Week 4 Corporate Identity and Visual Systems - A History of Graphic ...

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Chapter 20 – Corporate Identity and Visual Systems
SUMMARY
After World War II, the technological advances made
during the war were applied to the production of consumer
goods. Many believed the outlook for the postwar
capitalist economic structure would be unending economic
expansion and prosperity. “Good design is good
business” was the rallying cry within the graphic design
community, and the more perceptive corporate leaders
understood the need to develop corporate design programs
to help shape companies’ reputations for quality
and reliability. The visual identification systems during
the 1950s went beyond trademarks, which had been in
use since the medieval guilds, to produce consistent
design systems that projected a cohesive image for corporations
with an expanding national and multinational
presence.
Strong individual designers who put their personal
imprint on a client’s designed image led the first phase
in the development of postwar visual identification. Such
was the case with Peter Behrens at Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft
(AEG), as discussed in Chapter 12, as
well as with Giovanni Pintori at the Olivetti Corporation,
an Italian typewriter and business machines company.
Rather than a systematic design program like Behrens
developed for AEG, Pintori put his personal stamp on
Olivetti’s graphic images. Identity was achieved through
the general appearance of promotional graphics, such
as the promotional posters designed by Pintori shown
in Chapter 20. Pintori had an ability to create simplified
graphic shapes to visualize mechanisms and processes.
His abstract configurations suggested the function or
purpose of the product being advertised, and Olivetti
garnered international recognition for its commitment to
design excellence.
In New York, the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)
moved to the forefront in corporate identity due to the
leadership of its president, Frank Stanton, who understood
the potential of art and design in corporate affairs,
and its art director, William Golden. The CBS trademark,
a pictograph of an eye designed by Golden, is one of the
most successful trademarks of the twentieth century;
however, consistency in how the trademark was used
was not considered necessary to the effectiveness of the
corporate identity. Rather, its ongoing success depended
on the quality and intelligence of each successive design
solution. A climate of creative freedom at CBS encouraged
fine artists, such as Ben Shahn, to accept commissions
to create illustrations for CBS advertisements.
The result, compared to other advertising of the period,
was a high level of artistry, as seen in “The Big Push.”
Shahn’s drawing added an ambience of quality and
distinction to the message aimed at corporations and
advertisers recommending that they purchase television
advertising time during the summer sales push. In 1945,
Georg Olden was hired to establish the CBS graphics department
and design on-air visuals for its new television
division. Olden, the first African American to achieve
prominence as a graphic designer, played a major role in
defining the early development of television broadcast
graphics for this fledgling medium. To overcome the
technical limitations of early television, Olden designed
on-air graphics using simple symbolic imagery with an
emphasis on concepts that quickly captured the essence
of each program. Lou Dorfsman became art director for
CBS Radio in 1946 and after several promotions was
named vice president of CBS Corporation in 1968. Dorfsman’s
design approach combined a pragmatic sense
of effective communication with imaginative problemsolving
presented in a straightforward and provocative
manner. High-quality solutions to individual communications
problems enabled him to project an exemplary
image for the corporation.
Like Stanton, Raymond Loewy recognized the significance
of comprehensive design systems and left an
indelible mark on America’s history of visual styling.
His streamlined aesthetic can be seen across a range of
industrial products, packaging, architecture, interiors,
and corporate identities; his aesthetic suggested speed,
economy, and modernity. Loewy’s flashy personality
preceded his brilliant design work. Sophisticated and
charismatic, he considered himself a visionary and
impresario of good design across a number of mediums.
He changed the way industrial designers engaged with
corporate design culture by assuming more control over
entire industrial and visual campaigns. For example,
product designs for blue chip companies such as BP,
Shell, Exxon, Nabisco, and Lucky Strike were not limited
to packaging or industrial products but also included
complete identity designs. Loewy also initiated a study
of his audience—the public—as he aimed to define their
needs and wants. This analysis affected the way he intro-

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
duced designs into consumer culture. With respect to his
corporate identiy work he said: “I am looking for a very
high index of visual retention. We want anyone who has
seen the logotype, even fleetingly, to never forget it.”
In 1954, Patrick McGinnis, the president of the New
York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad, launched a
short-lived but highly visible corporate design program.
McGinnis believed a contemporary logo and design
program would project a modern and progressive
image to industry and passenger alike. Herbert Matter
was commissioned to design the new trademark, and
Marcel Breuer was commissioned to design the interiors
and exteriors of the new trains. Unfortunately, financial
problems forced the corporate identity program to come
to an abrupt halt.
Norman Ives’s (1923-1978) is one of the long neglected
masters of corporate image design. His carefully constructed
logos clearly reflect the teachings of one of
his principal mentors, Josef Albers. He believed that a
symbol, as “an image of a company, an institution, or
idea…should convey with a clear statement or by suggestion,
the activity it represents.” He also charged that
a logo should be memorable and legible, a “true gestalt,
in which the psychological effect of the total image is
greater than the sum of its parts would indicate.”
During the 1950s and 1960s, many American designers
embraced corporate identity as a major design activity,
including Paul Rand, Lester Beall, and Saul Bass, and
design firms such as Lippincott & Margules and Chermayeff
& Geismar. Rand realized that to be functional
over a long period of time, a trademark should be based
on elementary shapes that are universal, visually unique,
and stylistically timeless. Rand achieved a timeless quality
in the logotype he designed for International Business
Machines (IBM). The heavy slab serifs united all three
letters into a unique visual form that was further unified
by the distinct square counterspaces of the uppercase
B. In the 1970s, he updated the mark by adding horizontal
stripes at regular intervals to further unify the three
forms and evoke scan lines on video terminals, which
expressed the nature of the company’s products. The
IBM annual reports designed by Rand in the 1950s established
a standard for corporate literature. Among Rand’s
other trademark solutions of this period were the 1959
redesign of the “Circle-W” Westinghouse trademark,
which suggests Westinghouse products by evoking wires
and plugs, electronic diagrams and circuitry, and molecular
structures. In 1965, he redesigned the trademark of
the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) by reducing
each letter to its elemental geometric shape, informed
by Herbert Bayer’s Universal alphabet. Beall pioneered
corporate identity programs for many corporations,
including Martin Marietta and Connecticut General Life.
For the International Paper Company identity, which he
codesigned with Richard Rodgers, the letters I and P
were combined to create the symbol of a tree. He also
contributed to the development of its corporate identity
manual. Chermayeff & Geismar Associates moved
to the forefront of the corporate identity movement in
1960 and went on to produce more than one hundred
comprehensive corporate design programs, including
projects for Chase Manhattan Bank of New York, Mobil
Oil, the American Revolution Bicentennial, the National
Broadcasting Company, and Rockefeller Center. Its solution
for the trademark for Chase Manhattan proved that
a completely abstract form could successfully function
as a corporation’s visual identifier and, in fact, become
a memorable character in the inventory of symbolic
forms. In response to a study of the bank’s design and
communication needs, particularly for urban signage,
Chermayeff & Geismar designed a distinctive, extended
sans-serif typeface for use with the mark. The Chase
Manhattan Bank system became a prototype for other
financial institutions. Bass’s mastery of elemental form
can be seen in the trademarks produced by his firm,
many of which became cultural icons, like the marks for
Minolta and AT&T. Bass believed a trademark must be
readily understood yet possess elements of metaphor
and ambiguity to attract the viewer again and again.
Muriel Cooper designed publications and books for the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Press and in
1963, designed the Press’s logo. Her pursuit of dynamic
media led to the founding, in 1978, of the Visible Language
Workshop (VLW) at MIT, of which she was also the
director. She was a founding member of the MIT Media
Lab, an advanced graduate research program on new
media. Her goal was to move graphic design from form
to content.
Otl Aicher believed a large organization could achieve a
uniform corporate image and consistency of presentation
by systematically controlling the diverse elements
within the program. An example of such a case was
conceived and produced at the Ulm Institute of Design in
1962 when Aicher, Tomás Gonda, Fritz Querengässer, and
Nick Roericht designed a highly systematic identity program
for Lufthansa German Airlines. It anticipated every
detail, from trademarks to uniforms, packaging, aircraft
interiors and exteriors, and standardized paper formats,
color schemes, typographic specifications, and the

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
character of photographs to be used in ads and posters.
This program became a prototype for the closed identity
system, which adhered to absolute conformity.
During the 1960s, the Container Corporation of America
(CCA) and Unimark became advocates of visual identity
systems. CCA design director Ralph Eckerstrom and his
staff created a new corporate logo for the company and
applied typographic consistency to the “Great Ideas of
Western Man” ad campaign. In 1964, CCA established
the Center for Advanced Research in Design, an independent
design studio that worked on advanced and experimental
projects, such as a comprehensive visual identification
system for Atlantic Richfield, a major petroleum
products company later renamed Arco. Unimark, an
international design firm with forty-eight design offices
throughout the world, was founded in Chicago in 1965
by a group of partners including Eckerstrom, James K.
Fogelman, and Massimo Vignelli, Unimark’s director of
design and head of the New York office. Unimark rejected
individualistic design and sought objectivity through
the use of the grid, a basic organizational structure set
up to guide implementation of graphic communications.
Because it was considered the most legible type
family, Helvetica was used for all Unimark visual identity
systems. The company established design programs for
many large clients, including Alcoa, Panasonic, Steelcase,
and Xerox. The Knoll program, directed by Vignelli,
set the standard for furniture industry graphics for years
to come. Massimo and Leila Vignelli founded Vignelli
Associates in 1971 after Unimark closed its New York
office. The new firm continued to implement the ideals
of the Unimark philosophy of rational order through the
use of grid systems and emphasis on lucid and objective
communication.
In response to a growing awareness that design could
be an effective tool for achieving objectives, the United
States government initiated the Federal Design Improvement
Program in May 1974. All aspects of federal design
were upgraded under this program, including graphic
design under the Graphics Improvement Program, which
set out to improve the quality of visual communications
and the ability of government agencies to communicate
effectively to citizens. The federal prototype for a
cohesive graphic standards system, which included a
graphics standards manual with guidelines for visual
identification and publication formats, was designed for
the Department of Labor by John Massey. Many leading
designers in America were called upon to develop visual
identification programs for over forty government agencies.
One of the most successful is the Unigrid system,
developed in 1977 for the United States National Park
Service by Vignelli Associates in collaboration with the
Park Service Division of Publications. The Unigrid unified
hundreds of informational folders used at about 350
national park locations; later, a format was developed
for the Park Service’s series of 150 handbooks. In 1974,
the United States Department of Transportation commissioned
the American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA), the
nation’s oldest professional graphic design organization,
to develop a system of passenger- and pedestrian-oriented
symbols for use in transportation facilities with the
goal of bridging language barriers and simplifying basic
messages. A committee headed by Thomas H. Geismar
studied existing symbol systems for transportation
facilities and international events based on thirty-four
subject areas and prepared guidelines for the development
of the system, which was designed and drawn by
Roger Cook and Don Shanosky of Cook and Shanosky
Associates. This was an important first step toward effective
graphic communications transcending cultural and
language barriers. Another milestone in the evolution of
graphic design and information systems was reached by
the Olympic Games, at which international and multilingual
audiences had to be directed and informed. Among
the many outstanding efforts were the design programs
for the 1964 Tokyo Eighteenth Olympiad, under the direction
of Masaru Katkzumie and Yusaku Kamekura; 1968
Mexico City Nineteenth Olympiad, under the direction
of American graphic designer Lance Wyman and British
industrial designer Peter Murdoch; the 1972 Munich
Twentieth Olympiad, led by German designer Otl Aicher;
the 1984 Los Angeles Twenty-third Olympiad, spearheaded
by the architectural firm the Jerde Partnership and the
environmental and graphic design firm Sussman/Prejza
& Co.; and the 2008 Beijing Twenty-Ninth Olympiad,
under the direction of Min Wang.
A counterpoint to the rational and structured approach to
corporate identity was the design of the Music Television
(MTV) identity by Manhattan Design, a New York City
studio noted for its independent, risk-taking experimentation,
especially for music clients. Partners Pat Gorman,
Frank Olinsky, and Patti Rogoff introduced the concept
of a logo with a constantly changing persona, which ran
contrary to the widely held belief that trademarks and
visual identifiers should be absolutely fixed and used in
a consistent manner. A harbinger of motion graphics,
the MTV logo played a major role in redefining visual
identity in the electronic age, both for electronic media
and print.

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
KEY TERMS (IN ORDER OF APPEARANCE; THE FIRST PAGE NUMBER OF THEIR APPEARANCE IS LISTED)
Propriety marks, page 412, In medieval times, these marks were compulsory and enabled the guilds to control trade.
Logotype, page 412, a company brand mark consisting of only letterforms.
Corporate identity, page 413, a system of visual elements used in a comprehensive program to project a consistent
image of a company.
Chermayeff & Geismar, page 418, The firm moved to the forefront of the corporate identity movement in 1960 with a
comprehensive visual image program for the Chase Manhattan Bank of New York. One of its most far-reaching corporate
design programs was for Mobil Oil, in which the name became the trademark, with the round, red O separating it
from the visual presentation of other words. Rather than maintaining design consistency from project to project, the
company allowed each solution to evolve from its problem. (Figs. 20-28 through 20-30).
Annual report, page 421, a publication issued to stockholders of a public company as required by federal law.
Corporate identity manual, page 421, a firm’s book of guidelines and standards for implementing its corporate identity
program.
Saul Bass/Herb Yeager & Associates, page 422, believed a trademark must be readily understood yet possess elements
of metaphor and ambiguity that will attract the viewer again and again. Many of his trademarks, such as those for Minolta
and AT&T, have become important cultural icons (Figs. 20-31 and 20-32).
Unimark, page 425, an international design firm founded in Chicago in 1965 by a group of partners including Ralph
Eckerstrom, James K. Fogleman, and Massimo Vignelli. They rejected individualistic design and believed that design
could be a system of basic structures set up so that other people could implement it effectively. The basic tool for this
effort was the grid, which standardized all graphic communications for dozens of large Unimark clients, including Alcoa,
Ford Motor Company, JCPenney, Memorex, Panasonic, Steelcase, and Xerox (Fig. 20-38).
Federal Design Improvement Program, page 425, initiated in May 1974 by the United States government in response to
a growing awareness that design could be an effective tool for achieving objectives. This initiative was coordinated by
the Architectural and Environmental Arts Program (later renamed the Design Arts Program) of the National Endowment
for the Arts. Under the direction of Jerome Perlmutter, this program set out to improve the quality of visual communications
and the ability of government agencies to communicate effectively to citizens.
Vignelli Associates, page 425, founded by Massimo and Leila Vignelli in 1971. They developed the Unigrid system in
1977 for the United States National Park Service in collaboration with the Park Service Division of Publications, headed
by Vincent Gleason (Fig. 20-40).
American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA), page 427, the nation’s oldest professional graphic design organization. In
1974, the United States Department of Transportation commissioned it to create a master set of thirty-four passengerand
pedestrian-oriented symbols for use in transportation facilities (Figs. 20-42 and 20-43).
Cook and Shanosky Associates, page 427, the company in Princeton, New Jersey started by Roger Cook and Don
Shanosky, who designed and drew the final set of thirty-four passenger- and pedestrian-oriented symbols for use in
transportation facilities for the Department of Transportation (Fig. 20-43).
Jerde Partnership, page 433, the architectural firm directed by Jon Jerde and David Meckel, which collaborated with the
Sussman/Prejza & Co. design firm to create materials for the Los Angeles Olympic Games (Fig. 20-61).
Sussman/Prejza & Co., page 433, the graphic design firm headed by Deborah Sussman, who collaborated with the
architectural firm Jerde Partnership to create materials for the Los Angeles Olympic Games (Figs. 20-59 and 20-60).
Idiom, page 433, a style of artistic expression or language characteristic of a particular individual, school, period, or
medium.

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Art Research Center for the Olympic Games (ARCOG), page 433, a working group at the Central Academy of Fine Arts
(CAFA) in Beijing. Under the leadership of Min Wang, the center’s design teams, including CAFA students, developed
a comprehensive design system for the 2008 Olympic Games that included athletic pictographic symbols, the Beijing
Games emblem and its applications, the design of medals, torch graphics, and extensive promotional and advertising
graphics (Figs. 20-62 through 20-64).
Manhattan Design, page 435, a New York City studio headed by partners Pat Gorman, Frank Olinsky, and Patti Rogoff
noted for its independent, risk-taking experimentation, especially for music industry clients. It was commissioned by
Music Television (MTV) to design a new logo. The bold, three-dimensional, sans-serif M was joined by a graffiti-like tv
scrawled on its face. The logo could be altered through infinite variations of color, decoration, material, three dimensionality,
viewing angle, and motion, and could assume different personalities, participate in animated events, and
even be demolished. The concept of a logo with a constantly changing persona runs contrary to the widely held belief
that trademarks and visual identifiers should be absolutely fixed and used in a consistent manner; thus it played a major
role in redefining visual identity in the electronic age (Figs. 20-65 through 20-68.)
KEY PEOPLE AND THEIR MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS (IN ORDER OF APPEARANCE; THE FIRST PAGE NUMBER OF THEIR
APPEARANCE IS LISTED)
Adriano Olivetti (1901–1970), page 412, son of the founder, he became president of the Olivetti Corporation in 1938.
He had a keen sense of the contribution that graphic, product, and architectural design could make to an organization.
Giovanni Pintori (1912–1998), page 412, hired by Adriano Olivetti to join the publicity department of the Olivetti Corporation.
The logotype he designed for Olivetti in 1947 consisted of the name in lowercase sans-serif letters, slightly letter
spaced. Identity was achieved not through a systematic design program but through the general visual appearance of
promotional graphics. In one of his more celebrated posters, Olivetti’s mission is subtly implied by a collage created
solely from numbers and the company logo (Fig. 20-1).
Frank Stanton (b. 1908), page 413, the president of CBS who understood art and design and their potential in corporate
affairs.
William Golden (1911–1959), page 413, the CBS art director for almost two decades. He brought uncompromising visual
standards and a keen insight to the communications process. The quality and intelligence of each successive design
solution enabled CBS to establish an ongoing and successful corporate identity (Fig. 20-5).
Georg Olden (1920–1975), page 414, hired by CBS in 1945 to establish a graphics department to design on-air visuals for
its new television division. During his fifteen-year tenure at CBS, he played a major role in defining the early development
of television broadcast graphics. He designed on-air graphics from the center out, using simple symbolic imagery
with strong silhouettes and linear properties. Emphasis was placed on concepts that quickly captured the essence of
each program, using the connotative power of simple signs, symbols, and images. Olden was the first African American
to achieve prominence as a graphic designer and in 1963 the United States Postal Service commissioned him to design
a postage stamp for the one hundredth anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation (Fig. 20–7)
Lou Dorfsman (b. 1918), page 415, became art director for CBS Radio in 1946. He combined conceptual clarity with a
straightforward and provocative visual presentation. Typography and image were arranged in well-ordered relationships
that used blank space as a design element. The high quality of his solutions to communications problems during
his four decades with CBS enabled him to project an exemplary image for the corporation. He was named director of
design for the entire CBS Corporation in 1964 and vice president in 1968, in keeping with Stanton’s philosophy that
design is a vital area that should be managed by professionals (Figs. 20-8 and 20-9).
Eero Saarinen (1910–1961), page 416, the architect who designed the new CBS headquarters building in 1966.
Raymond Loewy, page 417, designer known for his streamlined and modern aesthetic as applied across a range of in-

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
dustrial products, packaging, architecture, interiors, and corporate identities (Figs. 20-10 and 20-11).
Norman Ives, page 417, master of corporate design who believed that a symbol “should convey with a clear statement
or by suggestion, the activity it represents,”
Paul Rand (1914–1996), page 417, After playing a pivotal role in the evolution of American graphic and advertising design
during the 1940s and early 1950s, he became more involved in trademark design and visual identification systems in
the mid-1950s. The trademark for International Business Machines was developed from an infrequently used typeface
called City Medium. The 1958 IBM annual report he designed established a standard for corporate literature (Figs. 20-15
through Fig. 20-18 and Figs. 20-22 through 20-25).
Eliot Noyes (1910–1977), page 419, IBM’s consulting design director during the late 1950s, he wrote that the IBM design
program sought “to express the extremely advanced and up-to-date nature of its products. To this end we are not looking
for a theme but for a consistency of design quality which will in effect become a kind of theme, but a very flexible
one.”
Jon Craine (b. 1940), page 419, one of two lead graphic designers in IBM’s White Plains, New
York, office from 1979 through 1988. This office was responsible for designing product announcements
for the Data Products Division (DPD), IBM’s largest product sector (Figs. 20-20 and 20-21).
Lester Beall (1903–1969), page 418, During the last two decades of his career, he created pioneering corporate identity
programs for many corporations, including Martin Marietta, Connecticut General Life Insurance, and the International
Paper Company, which he co-designed with Richard Rodgers. He also contributed to the development of the corporate
identity manual, specifically prescribing the permissible uses and forbidden abuses of the trademark (Figs. 20-26 and
20-27).
Muriel Cooper (1925–1994), page 422, She had two careers—the first as a print designer for Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) publications and books and the second as founder and director of the Visible Language Workshop
(VLW). She designed more than five hundred books, including the seminal 1969 Bauhaus by Hans Wingler, which is
perhaps her most well-known design. Her goal was to move graphic design from form to content—to be able to create
clear, compelling communication that could be plucked and digested from an ocean of print and the electronic sea of
the World Wide Web (Fig. 20-34).
Otl Aicher, page 423, The 1962 Lufthansa German Airlines identification system was conceived and produced at the Ulm
Institute of Design by this designer in collaboration with Tomás Gonda, Fritz Querengässer, and Nick Roericht. Aicher
believed a large organization could achieve a uniform, and thus significant, (Figs. 20 -35 and 20-36). He also directed the
design team for the 1972 Twentieth Olympiad in Munich, Germany (Figs. 20-52 through 20-54).
Ralph Eckerstrom (c. 1920–1996), page 424, This design director and his staff created a new corporate logo for the Container
Corporation of America (CCA) (Fig. 20-37).
Massimo Vignelli (b. 1931), page 425, began as a partner at Unimark, and when the New York office closed, founded
Vignelli Associates with Leila Vignelli in 1971 (Fig. 20-38).
John Massey, page 426, designed the prototype federal graphic standards system for the Department of Labor. His
goals for the new design program were “uniformity of identification; a standard of quality; a more systematic and
economic template for publication design; a closer relationship between graphic design (as a means) and program development
(as an end) so that the proposed graphics system will become an effective tool in assisting the department
to achieve program objectives” (Fig. 20-39).
Thomas H. Geismar, page 427, headed a committee of five prominent graphic designers to act as evaluators of and
advisers for the creation of a master set of thirty-four passenger- and pedestrian-oriented symbols for use in transportation
facilities for the Department of Transportation (Fig. 20-42).
Roger Cook (b. 1930), page 427, worked with Don Shanosky on designing and drawing the final set of thirty-four passenger-
and pedestrian-oriented symbols for use in transportation facilities for the Department of Transportation (Fig.
20-43).

A HISTORY OF
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Don Shanosky (b. 1937), page 427, worked with Roger Cook on designing and drawing the final set of thirty-four passenger-
and pedestrian-oriented symbols for use in transportation facilities for the Department of Transportation (Fig.
20-43).
Masaru Katzumie and Yusaku Kamerkura, page 428, art director and designer, respectively, who were the creative visionaries
and leaders behind the identity system for the 1964 Eighteenth Olympiad in Tokyo (Figs. 20-44 through 20-46).
The Eighteenth Olympiad was the first Olympiad to use a comprehensive identity program, setting a standard for all
subsequent games.
Pedro Ramirez Vazquez (b. 1919), page 429, the Mexican architect who chaired the organizing committee of the Nineteenth
Olympiad. Realizing that an effective information system encompassing environmental directions, visual identification,
and publicity was needed, he assembled an international design team, with American Lance Wyman as director
of graphic design and British industrial designer Peter Murdoch as director of special products.
Lance Wyman (b. 1937), page 429, the American designer hired as director of graphic design for the Nineteenth Olympiad
(Figs. 20-47 through 20-50).
Peter Murdoch (b. 1940), page 416, the British industrial designer hired as director of special products for the Nineteenth
Olympiad (Fig. 20-51).
Min Wang (b. 1956), page 433, design director for the 2008 Beijing Twenty-Ninth Olympiad (Fig. 20-63).