
Bashsea ......................................43
www.bashsea.com
Boyd Enterprises ..............................2
www.chemipure.com
Breeder’s Registry ...........................127
www.BreedersRegistry.org
Brightwell Aquatics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
www.brightwellaquatics.com
Coralife ......................................11
www.coralifeproducts.com
CPR Aquatics ............................. 15, 85
www.cprusa.com
D-D ............................inside back cover
www.theaquariumsolution.us
EcoRay .......................................45
www.ecorayled.com
EcoReef Corals ..............................123
www.ecoreefcorals.com
EcoTech Marine ...... inside front cover, 2, 20, 21
www.ecotechmarine.com
Fauna Marin/Reef Wholesale .................103
www.reefwholesale.com/about-balling
Grotech ......................................17
www.grotech.de
Hydor .......................................19
www.hydorkoralia.com
Inland Reefkeepers Saw ......................84
www.inlandhobby.com/dfs
Instant Ocean ................................29
www.instantocean.com
Karen Talbot Art .............................135
www.karentalbotart.com
KP Aquatics .................................127
www.kpaquatics.com
Lifegard Aquatics ............................44
www.lifegardaquatics.com
LFS Locator .................................126
www.lfslocator.com
MACNA 2012 ................................104
www.dfwmacna.com
Marata .......................................12
www.marata.org
Marine Breeding Initiative Workshop ..........42
www.mbiworkshop.com
Milwaukee Instruments .......................13
www.milwaukeeinstruments.com
Nutra-Kol ...................................132
www.nutrakolusa.com
Ocean Nutrition .............................118
www.oceannutrition.com
Ocean Critters Ranch (OCR) ...................32
www.oceancrittersranch.com
Orphek ......................................32
www.orphek.com
Pacific Aqua Farms ..........................123
www.pacificaquafarms.com
Piscine Energetics ............................16
www.mysis.com
Poly-Bio-Marine ..............................27
www.poly-bio-marine.com
Prodibio ....................................112
www.prodibio.com
Quality Marine ................................9
www.qualitymarine.com
Red Sea ................................. 91, 111
www.redseafish.com
Reef Aquaria Design .........................119
www.reefaquariadesign.com
ReefBuilders .................................84
www.reefbuilders.com
Reef Dynamics ...............................93
www.reefdynamics.com
Reef Nutrition ...............................114
www.reefnutrition.com
Reefs.com ...................................127
www.reefs.com
Rod’s Food ..................................120
www.rodsfood.com
Royal Nature/Reef Wholesale .................47
www.reefwholesale.com/royal-nature
Russo’s Reef ..................................26
www.russosreef.com
San Francisco Bay Brand .....................132
www.sfbb.com
Segrest Farms ................................25
www.segrestfarms.com
Sicce ........................................124
http://sicceus.com
Thrive Aquatics ..............................33
www.thriveaquatics.com
Tropic Marin .........................back cover
www.tropic-marin.com
Tunze .......................................104
www.tunze.com
Two Little Fishies . . 12, 31, 43, 70, 71, 92, 120, 133
www.twolittlefishies.com
Ushio ........................................69
www.ushio.com
Vermont Business Brokers ...................132
www.vermontbusinessbrokers.com
Wallet Pen ..................................127
www.thewalletpen.com
ZeroEdge ...................................125
www.zeroedgeaquarium.com
ZooMed .....................................30
www.zoomed.com
For a CORAL Media Kit or other information, please contact:
802.985.9977 Ext. 7
134 CORAL

tually, tissue. Large water changes of
15,000 gallons every week for four weeks
will often reverse this trend, but sometimes
the corals begin to look better before
the water change. We have always
suspected that heavy metals are an issue,
and we know that we have metal in the
system and elevated levels of aluminum,
chromium, nickel, and selenium. While
GFO will remove some heavy metals, the
amount that we are currently using is
probably not enough, and we can’t turn
over the tank water fast enough to remove
them effectively.
We hope that increasing the size of
the GFO reactors, along with perhaps
setting up another set of reactors to use
heavy metals, will help. We have also
begun a systematic examination of the
system in order to identify and replace
metal components wherever we can find
them. First on our list are the stainless
steel check valves used in our 40 HP recirculation
pumps. These have corroded
badly and are currently being replaced
with non-metallic check valves. The
hunt continues.
Despite all of the above, we continue
to be encouraged by what we have seen
as the tank begins to mature. The soft
corals are doing much better and beginning
to spread over the rockwork. The
stony corals are showing signs of new
growth and the fish are still robust and
healthy-looking, and many of them are
spawning regularly.
To aid in dispersing food to all levels
of the tank, we recently tapped into
our recirculation system so that we can
easily inject Mysis
and other foods into the return lines.
We have also set up an autofeeder and
run lines along the surface to locations
where water jets are located so that we
can inject live BBS (baby brine shrimp,
Artemia nauplii), rotifers, and other
foods on a timed basis throughout the
day for our large Anthias and damsel
populations.
In our first four years we have seen
tremendous progress, and we look forward
to seeing even more as we continue
to create one of the largest living reefs in
the world in the heart of San Francisco’s
Golden Gate Park.
CORAL 135

TK
reef life | LARRY P. TACKETT
136 CORAL

An enhanced, natural salt manufactured by solar
evaporation of water taken from one of the richest coral
seas on the planet. This results in a salt in which every
bucket contains over 70 trace elements in exact natural
proportions including 23 which occur at less than 1 PPM.
This pure base salt is then specially enhanced for the reef
aquarium by the elevation of specific parameters required
for growth and colour such as magnesium, calcium,
potassium and dKH. The result is a unique formulation
which gives you fantastic results.
The ultimate high
magnesium salt
WHAT IS IN YOUR BUCKET?
Even if you can detect all of the elements that occur naturally in the water
around the reef and determine the levels correctly, imagine attempting to blend
these 23+ minor trace elements evenly during the manufacture of a
synthetic
salt when they occur at less than 1 gram to 1 tonne of salt. What is the
effect of
these trace elements if you get more than your fair share in your bucket? With
H2Ocean Pro+ we let nature be your mixing pot so we guarantee anteee you every
bucket is correct.
GUARANTEED PARAMETERS (salinity 35. 5ppt)
Parameters Level Range Units
pH 8.3 8.2 - 8.4
dKH 9.3 8.7 - 9.8
Calcium (Ca2+) 440 430 - 460 mg/l
Magnesium (Mg2+) 1340 1300 - 1380 mg/l
Chloride (Cl-) 19550 19960 - 20130 mg/l
Potassium (K+) 410 380 - 420 mg/l
VISIBLE RESULTS
The formulation for H2Ocean Pro+ salt was developed to give you the optimum
chemistry for a healthy reef aquarium and to allow growth of even en the most
difficult corals and sponges and to date the demand for this salt and the
positive feedback from both hobbyists and experts alike have exceeded our
expectations.
PRO PLUS FORMULA – BOOSTING YOUR MAGNESIUM
Many salts concentrate on enhancing calcium levels and often ignore the
importance of magnesium. The correct magnesium level has an enormous
impact on how easy it is to maintain the calcium level, pH and alkalinity in your
tank and can halve the time that you need to run your calcium reactor.
We recommend that you use a D-D portable SEAWATER refractometer for
accurate and consistent measurement of the salinity in your aquarium. These e
are widely available from your D-D retailer.
RO WATER
H2Ocean Pro+ is designed for use with reverse osmosis, deionised or soft
water with a calcium level below 30mg/l. As the calcium level in H2Ocean Pro+
is already boosted to 440mg/l then mixing it with hard tap water containing
additional calcium may exceed the point at which it will precipitate out
of solution.
Reverse osmosis removes ions such as nitrate and phosphate from your
tap water which otherwise would contribute towards nuisance algae in
your aquarium.
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