English - Support to Participatory Constitution Building in Nepal ...
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_ __--------------.J! J ,<br />
II<br />
I
Introduction<br />
Of the estimated 300 million <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
of the world, 8.27 million live <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Currently, there are 59 cultural groups identified<br />
as <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities or Adibasi Janajatis<br />
by the government. The Indigenous peoples<br />
possess dist<strong>in</strong>ct identities, cultures, languages,<br />
religions, his<strong>to</strong>ries and <strong>in</strong>stitutional structures<br />
with spiritual relationship <strong>to</strong> their land. With<br />
their unique cus<strong>to</strong>mary laws, knowledge system,<br />
values and world views, the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples form different societies apart from<br />
those with rigid hierarchy of the H<strong>in</strong>du caste<br />
system <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and marg<strong>in</strong>alization of <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples represent a major threat <strong>to</strong> the<br />
rich diversity and democracy <strong>in</strong> contemporary<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the last two and half centuries,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples of <strong>Nepal</strong> have been<br />
forcibly removed from their communal land, dispossessed<br />
of their natural resources, exploited<br />
and simply discrim<strong>in</strong>ated. Majority of the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples are less well off, have lower educational<br />
and health status than the members of<br />
the dom<strong>in</strong>ant societies. Political exclusion and<br />
denial of their right <strong>to</strong> participate <strong>in</strong> the national<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream have left the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
often without power.<br />
The discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and exclusion, which is often<br />
structural and systematic, based on their ethnicity,<br />
language or religion, Mas barred the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples from exercis<strong>in</strong>g their <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
and collective rights for non-discrim<strong>in</strong>ation,<br />
and <strong>to</strong> effective participation and cultural<br />
identity. The failure <strong>to</strong> observe civil and political<br />
as well as economic. social and cultural rights is<br />
a major concern for promot<strong>in</strong>g an equitable,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clusive and peaceful society <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
government has cont<strong>in</strong>ued over eight years <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this arme
Who Are Adibasi<br />
Janajatis?<br />
Approximately 36.3 percent of the population<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> has been designated as Adibasi<br />
Janajati or Indigenous Nationalities by His<br />
Majesty's Government of <strong>Nepal</strong>. The term,<br />
<strong>to</strong>day, <strong>in</strong>cludes 59 different cultural and l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
groups specified <strong>in</strong> the National Foundation<br />
for Development of Indigenous Nationalities<br />
(NFDIN) Act 2002 i . The Act def<strong>in</strong>es Adibasi<br />
Janajati as those "tribes or communities as<br />
mentioned <strong>in</strong> the schedule who have their own<br />
"mother <strong>to</strong>ngue and traditional cus<strong>to</strong>ms, dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
cultural identity, dist<strong>in</strong>ct social structure and<br />
written or oral his<strong>to</strong>ry of their own".<br />
The term Adibasi and Janajati is generally used<br />
<strong>in</strong>terchangeably <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. The word "Adibasi" is<br />
derived from Sanskrit and means <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
Table 1<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
peoples or or:;1al <strong>in</strong>habitants. Adibasis are'<br />
also referred l: as Mulbasi (native people) or<br />
Bhumiputra (sc- of the soil).<br />
Over the course of<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry, the ter- Janajati, roughly translated as<br />
people, tribe :0 nationality has been widely<br />
adopted <strong>to</strong> col!~:tively identify these dist<strong>in</strong>ctive<br />
groups by the ;jovernment, public discourse<br />
and the <strong>in</strong>diger::JS peoples themselves. While<br />
"Adibasi" denc:~s peoples' close tie <strong>to</strong> their<br />
land, terri<strong>to</strong>ry. ::st<strong>in</strong>ctive cultural world views<br />
and <strong>in</strong>digeno~3 value systems, the term<br />
"Janajati" is ge-Brally envisaged <strong>to</strong> reflect their<br />
marg<strong>in</strong>alized c1d excluded social status.<br />
Except for a fe.', groups <strong>in</strong> the northern mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
and eaSlE-n Terai, who are believed <strong>to</strong><br />
have migrated :s:er, all the Janajatis<br />
are <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
<strong>to</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> The table 1 shows the list of<br />
Indigenous pec:'es<br />
Indigenous Nationalities of Nepa'<br />
H~:<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>:<br />
1 Bara Gaunle 10 MlJgali 1 Bankaria '3 Lepcha<br />
2 Bhutia 11 Sherpa 2 Baramo "4 Limbu<br />
3 Byansi 12 Siyar 3 Bhujel/Gharti "5 Magar<br />
4 Chhairotan 13 Tangbe 4 Chepang "6 Newar<br />
5 Dolpo 14 Thakali 5 Chhantyal "7 Pahari<br />
6 Larke 15 Thudam 6 Dura "8 Phree<br />
7 Lhomi 16 T<strong>in</strong>gaunle 17 Gurung "9 Rai<br />
(Sh<strong>in</strong>gsawa) Thakali<br />
8 Lhopa 17 Topkegola 8 Hayu 20 Sunuwar<br />
9 Marphali 18 Wallung 9 Hyolmo :1 Surel<br />
Thakali<br />
10 Jirel 22 Tamang<br />
11 Kushbadia :3 Thami<br />
12 Kusunda 24 Yakkha<br />
Inner Tarai Teroi<br />
1 Bote 5 Majhi 1 Dhanuk (Rajbanshi) 6 Meche<br />
2 Danuwar 6 Raji ,2 Dhimal 7 Rajbanshi<br />
I<br />
(Koch)<br />
3 Darai 7 Raute :3 Gangai 8 Satarl<br />
Santhal<br />
4 Kumal 4 Jhangad 9 Tajpuria<br />
5 Kisan 10 Tharu<br />
Source:National Foundation for DevelopTl'lY't of Indigenous Nationalities Act 2002.<br />
124 Indigenous Peoples of <strong>Nepal</strong> and Humor RiQhts<br />
Self-identification has been recognized by the<br />
United Nations (UN) as the fundamental criteria<br />
for def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g "Indigenous Peoples". International<br />
Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 169<br />
on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (1989)which<br />
is regarded as one of the major <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
<strong>in</strong>struments for -promot<strong>in</strong>g the rights of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous and tribal peoples around the world,<br />
for example, def<strong>in</strong>es the <strong>in</strong>digenous and tribal<br />
peoples as those peoples:<br />
whose social, cultural and economic conditions<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guish them from other sections of the<br />
national community and whose status is regulated<br />
wholly or partially by their own cus<strong>to</strong>ms or<br />
traditions or by special laws and regulations;<br />
and who are regarded as <strong>in</strong>digenous on<br />
account of their descent from the populations<br />
which <strong>in</strong>habited the country or a geographical<br />
region <strong>to</strong> which the country belongs, at the time<br />
of the conquest or colonization or the establishment<br />
of present state boundaries and who, irrespective<br />
of their legal status, reta<strong>in</strong> some or all<br />
of their own social, economic, cultural and political<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions.<br />
Many Adivasi Janajati organizations and movements<br />
have developed criteria for identify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
themselves as <strong>in</strong>digenous and dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the groups from others <strong>in</strong> the country for selfidentification.<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> Federation of Indigenous<br />
Nationalities (NEFIN, 1994),<strong>in</strong> consultation with<br />
the movement activists, leaders and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
scholars, have def<strong>in</strong>ed "Indigenous Peoples" or<br />
"Indigenous Nationalities" <strong>in</strong> the context of<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> based on follow<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples:<br />
which possess their own dist<strong>in</strong>ct tradition and<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al l<strong>in</strong>gUistic and cultural traditions and<br />
whose religious faith is based on ancient animism<br />
(worshiper of ances<strong>to</strong>rs, land, season,<br />
nature), or who do not claim "H<strong>in</strong>duism"<br />
enforced by the state, as their traditional and<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al religion.<br />
Those exist<strong>in</strong>g descendants of the peoples<br />
whose ances<strong>to</strong>rs had established themselves<br />
as the first settlers or pr<strong>in</strong>cipal <strong>in</strong>habitants of the<br />
present terri<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>Nepal</strong> at the time when persons<br />
of different culture or ethnic orig<strong>in</strong> arrived<br />
there and who have their own his<strong>to</strong>ry (written or<br />
oral) and his<strong>to</strong>rical cont<strong>in</strong>uity.<br />
those communities which have been displaced<br />
from their own land s<strong>in</strong>ce the past four centuries,<br />
particularly dUr<strong>in</strong>g the expansion and<br />
establishment of modern H<strong>in</strong>du nation state and<br />
have been deprived of their traditional rights <strong>to</strong><br />
own the natural resources (Kipat communal<br />
land, cultivable land, water, m<strong>in</strong>erals, trad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts etc.).<br />
who have been subjugated <strong>in</strong> the State's political<br />
power set-up (decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g process),<br />
whose ancient culture, language and religion<br />
are non-dom<strong>in</strong>ant and social values neglected<br />
and humiliated;<br />
whose society is traditionally erected on the<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of equality - rath~r than of hierarchy of<br />
the Indo-Aryan caste system and gender equality<br />
or rather women enjoy<strong>in</strong>g more advantaged<br />
positions) - rather than social. economic and<br />
religious subord<strong>in</strong>ation of woman. but whose<br />
social norms and values have been slighted by<br />
the state:<br />
who formally or <strong>in</strong>formally admit or claim <strong>to</strong> be<br />
"the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples of <strong>Nepal</strong>" on the basis<br />
of the aforementioned characteristics.<br />
One of the major dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g features of<br />
Adivasi Janajati of <strong>Nepal</strong> is that they do not<br />
belong <strong>to</strong> the H<strong>in</strong>du caste system. The H<strong>in</strong>du<br />
Varna scheme and associated hierarchical<br />
caste system based on purity and pollution is<br />
the key fac<strong>to</strong>r for separat<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people from the non-<strong>in</strong>digenous <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. The<br />
Adivasi Janajatis ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> that they are outside<br />
this scheme and consider the caste system as<br />
a form of racism as it forcefully places them <strong>in</strong><br />
unequal position with<strong>in</strong> the hierarchy.<br />
Special relationship <strong>to</strong> their terri<strong>to</strong>ries. possession<br />
of dist<strong>in</strong>ctive cultures, religions, languages<br />
and his<strong>to</strong>ries different from those of the H<strong>in</strong>du<br />
caste groups dist<strong>in</strong>guish the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
from others <strong>in</strong> the country. They further
share the experience of political marg<strong>in</strong>alization,<br />
cultural discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and economic deprivation<br />
as common themes <strong>to</strong> identify themselves.<br />
Despite the similarities as <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities, there exists a rich diversity with<strong>in</strong><br />
these groups <strong>in</strong> terms of culture, religion, language,<br />
economy, as well as social and political<br />
status.<br />
Population and Distribution<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the census report of 2001, there<br />
arj;l8,271,975 <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> spread<strong>in</strong>g across the mounta<strong>in</strong>, hill, <strong>in</strong>ner<br />
Terai and Terai regions and all the 75 districts.<br />
Although the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples are found<br />
across the entire country, they show a higher<br />
concentration <strong>in</strong> the eastern, central and westem<br />
development regions with sparse distribution<br />
<strong>in</strong> the mid and far west. For example, about<br />
65% of the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities are found <strong>in</strong><br />
the eastem and central development regions<br />
whereas far western region has only about 5%.<br />
Some of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples have their<br />
counterparts <strong>in</strong> the north-eastern states of India<br />
particularly Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West<br />
Bengal.<br />
Despite the fact that the government has identified<br />
59 <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities <strong>in</strong> the country,<br />
the census 2001 has enumerated only 43 of<br />
them. This is believed <strong>to</strong> have been caused by<br />
the relatively short his<strong>to</strong>ry of the census practice<br />
<strong>to</strong> generate population data disaggregated<br />
by caste and ethnicity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> along with the<br />
lack of knowledge about these groups liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
isolated parts of the country. The population<br />
figure, therefore, may not give an accurate representationof<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous population.<br />
The numerical strength of the different <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
communities varies greatly. Kusunda, for<br />
example, has the lowest number with only 164<br />
people while the Magars, Tharus, Tamangs and<br />
Newars are 1,622,421, '1,533,879, 1,282,304,<br />
and 1,245,232 respectively <strong>in</strong> numbers. In<br />
terms of population, <strong>Nepal</strong> does not have a<br />
majority of any s<strong>in</strong>gle group. The largest group<br />
of people is from non-<strong>in</strong>digenous Chhetris who<br />
comprise 15.8% followed by 12.7% Bahuns.<br />
The Chhetris and Bahuns fall <strong>in</strong> the first two<br />
ranks as the most populated groups. Magars.<br />
Tharus, Tamangs and Newars are third, fourth.<br />
fifth and sixth most numerously populated<br />
groups respectively <strong>in</strong> the country. Indigenous<br />
Nationalities belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> Raute, Hyolmo and<br />
Kusbadiya people have popUlation below 700.<br />
The table 2 shows the distribution of <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
population by geographic region:<br />
Populotion of Indigenous Nationalities <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong><br />
Each of the <strong>in</strong>digenous groups has their traditional<br />
homeland. Magars are concentrated <strong>in</strong><br />
the western region and they are·the first numerously<br />
popUlated group <strong>in</strong> Tanahun, Myagdr.<br />
Palpa, Baglung, Nawalparasi, Pyuthan and<br />
Rolpa districts. The region of the Magar <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
is known as Magarat. Similarly, Tharul7at<br />
refers <strong>to</strong> the place of the Tharus who have highest<br />
concentration <strong>in</strong> Sunsari, Dang, Bardiya.<br />
Kailali, and other Terai districts. Tamangs are<br />
the first numerously populated group <strong>in</strong> the districts<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g Kathmandu Valley which<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude S<strong>in</strong>dhupalchowk, Kavre, Rasuwa,<br />
Nuwakot, Dhad<strong>in</strong>g. Makwanpur, Ramechhap<br />
and Dolkha. The Tamangs traditional terri<strong>to</strong>ry is<br />
known as Tamsal<strong>in</strong>g. Newars are the highest<strong>in</strong><br />
Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhakptapur districts<br />
referred <strong>to</strong> as <strong>Nepal</strong> Mandai. The Gurungs call<br />
their region Tamu-mai-yhul and are numerous<br />
<strong>in</strong> the western districts of Gorkha, Lamjung.<br />
Manang, Mustang and Kaski. Similarly,Rai are<br />
the first numerously populated <strong>in</strong> the eastern<br />
districts of lIam, Dhankuta, Sankhuwasabha,<br />
Bhojpur, Khotang and Solukhumbu known as<br />
Kirat Pradesh and Khambuwan while the<br />
Limbus from Limbuwan are highest <strong>in</strong><br />
Taplejung, Panchthar and Terathum.<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> has other mUltiple castes as well as l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
and religious groups besides <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities. The most dom<strong>in</strong>ant ones are <strong>in</strong>migrated<br />
'high' castes H<strong>in</strong>du groups from the<br />
hills which comprise 30.89 per cent al<strong>to</strong>gether<br />
and <strong>in</strong>cludes Chhetris, Bahuns, Thakuris and<br />
Sanyasis. Another 'upper' caste group is from<br />
the Terai with 12.3 percent of population. There<br />
are about<br />
15% of Dalit<br />
caste population who are<br />
traditionally considered as<br />
un<strong>to</strong>uchables. The<br />
Muslim population is 4.3%<br />
of the <strong>to</strong>tal accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong><br />
census 2001.<br />
Table2<br />
2. Bhote<br />
Brief His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Thakali<br />
Oral accounts are the i4<br />
major source for the his<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
of the Adibasi and<br />
Janajatis <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Scanty<br />
written sources on the<br />
ancient his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
tells us that the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
6<br />
Kiranti people were the 7<br />
first rulers of the 8<br />
Kathmandu valley. It' is 9<br />
believed that the Adibasi<br />
Janajatis were liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
societies organized<br />
around the various small<br />
k<strong>in</strong>gdoms, chiefdoms and<br />
clans across the.southern<br />
Himayalan foothills when<br />
the Indo-Aryan speak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
population entered<br />
through western <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g 11th centuryiii.<br />
Very little is known about<br />
the his<strong>to</strong>ry of Adibasi<br />
Janajati population until<br />
the medieval, period<br />
except that they were selfgovern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
people and that<br />
they unders<strong>to</strong>od their terri<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
as <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipalities. Major<br />
changes for the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
began <strong>to</strong> occur with the<br />
arrival of the Indo-Aryan<br />
people and their cultural<br />
Groups<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
and political dom<strong>in</strong>ation. Restructunng of the<br />
society along the l<strong>in</strong>e of caste hierarchy <strong>in</strong><br />
Indigenous Nationalities Of <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
..__-"opulCJ!i~"-- .~ ~~o~p_s .~~uICJti...?-rI ._~_<br />
190,107 0.82 InnerTerai 251,117 1.11<br />
154,622<br />
19,261<br />
12,973<br />
2,103<br />
1,148<br />
0.68<br />
0.08<br />
0.06<br />
0.01<br />
0.01<br />
26 Kumal<br />
,27 Majhi<br />
28 Danuwar<br />
;29 Darai<br />
'30 Bote<br />
31 Raji<br />
H~II L~~~3~~~_ 26.~ :32 Raute<br />
Magar<br />
Tamang<br />
Newar<br />
Rai<br />
17 Pahari<br />
18 Chhantel<br />
Brahmu/Bara<br />
19 mu<br />
22 Lepcha<br />
23 Hayu<br />
24 Yholmo<br />
25 Kusunda<br />
1,622,421<br />
1,282,304<br />
1,245,232<br />
635,151<br />
359,379<br />
117,568<br />
95,254<br />
52,237<br />
22,999<br />
17,003<br />
11,505<br />
9,814<br />
3,660<br />
1,821<br />
7.14<br />
5.64<br />
5.48<br />
2.79<br />
1.58<br />
0.52<br />
0.42<br />
0.23<br />
0.1<br />
0.07<br />
0.05<br />
0.04<br />
0.03<br />
33 Tharu<br />
34 Rajbansi<br />
Santhall<br />
35 Sattar<br />
Jhagarl<br />
36 Dhagar<br />
37 Gangai<br />
38 Dhimal<br />
39 Tajpuriya<br />
40 Meche<br />
41 Kisan<br />
42 Koche<br />
43 Munda<br />
0.02 Unknown<br />
Adibasi<br />
0.02<br />
0.01<br />
99,389<br />
72,614<br />
53,229<br />
14.859<br />
7,969<br />
2,399<br />
658<br />
1,786,986 7.85<br />
1,533,879 6.75<br />
95,812 0.42<br />
41.764<br />
31.318<br />
19.537<br />
13,250<br />
3,763<br />
2,876<br />
1,429<br />
660<br />
0.44<br />
0.32<br />
0.23<br />
0.07'<br />
0.04<br />
0.01<br />
o<br />
018<br />
0.14<br />
0.09<br />
0.06<br />
0.02<br />
0.01<br />
0.01<br />
o<br />
Total<br />
Populationof<br />
NePal 22,736,934 100<br />
Total<br />
Indigenous<br />
Nationalities
Kathmandu valley by Jayasthiti Malia <strong>in</strong> the<br />
14th century is thought <strong>to</strong> be the first major <strong>in</strong>cident<br />
that began disruption <strong>in</strong> the egalitarian<br />
value base of Adivasi societies and <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
of H<strong>in</strong>du dom<strong>in</strong>ation. A similar process of political<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ation and encroachment upon the<br />
native. societies by the Thakuri chiefta<strong>in</strong>s was<br />
underway <strong>in</strong> the westem hills.<br />
The process of dom<strong>in</strong>ation f<strong>in</strong>ally culm<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong><br />
the terri<strong>to</strong>rial "unification" of <strong>Nepal</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1768 by<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g Prithvi Narayan Saha. The "unification"<br />
p~ject eventually submerged 64 small k<strong>in</strong>gdoms<br />
and political units <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> under one<br />
umbrella either through violent conquest or<br />
negotiation. The "unification" of <strong>Nepal</strong> basically<br />
meant an end of <strong>in</strong>dependence for the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities of <strong>Nepal</strong>. The loss of <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
and au<strong>to</strong>nomy was followed by the<br />
gradual loss of their rights over land and other<br />
natural resources. Although K<strong>in</strong>g Prithvi<br />
Narayan Saha characterized <strong>Nepal</strong> as "a garden<br />
of four caste and thirty-six Varna" - his mission<br />
was <strong>to</strong> make the country "asali H<strong>in</strong>dustan"<br />
(true H<strong>in</strong>du land). As the new ruler of ·unified"<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> was guided by the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of H<strong>in</strong>du<br />
Shastras and Laws, the state lacked <strong>to</strong>lerance<br />
<strong>to</strong> cultures, languages, religions, cus<strong>to</strong>mary<br />
laws·and knowledge systems of the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples and, consequently, they began <strong>to</strong> face<br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and <strong>to</strong> lose their heritage.<br />
Indigenous activists and scholars often term the<br />
process set off by unification as "<strong>in</strong>ternal-colonization".<br />
Ascendance of Jung Bahadur Kunwar <strong>in</strong> 1846<br />
as Prime M<strong>in</strong>ster and the au<strong>to</strong>cratic Rana rule<br />
that thrived dur<strong>in</strong>g the next 104 years was<br />
another dark chapter <strong>in</strong> the his<strong>to</strong>ry of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Through the political<br />
exclusion, economic exproitation, and cultural<br />
marg<strong>in</strong>alization of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples,<br />
the Rana rule consolidated and re<strong>in</strong>forced the<br />
H<strong>in</strong>du dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> the country. Soon after the<br />
return from his trip <strong>to</strong> the United K<strong>in</strong>gdom,Jung<br />
Bahadur Rana <strong>in</strong>troduced the first <strong>Nepal</strong>ese<br />
Code: the Mu/uki A<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1854. It codified the<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant H<strong>in</strong>du value system of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s rulers<br />
as <strong>Nepal</strong>'s law and restructured the diverse<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>i society <strong>in</strong><strong>to</strong> four tiered caste hierarchy.<br />
The ritually pure 'twice born' Tagadhari Brahm<strong>in</strong><br />
and Chhetri were placed on <strong>to</strong>p of the hierarchy<br />
while <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities were slotted<br />
beneath them as Matwali "alcohol dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />
castes". With<strong>in</strong> the Matwali groups, some were<br />
further classified <strong>in</strong><strong>to</strong> caste category as<br />
enslavable (mas<strong>in</strong>e) low caste groups.<br />
Through this Muluki A<strong>in</strong>, the <strong>Nepal</strong>i rulers formalized<br />
punishments for fail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> observe the<br />
caste hierarchy and these punishments differed<br />
for the same crime accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the specific<br />
caste status. M<strong>in</strong>ority religion and languages<br />
were actively discouraged and at time prosecuted.<br />
For the Indigenous Nationalities who never<br />
belonged <strong>to</strong> the H<strong>in</strong>du caste system, it was a<br />
forceful <strong>in</strong>corporation with grossly discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
treatments. The impact of this legal code has<br />
been wide and deep <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous societies<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms of humiliation it <strong>in</strong>flicted and the disruption<br />
it <strong>in</strong>duced <strong>in</strong> the egaJitarian social structures.<br />
Declar<strong>in</strong>g himself as Maharaja, Jung Bahadur<br />
Rana centralized the judicial, legislative and<br />
executive powers <strong>in</strong> the hereditary Prime<br />
M<strong>in</strong>ister and his Councils. The Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister<br />
and his Councils appo<strong>in</strong>ted and commanded<br />
the district officers (badahakims) and extended<br />
direct and <strong>in</strong>direct political control even <strong>in</strong> the<br />
remotest parts of <strong>in</strong>digenous terri<strong>to</strong>ries. The<br />
state apparatus were characterized by bureaucratic<br />
culture def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with a patronage<br />
system and caste pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. The Rana period<br />
is termed as an epoch of great suppression for<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples <strong>in</strong> all spheres of their<br />
lives with long last<strong>in</strong>g effects extend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><strong>to</strong> the<br />
future.<br />
With the monopoly over political power, the<br />
Rana rulers controlled and exploited the wealth<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peasants and their terri<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
<strong>to</strong> the extent that they are left permanently<br />
stripped of resources. Through the centralized<br />
taxation system based on privatiz<strong>in</strong>g land<br />
tenure system, imposition of corvee labour and<br />
birta land grant practice,the aris<strong>to</strong>cracy appropriated<br />
the meagre surplus of the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peasants and removed them from. their land<br />
throughout the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth centurylV. The<br />
Ranas' shar<strong>in</strong>g of the appropriated resource<br />
with groups of Parbatiya high caste led aris<strong>to</strong>cracy<br />
and bureaucracy, benefited both the<br />
groups greatly. While this mechanism helped<br />
susta<strong>in</strong> their monopoly, the economy of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities became irrecoverably<br />
damaged and stagnant. More specifically, loss<br />
of their land - which was the base of subsistence<br />
livelihood of the <strong>in</strong>digenouspeoples led <strong>to</strong><br />
loss of their his<strong>to</strong>ry,culture and identity.<br />
The Indigenous Nationalities of <strong>Nepal</strong> experienced<br />
a newer form of dom<strong>in</strong>ation and hegemony<br />
after the fall of the Rana regime, especially<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the Panchayat Era (1960-1990).<br />
1=hepolitical system called Panchayat, headed<br />
by an absolute monarch, was engaged i~ a<br />
project <strong>to</strong> "modemize"<strong>Nepal</strong> and atta<strong>in</strong> "national<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegration" through homogenization. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
common culture was thought essential for<br />
nation-build<strong>in</strong>g, policiesfor "one language, one<br />
dress" was officially promoted. Interest<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
enough, the culture and values of the reign<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Parbatiya H<strong>in</strong>dus was chosen <strong>to</strong> be the paradigmatic<br />
model for creat<strong>in</strong>g a common <strong>Nepal</strong>i<br />
culture. To become citizens of modern <strong>Nepal</strong>,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalitieshad <strong>to</strong> speak Khas<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>i language, observe caste system, follow<br />
H<strong>in</strong>du religion and wear maya/posh suruwa/<br />
and Dhaka <strong>to</strong>pi.<br />
The <strong>Constitution</strong> of <strong>Nepal</strong> 1962, for the first<br />
time, declared <strong>Nepal</strong> as a "H<strong>in</strong>du K<strong>in</strong>gdom",<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the Panchayat regime, debates and<br />
efforts perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> ethnicity and culture other<br />
than "national" culturefashioned <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the<br />
high caste H<strong>in</strong>du ways was discouraged as<br />
"communal" and "anti-national" and, therefore,<br />
met with strong officialoppositions. The impact<br />
of the state policiesof H<strong>in</strong>duizationand homogenization<br />
of cultural diversity threatened identities<br />
and severely constra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities <strong>to</strong> practice and promote their language,<br />
cultural tradition, religion and identities.<br />
"Development" was another promise made by<br />
the Panchayat system for moderniz<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>i state. National development was modeled<br />
<strong>in</strong> evolutionary framework. <strong>in</strong> which the<br />
Parbatiya Brahman/Chhetri was placed at the<br />
apex of the evolutionary cha<strong>in</strong> while the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities <strong>in</strong> general were perceived as<br />
"backward". The govemment policies <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
school education promoted H<strong>in</strong>duization and<br />
Sanskritization as parameters of civilization and<br />
development where least H<strong>in</strong>duized groups<br />
such as Chepangs or libe<strong>to</strong>-Burman language<br />
speak<strong>in</strong>g Bhotes were considered as primitive v .<br />
Assimilation oriented development programmes<br />
largely controlled by the high caste elites ~tigmatized<br />
and pauperized the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities.<br />
Further, many of the development projects<br />
and National Parks set up <strong>in</strong> the terri<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities further displaced<br />
them and fostered large disparity <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Nepal</strong>i<br />
society.<br />
Advent of multiparty democracy and associated<br />
freedom of expression <strong>in</strong> 1990, provided an<br />
opportunity for articulat<strong>in</strong>g the pa<strong>in</strong>s of his<strong>to</strong>rical<br />
<strong>in</strong>justice and 101Tg stand<strong>in</strong>g grieWlnces of ~he<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Res<strong>to</strong>ration<br />
of democracy through the People's movement'<br />
and subsequent <strong>in</strong>stallation of the new<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong> which recognize the country as<br />
"multi-ethnic and multi l<strong>in</strong>gual" symbolized a vic<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
<strong>in</strong> itself on the part of the people.<br />
Nevertheless, failure of the system <strong>to</strong> address<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples' hope <strong>to</strong> reduce the<br />
socia-cultural and politico- economic <strong>in</strong>equalities<br />
and promote human rights rema<strong>in</strong> urgent<br />
issues.<br />
HumanRights Yearbook 2004<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> is currently go<strong>in</strong>g through fatal armed<br />
conflict after the Maoist started "People's War"<br />
<strong>in</strong> February 1996. Conflict studies suggest that<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> causes of the conflict are political, economic<br />
and social exdusion and discrim<strong>in</strong>ation
.~.<br />
based on caste, ethnicity<br />
and language.<br />
Table3<br />
The elites compris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Brahm<strong>in</strong>s, A. Endangered<br />
Chhetris and some<br />
assimilated Newars<br />
not only cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>to</strong><br />
monopolized the<br />
power, resources<br />
and social status but<br />
also protected it with<br />
tetal disregard for the<br />
poor. Grievances of<br />
the excluded <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
ethnic groups,<br />
oppressed women<br />
and dispossessed<br />
H<strong>in</strong>du lower caste<br />
Dalits have led <strong>to</strong> the<br />
contribution <strong>to</strong> the<br />
conflict <strong>in</strong> significant<br />
ways. On the other<br />
hand, the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities and<br />
other marg<strong>in</strong>alized<br />
communities are the<br />
Kusunda<br />
Bankaria<br />
Raute<br />
Surel<br />
Hayu<br />
Raji<br />
Kisan<br />
Lepcha<br />
Meche<br />
Kusbadiya<br />
E.".-~d_vantag~~<br />
1 Newar<br />
2 Thakali<br />
largest groups who have been suffer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
victimization by this armed conflict.<br />
Situation of Adibasi Janajatis<br />
Majority of the Adibasi depends upon agriculture<br />
for their livelihood. Forest and water<br />
resources cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>to</strong> playa major role <strong>in</strong> the<br />
economy of the <strong>in</strong>digenous population. Some<br />
of the groups such as Kusunda, Raute,<br />
Kusbadiya, Hayu and Chepang rely on slash<br />
and burn cultivation, hunt<strong>in</strong>g and gather<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Similarly, Majhi and Bote traditionally earn their<br />
livelihood from water. Due <strong>to</strong> the encroachment<br />
upon agricultural land, forest and other natural<br />
resources by the non-<strong>in</strong>digenous groups, there<br />
has been a decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> resource access for the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous population, Start<strong>in</strong>g with privatization<br />
of land, Birta land grant practice, through<br />
land grabb<strong>in</strong>g practice of money lenders <strong>to</strong> the<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g up of wildlife areas and national parks <strong>in</strong><br />
8. Highly<br />
Marg<strong>in</strong>alized<br />
----------.~ --<br />
1 Majhi<br />
2 Siyar<br />
3 Lhomi<br />
4 Thudam<br />
5 Dnanuk<br />
6 Chepang<br />
7 Satar (Santhal)<br />
8 Jhangad<br />
9 Thami<br />
10 Bote<br />
11 Danuwar<br />
12 Baramu<br />
1 Sunu•.•. ar<br />
2 Than.<br />
3 Tamang<br />
4 Bhuje<br />
5 Kuma<br />
6 Rajbansi<br />
7 Gangai<br />
8 Dhimai<br />
9 Bhote<br />
10 Dara'<br />
11 Tajpuriya<br />
12 Pahari<br />
14 Dolpe<br />
15 Free<br />
16 Muga<br />
17 Larke<br />
18 Lohpa<br />
19 Dura<br />
20 Walung<br />
Source: <strong>Nepal</strong> Federation of :c:lgenous Nationali:.as (NEFIN,. 2004<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
Gu,Jng<br />
Maga~<br />
Ra'<br />
4 Lim:J~<br />
5 Chnairotan<br />
6 Tangbe<br />
7 T<strong>in</strong>gauleThakali<br />
8 Bargaule<br />
9 MarphaliThakali<br />
10 Sherpa<br />
11 Yakkha<br />
12 Chhantyal<br />
13 Topkegolsa 13 Jirei<br />
14 Byansi<br />
15 Yolmo<br />
the best agricultural land and forest <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous terri<strong>to</strong>ries, the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly pushed<strong>to</strong> the marg<strong>in</strong>alareas.<br />
As a result, many of the <strong>in</strong>digenousnationalities<br />
are landless. InCreas<strong>in</strong>glandlessness among<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples is caused by the <strong>in</strong>appropriate<br />
policies of the governmentand development<br />
projects. The <strong>in</strong>digenous people's<br />
labour cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>to</strong> get exploited by the non<strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
and richer section of SOCiety.It has<br />
been reported that every bonded laborer now<br />
referred <strong>to</strong> as (ex, Kamaiyas <strong>in</strong> western <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
belonged <strong>to</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous Tharu people and<br />
that 97% of the landlordsare Bahuns,Chhetris<br />
and Thakuris vi . Morerecently,out migrationfor<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g as wage laborer both <strong>in</strong> the cities of<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> and <strong>in</strong> the Gulf and other countries has<br />
emerged as one of the options for Adibasi<br />
Janajatis <strong>to</strong> suppiement their family economy.<br />
Except <strong>in</strong> the British Army service, labourers<br />
Table4 Human Development by Caste and Ethnicity, 1996<br />
_._-~-~-~. __ .__ ..-.- -----<br />
Human<br />
Madhesi Dalit Muslim Others<br />
development <strong>Nepal</strong> Brahm<strong>in</strong> Chhetri Newar janajati<br />
<strong>in</strong>dica<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
~_.----'-----.......,.-----~'<br />
-"-- _._----.-_ .. .---_.------" .<br />
60.8 '56.3 62.2 53 58.4 50.3 48.7 54.4<br />
Life expectancy 55<br />
Adult literacy (%) 36.7 58 42 54.8 35.2 27.5 23.8 22.1 27.6<br />
Mean years<br />
of school<strong>in</strong>g .2.25 4.647 2.786 4.37 2.021 1.7 1.23 1.358 :1.88<br />
Per capita<br />
<strong>in</strong>come(NRs) 7,673 9,921 7,744 11,953 6,607 6,911 4,940 6,336 7,312<br />
Per Capita PPP<br />
<strong>in</strong>come (US$) 1,186 1,533 1,197 1,848 1,021 1,068 ;764 979 1,130<br />
Life expectancy<br />
'0.557 ~0.42 !0.395 !0.49<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex 0.5 0.597 0.522 0.62 0.467<br />
0.3 0.49 0.342 0.462 0.28 iO.221 0.19 ,0.178 0.226<br />
Educational<br />
atta<strong>in</strong>ment <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
Income <strong>in</strong>dex 0.18 0.237 0.181 0.289 0.152 0.16 i 0.11 0.145 0.17<br />
Human<br />
development<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex, HDI 0.33 0.441 0.348 0.457 0.299 '0.313 ,0.24 0.239 0.295<br />
Ratio of national<br />
96.28 73.6 73.67 90.94<br />
HDI 100 135.87 107.31 140.7 92.21<br />
. -" ------- -- --- - -- --- -- -- ._--<br />
from <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities tend <strong>to</strong> <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
wage labour as an unorgani'zed force and are<br />
SUbjected<strong>to</strong> different forms of I~bor exploitation.<br />
Available data for the selected <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
groups on literacy and economic status shows<br />
that 58% of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples exclud<strong>in</strong>.~<br />
Newars, live below the official "poverty l<strong>in</strong>e"vlI.<br />
Degrees of poverty greatly vary among the different<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous groups. For example 71 % of<br />
the Limbus are found <strong>to</strong> be liv<strong>in</strong>g below the<br />
poverty l<strong>in</strong>e. The poverty level of some of the<br />
endangered Adibasi Janajatis such as<br />
Bankariya, Kusunda, Raute7 Hayu and Mechhe<br />
would be extremely appall<strong>in</strong>g. Different status of<br />
the various <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities is reflected<br />
<strong>in</strong> the table 4, classification forwarded recently<br />
by NEFINviii:<br />
Overall disadvantaged situation of the Adibasi<br />
Janajatis is well reflected <strong>in</strong> the human development<br />
<strong>in</strong>dica<strong>to</strong>rs. The Janajatis, as his<strong>to</strong>rically<br />
marg<strong>in</strong>alized groups, lag beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> human<br />
development <strong>in</strong>dica<strong>to</strong>rs along with low <strong>in</strong>come<br />
and asset levels and educational atta<strong>in</strong>ments.<br />
As can be seen <strong>in</strong> the table 5 Janajati groups,<br />
except the Newars,fall below the national average<br />
<strong>in</strong> every <strong>in</strong>dica<strong>to</strong>r <strong>to</strong> measure human development.<br />
Human Rights Yearbook 2004<br />
Human Develop~ent by Caste and Ethnicity,<br />
1996<br />
The above figures of human development<br />
<strong>in</strong>dices by caste and ethnicity illustrate that<br />
there is a close correlation between caste status,<br />
health, education and <strong>in</strong>come levels.<br />
Disparity <strong>in</strong> the education level is the most<br />
important fac<strong>to</strong>r <strong>in</strong> perpetuat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>equalities <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese society. The endur<strong>in</strong>g legacy of<br />
the caste system and biased educational programmes<br />
are the major fac<strong>to</strong>rs beh<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
sharp disparities<strong>in</strong> the educational status of different<br />
social groups <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. The overall pattern<br />
shows that belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> a Brahm<strong>in</strong>, Newar<br />
or Chetri family (regardless of <strong>in</strong>come level)<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases a child's probability of school participation<br />
by 13 percentage po<strong>in</strong>tsiX. <strong>Nepal</strong> cur-
ently has more than 19% of the officially<br />
school-go<strong>in</strong>g-age children out of<br />
school, with a high drop out rate.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Education<br />
states that almost<br />
all of those children who are out of<br />
school and dropped out, are from<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities and other marg<strong>in</strong>alized<br />
groupsx.<br />
The situation of low educational status<br />
of the Indigenous Nationalities is also<br />
reilected <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>equity <strong>in</strong> number of<br />
the highly educated<br />
and the university<br />
teachers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. The data presented<br />
<strong>in</strong> table 5 is demonstrative that while<br />
the higher H<strong>in</strong>du castes (Bahun and<br />
Chhetri)<br />
make up only 30% of the population,<br />
they make up well over 50% of<br />
the university teachers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. The<br />
Table 5<br />
Ethnicity/Caste of Highly Educated Population<br />
_.__ .<br />
-'._--.-- ..-----------_._----_. ---- '.-._ ..--_..<br />
Tribhuvan Percentatge<br />
Ethnic/Caste Graduates University of Total<br />
Brahm<strong>in</strong><br />
, Chhetri<br />
Newar<br />
Newars with 5.6% of the population occupy<br />
almost 29% of all the university teach<strong>in</strong>g positions.<br />
The ethnic and <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples from<br />
the hill constitute 20% of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s <strong>to</strong>tal population<br />
but make up only 3% of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s<br />
teachers.<br />
Ethniclty/Caste of Highly Educated<br />
Related <strong>to</strong> education<br />
Group Teachers Population<br />
Hill Indigenous<br />
44.3<br />
13.7<br />
30.7<br />
41<br />
11<br />
28.9<br />
12.9<br />
17.7<br />
5.6<br />
Groups 2 3.2 20.2<br />
Terai Groups 10.9 14.2 27.4<br />
Muslim 0.4 0.9 3.5<br />
. Others 0.2 0.7 _, __ 14.~<br />
"T~~L=~.--=. 100. =-'100' __'_ .!9-L_<br />
university<br />
is the issue of child labor.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> a study on child labor, about 70%<br />
of the 46 thousand children <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> long distance<br />
porter<strong>in</strong>g work belong <strong>to</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
nationalities. The children from <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
communities are also massively engaged <strong>in</strong><br />
brick mak<strong>in</strong>g fac<strong>to</strong>ries and carpet weav<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Similarly 36% of the street children <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
rag-pick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the streets of cities of <strong>Nepal</strong>,<br />
come from <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities. Further<br />
more, 50% of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s domestic child servants<br />
are from <strong>in</strong>digenous communities xi . For the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples, child rights issues are<br />
closely related <strong>to</strong> <strong>in</strong>accessibility <strong>to</strong> universal<br />
education <strong>in</strong> their mother <strong>to</strong>ngue and the worst<br />
forms of child labor. Reports of <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
recruitment of child soldiers by the <strong>in</strong>surgents<br />
further threatens the rights and wellbe<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous children across the country.<br />
Source: Gurung. 1998<br />
The issue of l<strong>in</strong>gUistic rights is another major<br />
concem for the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
The census 2001 reports 75 languages and 34<br />
dialects spoken <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Majority of the languages<br />
belong <strong>to</strong> Tibe<strong>to</strong>-Burman family.<br />
Because of the commercial value and political<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ance of <strong>Nepal</strong>i language, Adibasi Janajtis<br />
are compelled <strong>to</strong> speak the state language.<br />
Generally, some Adibasi are bil<strong>in</strong>gual and speak<br />
their native <strong>to</strong>ngue and Khas <strong>Nepal</strong>i language.<br />
On the other hand, very few members of the<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>i speak<strong>in</strong>g communities speak Tibe<strong>to</strong>-<br />
Burman languages and rema<strong>in</strong> largely monol<strong>in</strong>gual.<br />
The <strong>Constitution</strong> of <strong>Nepal</strong> 1990 recognizes all<br />
the languages, spoken as mother <strong>to</strong>ngue <strong>in</strong> different<br />
parts of <strong>Nepal</strong>, as "national languages".<br />
Nevertheless, these languages are not allowed<br />
<strong>to</strong> be used <strong>in</strong> public adm<strong>in</strong>istration and education.<br />
In the absence of proper policies, many of<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>'s <strong>in</strong>digenous mother <strong>to</strong>ngues, particularly<br />
those belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the Tibe<strong>to</strong>-Burman language<br />
family, are <strong>in</strong> danger of disappear<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Categoriz<strong>in</strong>g languages accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> levels<br />
such as safe, at risk, endangered and ext<strong>in</strong>ct,<br />
has revealed that most of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
mother <strong>to</strong>ngues are believed <strong>to</strong> be endangered<br />
and 20 of them are at the stage of ext<strong>in</strong>ction xii .<br />
Table 6<br />
Caste/Ethnicity Index of Participation <strong>in</strong> Governance, 1999<br />
- ----'- -~ .. -'_. ~-'--..._--_. __ . - ._---.- ..__._------~--_.- ---_.~_._~------_._- -----._--<br />
Brahm<strong>in</strong>/Chhetri Newar Janajati Madishe<br />
Institutions<br />
HDlDaIIt others Total<br />
- ---'._--- --,--- - - ._._----~._. -,.-- ----._-.-- - ._--.----------- --. -_.<br />
# % # % # % # % #<br />
---------;------ --- % # %<br />
"-'<br />
-----_._-~---._._--------<br />
Judiciary 181 77 32 13.6 4 1.7 18 7.7 235<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong>al<br />
bodies/Commis<br />
sions 14 56 6 24 2 8 3 12 25<br />
Cab<strong>in</strong>et<br />
Public<br />
20 62.5 3 9.4 4 12.5 5 15.6 32<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istration 159 60 20 i 7.6 36 13.6 46 17.4 4 1.5 265<br />
Legislature 190<br />
Political party<br />
77.6 43 17.6 3 1.2 9 3.7 245<br />
leaders<br />
Local<br />
97 58.8 18 10.9 25 15.2 ; 26 17.8 165<br />
government<br />
Industry/comm<br />
106 55.5 30 15.7 23 12 31 16.2 : 191<br />
erce 7 16.7 20 47.6 0 0 15 35.7 42<br />
Education<br />
sec<strong>to</strong>r<br />
Cultural<br />
75 77.3 11 11.3 2 2.1 7 7.2 1 97<br />
Organizations 85 69.1 22 17.9 6 4.9 0 0 123<br />
Science and<br />
62<br />
Technology 36 58 18 29 2 3.2 6 9.7<br />
Civil Society 41 75.9 8 14.8 1 1.9 4 7.4 54<br />
Total 1011 66.5 231 15.2 108 7.1 170 11.2 5 0.3 0 1520<br />
Percentage 66.5 15.2 7.1 11.2 0,3 0 100<br />
% of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s 100<br />
Population 31.6 5.6 22.2 30.9 8.7 0.1<br />
Difference % 34.9 9.6 -15.1 -19.7 -8.4 -1<br />
Source: Adapted from Lawat; (2002) and Neupane, 2000:82, based on <strong>Nepal</strong>lnstitutionaf Manpower Direc<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
Women <strong>in</strong> general enjoy equal status <strong>in</strong> Adibasi<br />
Janajati societies. Women traditionally take<br />
parl <strong>in</strong> the social and community activities as<br />
well as bear important responsibilities <strong>in</strong> the<br />
family and, therefore, commands equal respect<br />
as their male counterparts. Contrary <strong>to</strong> H<strong>in</strong>du<br />
caste societies, social structure and cultural values<br />
of the Adibasi communities allow women <strong>to</strong><br />
assert their rights over parental property <strong>in</strong> various<br />
forms and allows remarriages <strong>in</strong>clUd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
widow marriage. Despite the fact that traditional<br />
system provides equal status <strong>to</strong> women,<br />
Adibasi women <strong>to</strong>day lag beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> various <strong>in</strong>dica<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
and have become direct victims of specific<br />
fonms of exploitation and violence. With the<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g penetration of the H<strong>in</strong>du value system,<br />
Sanskritization and globalization, the degree of<br />
such victimization of women is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g considerably.<br />
Literacy rates of the women from Adibasi<br />
Janajatis and their <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> the country's civil<br />
service is alarm<strong>in</strong>gly low. Out of the <strong>to</strong>tal<br />
93,716 civil servants, for example, there are<br />
only 979 <strong>in</strong>digenous women are employed <strong>in</strong><br />
the lower level non-gazetted service xiii .<br />
Although <strong>in</strong>digenous women are tak<strong>in</strong>g active<br />
part <strong>in</strong> the local Village Development<br />
Committees (VDC) where they are numerically<br />
majority, no women has been elected so far <strong>to</strong><br />
the post of Chair Person or Vice Chair Person of
the District Development Committees(DDC)xiv.<br />
However, Jayanti Rai, elected Vice-presiden<strong>to</strong>f<br />
Bhojpur District Developement Committee can<br />
be taken an exception.<br />
With low levels of literacy and equally low<br />
access <strong>to</strong> resource and decision mak<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Adibasi women suffer from poverty,'discrim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
and exploitation. With the grow<strong>in</strong>g liberalized<br />
market, women are compelled<strong>to</strong> work long<br />
hours <strong>in</strong> carpet <strong>in</strong>dustries and other daily wage<br />
labour <strong>in</strong> exploitative conditions. Moreover,<br />
women and girls from Adibasi communities<br />
have become easy targets for traffick<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
sexual abuses. A study conducted <strong>in</strong> 1998 by<br />
New Era on commercial sex workers and<br />
women traffick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> show that 37.2% of<br />
the commercial sex workers come from Adibasi<br />
Janajati communities and a large proportion of<br />
them, with 42% are sold <strong>to</strong> the brothelsof Indian<br />
citiesxv. Women's exclusion and gender discrim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
although exist across the caste and<br />
ethnic communities, <strong>in</strong>digenous women suffer<br />
from a state of double discrim<strong>in</strong>ation- as women<br />
and as <strong>in</strong>digenous people who belong <strong>to</strong> different<br />
cultural and l<strong>in</strong>guistic groups.<br />
The on-go<strong>in</strong>g violent political conflict between<br />
the Maoist and govemment security forces <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> has severely victimized the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
women <strong>in</strong> many ways. As of the December<br />
2003, a <strong>to</strong>tal of 561 women have been killed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the "Peoples' War" out of which 28%<br />
were from Adibasi Janajati communities. Kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
by the security forces weigh much higher compared<strong>to</strong><br />
81 women killed by the Maoist. For the<br />
first time <strong>in</strong> the his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>Nepal</strong>, women have<br />
been brutally killed <strong>in</strong> the violent political conflict.<br />
The suffer<strong>in</strong>gs of women <strong>in</strong> the form of<br />
rape, humiliation and <strong>to</strong>rture rema<strong>in</strong> unrecorded.<br />
Apart from death and physical abuses,<br />
women <strong>in</strong> the Conflictaffected areas are forced<br />
<strong>to</strong> endure additional burden <strong>to</strong> run their farm<br />
and family, as the war make the male members<br />
leave the village.<br />
Ethnic/Caste of Gazetted Civil Composition of Govern<strong>in</strong>g Elites<br />
Servants<br />
Bahun,<br />
Indigenous<br />
1854 (signa<strong>to</strong>ries of<br />
Position Chhetri, Social Groups 1999<br />
Groups<br />
Muluki A<strong>in</strong>)<br />
Newars.<br />
No % No %<br />
Secretary 87.6 0 High caste (Hill) 166 78.3 763 66.2<br />
Additional<br />
High caste<br />
Secretary 92.3 3.1 (Newar) 32 15.9 152 13.1<br />
Deputy<br />
High caste<br />
Secretary 88.9 0 (Terai) 2 0.9 138 11.9<br />
Jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Indigenous<br />
Secretary 94.5 2.1 Ethnic Groups 6 2.8 97 8.4<br />
Assistant Dalit caste 0 0 2 0.3<br />
Secretary 96.2 0.9<br />
Section<br />
Other (caste<br />
Officer 92.6 2 _u_nidElnt!fia!>le)<br />
-<br />
6 ---_._- 2.8 0 0<br />
------ .-<br />
Total 212 100 1152 99.9<br />
Source: Gurung. 1998. Social Demographi and Expressions. 2003. Trident and Thunderbolt:<br />
Cultural Dynamics of <strong>Nepal</strong>ese Politics<br />
I<br />
One of the major causes of deprivation and<br />
human rights violation of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
is seen <strong>in</strong> their exclusion<strong>in</strong> the governance<br />
and politics. A systematic exclusion of these<br />
people <strong>in</strong> the national power structure fostered<br />
by the Rana regimestill cont<strong>in</strong>ues<strong>to</strong> exist. The<br />
lack of participation of the diverse ethnic caste<br />
groups <strong>in</strong> the state mechanismis often taken as<br />
the manifestationof "<strong>in</strong>ternalcolonialism"where<br />
high caste Bahun and Chhetris rule over the<br />
other population.<br />
Exclusion of the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities is<br />
rather systematic <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. They are not only<br />
excluded <strong>in</strong> politics, govemment bureaucracy,<br />
and judiciary but also <strong>in</strong> many other civil society<br />
and private sec<strong>to</strong>rs. The table 6 illustrates<br />
that participation <strong>in</strong> govemance is not reflective<br />
of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s caste and ethnicdiversity,and, therefore,<br />
shows exclusionary nature of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s<br />
democracy. As can be seen <strong>in</strong> the data, <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples have only one third of the representation,<br />
while high castes have more than<br />
twice the level of participation<strong>in</strong> governance <strong>in</strong><br />
relation <strong>to</strong> their numeric proportion.<br />
It is remarkable <strong>to</strong> note that there has not been<br />
a s<strong>in</strong>gle Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister from among the<br />
Indigenous Janajatis (except Newar) <strong>in</strong> the<br />
whole his<strong>to</strong>ry of the cab<strong>in</strong>et <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. A closure<br />
________________________<br />
look at the government bureaucracy illustrates<br />
the imbalance of power <strong>in</strong> even more pronounced<br />
ways. Indigenous ::Jopulation has<br />
<strong>in</strong>significant presence <strong>in</strong> the government civil<br />
service and the trend shows that it is becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
even worse <strong>in</strong> 2003. Given tha: there is no special<br />
measures taken for caste and ethnic equity<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese civil service. oeroetuation of the<br />
established elites with hlghe' education is<br />
<strong>in</strong>evitable. As Harka Gurung has noted "the<br />
Gazetted civil service posts seems Virtually the<br />
fiefdom of Bahun, Chhetri an::! Newar"xvi. The<br />
tables below show the dom<strong>in</strong>ation of these<br />
groups <strong>in</strong> higher positions <strong>in</strong> civil service and<br />
legislation:<br />
Number of Victims Killed by the State and Maoist<br />
(13.Feb~1996· 31·Dec-2003)<br />
Caste/Ethnicity<br />
Total People Percentage ~Hled..<br />
Killed By State ~y_tv1~()~~__.!()ta~_<br />
---<br />
AdibasilJanajati 1763 13.78 7.55 21.33<br />
ChhetrilThakuri 1551 8.19 10.57 18.76<br />
Bahun 905 5.2 5.75 10.95<br />
Dalit 400<br />
Terai Caste 186<br />
Others 90<br />
I<br />
Not Identified<br />
-<br />
3370<br />
Total 8265<br />
II<br />
Source: INSEC<br />
3.53 1.31 4.84<br />
0.83 1.42 2.25<br />
0.57 0.52 1.09<br />
33.88 6.9 . 40.78<br />
65.98 34.02 100<br />
With the <strong>to</strong>tal control of the stale apparatus by<br />
the high caste H<strong>in</strong>dus and state policies of<br />
assimilation for H<strong>in</strong>duization and<br />
Sanskritization, the cultures, religions and languages<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples are at the<br />
verge of destruction. <strong>Nepal</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>to</strong> officially<br />
pretend <strong>to</strong> be "the only H<strong>in</strong>du K<strong>in</strong>gdom" <strong>in</strong><br />
the world. The state <strong>in</strong>vestment favor high<br />
caste culture and religion. <strong>Nepal</strong>i nationalism is<br />
erected accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the H<strong>in</strong>du symbols and<br />
icons. The <strong>in</strong>digenous religions follow<strong>in</strong>g animism,<br />
Kirat, Buddhism and other forms of tribal<br />
religion has been underm<strong>in</strong>ec <strong>in</strong> the process.<br />
Like <strong>in</strong> other countries of the world, throughout<br />
the past, an underly<strong>in</strong>g objective<br />
of government policy <strong>to</strong>wards<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples has been <strong>to</strong><br />
promote their assimilation, with<br />
deeply held caste prejudices.<br />
The process of assimilation has<br />
denied them their right <strong>to</strong> be<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous and culturally dist<strong>in</strong>ct.<br />
Indigenous systems have been<br />
particularly repressed and their<br />
rights <strong>to</strong> their cultural identity,<br />
resources and services are systematically<br />
denied. As a result<br />
their livelihoods are under constant<br />
threat. This has grossly
violated the social and cultural rights of the people<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the multicultural society of <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Despite the numerous problems they are fac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>to</strong>day, the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> are<br />
ever more determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> reta<strong>in</strong> their culture,<br />
identity and IifestyJes.and struggle for the rights<br />
<strong>to</strong> which they are entitled. Such determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
is reflected <strong>in</strong> the current vibrant movement<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated by the National Federation of<br />
Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) and its member<br />
organizations with full awareness of the<br />
threats <strong>to</strong> their livelihood and cultural survival.<br />
The movement has successfully mobilized the<br />
diverse groups of <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and<br />
impacted <strong>in</strong> general public and political discourse<br />
<strong>in</strong> a significant way. Both <strong>in</strong>side <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
and <strong>in</strong>ternationally the movement has demanded<br />
that the state and <strong>in</strong>ternational bodies recognize<br />
the his<strong>to</strong>rical <strong>in</strong>justice and extreme deprivation<br />
they cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>to</strong> experience, and the<br />
need for effective remedial actions for creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a just society.<br />
Impact of Conflict on Indigenous Peoples<br />
The "People's War" orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> the Magar<br />
heartland of the mid western region with an<br />
attack on Holeri police post <strong>in</strong> Rolpa <strong>in</strong> February<br />
13, 1996. The stated -------------------------<br />
objectives of the "pro- Table 9<br />
tracted people's war" is<br />
<strong>to</strong> overthrow the bureaucratic-capitalist<br />
class and<br />
state system, uproot<br />
semi-feudalism and drive<br />
out imperialism <strong>in</strong> order<br />
<strong>to</strong> establish a new demo- Bahun<br />
cratic republic. The gov- ChhetrifThakuri<br />
emment of <strong>Nepal</strong> has Adibasi/Janajati<br />
responded by label<strong>in</strong>g<br />
CPN (Maoists) as terrorists,<br />
Dalit<br />
disrupt<strong>in</strong>g law and Terai<br />
Caste<br />
order with<strong>in</strong> the country.<br />
The failure of peace talks<br />
and cont<strong>in</strong>ued war dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the last eight years<br />
has resulted <strong>in</strong> unparal-<br />
Others<br />
Not Identified<br />
Tolal<br />
lei violence and human rights violation <strong>in</strong> the<br />
his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>Nepal</strong> xvi ;. Indigenous peoples have<br />
been among the m:lst badly affected groups by<br />
the violent politica' conflict between Maoist and<br />
the govemment.<br />
Of the <strong>to</strong>tal 8,265 people killed between 13<br />
February 1996 anc 31 December2003,21.33%<br />
are identified as belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the Adibasi<br />
Janajatis. Out of tn:lse killed, 65% are reported<br />
<strong>to</strong> have been killec by the state security forces.<br />
Although more tha" 40% of those killed rema<strong>in</strong><br />
unidentified,the caste and ethnic pattern of the<br />
fatalities suggests that the state victims are<br />
concentrated amongst <strong>in</strong>digenous Janajatis<br />
while Maoist victims are concentrated among<br />
higher caste Chhetris,Brahm<strong>in</strong>s, and Thakuris.<br />
The table 8 shows the distribution of victims<br />
killed by the state and Maoist<br />
Incidents of disap;Jearanceof people reached<br />
its highest peak duMngthe year 2002 and 2003.<br />
With a <strong>to</strong>tal of 44' people disappeared dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the two years period, <strong>Nepal</strong> is rec9rded as one<br />
of the countrieswit1 the highest number of people<br />
disappear<strong>in</strong>gir the world.<br />
The record of arrest of the people is equally<br />
bad. Accord<strong>in</strong>g!:l the available data from<br />
Number of Victims Arrested by the State<br />
01-Jan-2002 - 31-Dec-2003<br />
Percentage of<br />
Number of People Arrested<br />
26.02 1331 100 2 1433<br />
21.06 1079 74 7 1160<br />
19.94 1048 48 2 1098<br />
8.14 349 99 0 448<br />
4.72 244 16 0 260<br />
2.36 123 7 0 130<br />
17.76 497 75 406 978<br />
100 4671 419 417 5507<br />
Source: INSEC<br />
INSEC, a <strong>to</strong>tal of 5,507 people were arrested by<br />
the state security forces dur<strong>in</strong>g the last two<br />
years. Of the <strong>to</strong>tal people arrested, 20% comes<br />
from the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples. The table 9 shows<br />
victims arrested by the state from 1st January,<br />
2002 <strong>to</strong> 31 December 2003.<br />
The conflict <strong>in</strong>duced suffer<strong>in</strong>g of the high caste<br />
Bahun, Chhetri and Thakuri community <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
of kill<strong>in</strong>g, disappearance, arrest and <strong>to</strong>rture is<br />
equally high. The pattem of greater Maoist victims<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g concentrated among the higher<br />
caste Chhetris. Brahm<strong>in</strong>s, Thakuris suggests<br />
the nature of the Maoist movement as class<br />
struggle with a goal of radical political revolution.<br />
Nevertheless, Maoi~t has <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong><br />
their struggle various agenda advocated by<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples' civil movement. For example,<br />
along with their assertion that <strong>Nepal</strong>i state<br />
is 'semi-feudal', the Maoist also agreed with the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples' contention that the state is<br />
'communal'. Through the establishment of the<br />
Ethnic Liberation Fronts and the recent declaration<br />
of the 'Ethnic Au<strong>to</strong>nomous Regions', the<br />
Maoist has put the <strong>in</strong>digenous issue <strong>in</strong> the front.<br />
How the au<strong>to</strong>nomous regions will work <strong>to</strong> benefit<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous people is, however, not 'yet<br />
clear. While the his<strong>to</strong>rical grievances of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and Maoist vested <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
may br<strong>in</strong>g convergence <strong>in</strong> some of the<br />
issues xviii , the situation rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>to</strong> be a double<br />
edged sword for the Adibasi Janajatis <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Apart from the <strong>in</strong>cidents of kill<strong>in</strong>g, disappearance<br />
and arrest, the impact of the conflict on<br />
women, children and the <strong>in</strong>digenous communities<br />
at large rema<strong>in</strong> unrecorded. As the war is<br />
concentrated by and large <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenousterri<strong>to</strong>ries,<br />
it has disrupted the lives of the people<br />
<strong>to</strong> a high degree with displacement, out migration,<br />
aggravation of poverty and trauma for<br />
women and children.<br />
Fac<strong>to</strong>rs of Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation Aga<strong>in</strong>st Indigenous<br />
Peoples<br />
There are a number of fac<strong>to</strong>rs that contribute <strong>to</strong><br />
the discrim<strong>in</strong>ation, <strong>in</strong>equality and underdevelopment<br />
of the Indigenous Nationalities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
These fac<strong>to</strong>rs relate <strong>to</strong> the his<strong>to</strong>ry. political and<br />
legal provisions, social, cultural and economic<br />
aspects of the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese society and should not<br />
be viewed <strong>in</strong> isolation xix . Understand<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
these fac<strong>to</strong>rs would help <strong>to</strong> outl<strong>in</strong>e the remedial<br />
actions and promot<strong>in</strong>g equitable development<br />
and human rights <strong>in</strong> the country. Follow<strong>in</strong>g are<br />
ten major fac<strong>to</strong>rs that relates <strong>to</strong> discrim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Declaration of the State as uH<strong>in</strong>du K<strong>in</strong>gdom":<br />
Despite the fact that the <strong>Constitution</strong> of 1990<br />
recognizes <strong>Nepal</strong> as a "multi-ethnic and multil<strong>in</strong>gual"<br />
country, it declares the state as a "H<strong>in</strong>du<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom"<strong>in</strong> Article 4. Through this declaration,<br />
the state promotes the H<strong>in</strong>du religion by discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
other <strong>in</strong>digenous and m<strong>in</strong>ority reli-,<br />
gions. Def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g national identity on the basis of<br />
H<strong>in</strong>du religion and cultural identity au<strong>to</strong>matically<br />
excludes those who do not belong <strong>to</strong> the<br />
H<strong>in</strong>du community. Establish<strong>in</strong>g H<strong>in</strong>du norms<br />
and values as state values translates <strong>to</strong> assimilative<br />
policies on the part of the state and<br />
underm<strong>in</strong>es the dist<strong>in</strong>ct cultural identity of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples. State <strong>in</strong>vestment of<br />
resources for promot<strong>in</strong>g and propagandiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
H<strong>in</strong>du religion and values illustrates the dangerous<br />
prejudicecontribut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the perpetuation of<br />
cultural and religious discrim<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
Caste System and Brahm<strong>in</strong>ism: The practices<br />
based on caste purity and pollution, although is<br />
legally prohibited <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>, cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>to</strong> be the<br />
central axiom of social behavior of the majority<br />
of high caste Brahm<strong>in</strong>, Chhetris and Thakuris.<br />
Caste system rests upon the hierarchical structure<br />
and values that make unequal treatment <strong>to</strong><br />
people as legitimate by those who are <strong>in</strong> the<br />
'higher' caste positions. Superiority, arrogance<br />
and chauv<strong>in</strong>ism displayed <strong>in</strong> social behavior by<br />
the high caste people is popularly termed <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> as Brahm<strong>in</strong>ism or Bahunbad as a way of<br />
social critique. Caste system and Brahm<strong>in</strong>ism<br />
stigmatize the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples as impure<br />
caste and enables the high caste <strong>to</strong> stereotype<br />
and treat them <strong>in</strong> dehumanized ways. This is a
the DistrictDevelopment Committees (DDC)xiv<br />
However,Jayanti Rai, elected Vice-president of<br />
! Bhojpur District Developement Committee can<br />
be taken an exception.<br />
With low levels of literacy and equally low<br />
ac~ess <strong>to</strong> resource and decision mak<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Adlbasl women suffer from poverty, discrim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
and exploitation. With the grow<strong>in</strong>g liberalized<br />
market,women are compelled <strong>to</strong> work lon-'<br />
h . ~<br />
ours In carpet <strong>in</strong>dustries and other daily wage<br />
labour <strong>in</strong> exploitative conditions. Moreover,<br />
wOlil'lenand girls from Adibasi communities<br />
have become easy targets for traffick<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
sexual abuses. A study conducted <strong>in</strong> 1998 by<br />
New Era on commercial sex workers and<br />
women traffick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> show that 37.2% of<br />
the commercial sex workers come from Adibasi<br />
Janajati communities and a large proportion of<br />
them,with 42% are sold <strong>to</strong> the brothels of Indian<br />
CIles T xv. Women's exclusion and gender discrim<strong>in</strong>ationalthough<br />
exist across the caste and<br />
ethnic communities, <strong>in</strong>digenous women suffer<br />
from a state of double discrim<strong>in</strong>ation- as women<br />
and as <strong>in</strong>digenous people who belong <strong>to</strong> different<br />
cultural and l<strong>in</strong>guistic groups.<br />
The on-go<strong>in</strong>g violent political conflict between<br />
the Maoist and government security forces <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> has severely victimized the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
women <strong>in</strong> many ways. As of the December<br />
2003, a <strong>to</strong>tal of 561 women have been killed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the "Peoples' War" out of which 28%<br />
were from Adibasi Janajati communities. Kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
by the security forces weigh much higher compared<br />
<strong>to</strong> 81 women killed by the Maoist. For the<br />
first time <strong>in</strong> the his<strong>to</strong>ry of <strong>Nepal</strong>, women have<br />
been brutally killed <strong>in</strong> the violent political conflict.<br />
The suffer<strong>in</strong>gs of women <strong>in</strong> the form of<br />
rape, humiliation and <strong>to</strong>rture rema<strong>in</strong> unrecorded.<br />
Apart from death and physical abuses,<br />
women <strong>in</strong> the conflict affected areas are forced<br />
<strong>to</strong> endure additional burden <strong>to</strong> run their farm<br />
and family, as the war make the male members<br />
leave the village.<br />
~Ta:b:l:-:;e7:-------------------------------.:....--<br />
Ethnic/Caste of Gazetted Civil<br />
Servants<br />
Bahun,<br />
Position Chhetri, Indigenous<br />
Newars Groups<br />
Secretary<br />
Additional<br />
Secretary<br />
Deputy<br />
Secretary<br />
Jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Secretary<br />
Assistant<br />
Secretary<br />
Section<br />
Officer<br />
87.6 0<br />
92.3 3.1<br />
88.9 0<br />
94.5 2.1<br />
96.2 0.9<br />
Composition<br />
Social Groups<br />
of Govern<strong>in</strong>g Elites<br />
1854 (signa<strong>to</strong>ries of<br />
Muluki A<strong>in</strong>)<br />
1999<br />
No % No %<br />
High caste (Hill) 166 78.3 763 66.2<br />
High caste<br />
(Newar) 32 15.9 152 13.1<br />
High caste<br />
(Terai) 2 0.9 138 11.9<br />
Indigenous<br />
Ethnic Groups 6 2.8 97 8.4<br />
Dalit caste 0 0 2 0.3<br />
Other (caste<br />
unidentifialJle)<br />
Total<br />
6 2.8 0 0<br />
_ 212 100 1152 99.9<br />
Source: Gurung, 1998, Social Demographi and Expressions, 2003, Trident and Thu~der~olt:<br />
Cultural Dynamics of <strong>Nepal</strong>ese Politics<br />
One of the major causes of deprivation and<br />
human rights violation of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
is seen <strong>in</strong> their exclusion <strong>in</strong> the governance<br />
and politics. A systematic exclusion of these<br />
people <strong>in</strong> the national power structure fostered<br />
by the Rana regime still cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>to</strong> exist. The<br />
lack of participation of the diverse ethnic caste<br />
groups <strong>in</strong> the state mechanism is often taken as<br />
the manifestation of "<strong>in</strong>ternal colonialism" where<br />
high caste Bahun and Chhetris rule over the<br />
other population.<br />
Exclusion of the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities is<br />
rather systematic <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. They are not only<br />
excluded <strong>in</strong> politics, government bureaucracy,<br />
and judiciary but also <strong>in</strong> many other civil society<br />
and private sec<strong>to</strong>rs. The table 6 illustrates<br />
that participation <strong>in</strong> governance is not reflective<br />
of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s caste and ethnic diversity, and, therefore,<br />
shows exclusionary nature of <strong>Nepal</strong>'s<br />
democracy. As can be seen <strong>in</strong> the data, <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples have only one third of the representation,<br />
while high castes have more than<br />
twice the level of participation <strong>in</strong> governance <strong>in</strong><br />
relation <strong>to</strong> their numeric proportion.<br />
It is remarkable <strong>to</strong> note that there has not been<br />
a s<strong>in</strong>gle Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister from among the<br />
Indigenous Janajatis (except Newar) <strong>in</strong> the<br />
whole his<strong>to</strong>ry of the cab<strong>in</strong>et <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. A closure<br />
_________________________<br />
Number of Victims<br />
AdibasilJanajati<br />
ChhetrilThakuri<br />
Bahun<br />
Dalit<br />
Terai Caste<br />
Others<br />
Not Identified<br />
Total<br />
look at the government bureaucracy illustrates<br />
the imbalance of power <strong>in</strong> even more pronounced<br />
ways. Indigenous population has<br />
<strong>in</strong>significant presence <strong>in</strong> the government civil<br />
service and the trend shows that it is becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
even worse <strong>in</strong> 2003. Given that there is no special<br />
measures taken for caste and ethnic equity<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese civil service, perpetuationof the<br />
established elites with higher education is<br />
<strong>in</strong>evitable. As Harka Gurung has noted "the<br />
Gazetted civil service posts seems virtually the<br />
fiefdom of Bahun, Chhetri and Newa(xvi. The<br />
tables below show the dom<strong>in</strong>ation of these<br />
groups <strong>in</strong> higher positions <strong>in</strong> civil service and<br />
legislation:<br />
Killed by the State and Maoist<br />
(13-Feb-1_996- 31-Dec-2003)<br />
Total People<br />
Killed<br />
1163<br />
1551<br />
905<br />
400<br />
186<br />
90<br />
3370<br />
8265<br />
With the <strong>to</strong>tal control of the state apparatusby<br />
the high caste H<strong>in</strong>dus and state oolicies of<br />
assimilation for H<strong>in</strong>duization and<br />
Sanskritization, the cultures, religions and languages<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples are at the<br />
verge of destruction. <strong>Nepal</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>to</strong> officially<br />
pretend <strong>to</strong> be "the only H<strong>in</strong>du K<strong>in</strong>gdom"<strong>in</strong><br />
the world. The state <strong>in</strong>vestment favor high<br />
caste culture and religion. <strong>Nepal</strong>i nationalismis<br />
erected accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> the H<strong>in</strong>du symbols and<br />
icons. The <strong>in</strong>digenous religions follow<strong>in</strong>g animism,<br />
Kirat, Buddhism and other forms of tribal<br />
religion has been underm<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the process.<br />
Like <strong>in</strong> other countries of the world. throughout<br />
Percentage 15i11ed<br />
By State. By MCioist Tota~<br />
13.78 7.55 21.33<br />
8.19 10.57 18.76<br />
5.2 5.75 10.95<br />
3.53 1.31 4.84<br />
0.83 1.42 2.25<br />
0.57 0.52 1.09<br />
33.88 6.9 40.78<br />
65.98 34.02 100<br />
the past, an underly<strong>in</strong>g objective<br />
of government policy <strong>to</strong>wards<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples has been <strong>to</strong><br />
promote their assimilation, with<br />
deeply held caste orejudices.<br />
The process of assimilation has<br />
denied them their right <strong>to</strong> be<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous and culturallydist<strong>in</strong>ct.<br />
Indigenous systems have been<br />
particularly repressed and their<br />
rights <strong>to</strong> their cultural identity,<br />
resources and services are systematically<br />
denied. As a result<br />
their livelihoods are under constant<br />
threat. This has grossly
violated the social and cultural rights of the people<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the multicultural society of <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Despite the numerous problems they are fac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>to</strong>day, the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> are<br />
ever more determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>to</strong> reta<strong>in</strong> their culture,<br />
identity and IifestyJes, and struggle for the rights<br />
<strong>to</strong> which theyare entitled. Such determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
is reflected <strong>in</strong> the current vibrant movement<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated by the National Federation of<br />
Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) and its member<br />
organizations with full awareness of the<br />
threats <strong>to</strong> their livelihood .and cultural survival.<br />
The movement has successfully mobilized the<br />
diverse groups of <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and<br />
impacted <strong>in</strong> general public and political discourse<br />
<strong>in</strong> a significant way. Both <strong>in</strong>side <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
and <strong>in</strong>ternationally the movement has demanded<br />
that the state and <strong>in</strong>ternational bodies recognize<br />
the his<strong>to</strong>rical <strong>in</strong>justice and extreme deprivation<br />
they cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>to</strong> experience, and the<br />
need for effective remedial actions for creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a just society.<br />
Impact of Conflict on Indigenous Peoples<br />
The "People's War" orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> the Magar<br />
heartland of the mid western region with an The record of arrest of the people is equally<br />
attack on Holeri police post <strong>in</strong> Rolp
Impos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Nepal</strong>i as the Only Official<br />
Language: The constitutionof <strong>Nepal</strong> (Article 6)<br />
declares <strong>Nepal</strong>i as "the languageof the nation"<br />
and all other languages spoken <strong>in</strong> different<br />
parts of the country as "national languages".<br />
The "national languages", spoken as native<br />
<strong>to</strong>ngues by the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples are barred<br />
from be<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>in</strong> govemment offices and<br />
higher education. The SupremeCourt of <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
issued an order not <strong>to</strong> use local languages even<br />
<strong>in</strong> local government bodies and the govemment<br />
offices <strong>in</strong> June 1, 1999, when the Kathmandu<br />
Metropolitan City, Rajbiraj Municipality and<br />
Dhanusha District Committee decided <strong>to</strong> use<br />
local languages for their operation. Education<br />
<strong>in</strong> mother <strong>to</strong>ngue for the childrenis virtually nonexistent.<br />
Imposition of the use of <strong>Nepal</strong>i language<br />
<strong>in</strong> public facilities such as hospitals,<br />
schools, government offices, and court makes<br />
them <strong>in</strong>accessible for the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
who do not have command over the language.<br />
Command over <strong>Nepal</strong>i language is made<br />
essential for be<strong>in</strong>g able <strong>to</strong> operate<strong>in</strong>'the national<br />
society. This policy positively favors <strong>Nepal</strong>i<br />
speakers while discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>gothers.<br />
Inequitable Representation <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Governance: <strong>Nepal</strong>'s judiciary. executive, legislative,<br />
military and public adm<strong>in</strong>istration is not<br />
equitably represented <strong>to</strong> reflect the caste and<br />
ethnic diversity of the country. The dom<strong>in</strong>ance<br />
of the elite H<strong>in</strong>du caste groups; Brahmans and<br />
Chhetris and some assimilated Newars cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
<strong>to</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ate these <strong>in</strong>stitutions. The traditional<br />
elites control the political powerthrough <strong>in</strong>formal<br />
network<strong>in</strong>g and formal political structures.<br />
Except the recent arbitrary govemment<br />
announcement for reservation of m<strong>in</strong>imal quotas<br />
for women, Dalits and Adibasis, there has<br />
not been any concerted effort <strong>to</strong> atta<strong>in</strong> equity <strong>in</strong><br />
caste and ethnic diversity <strong>in</strong> bureaucracy. With<br />
no decentralized system of civil service recruitment<br />
and <strong>in</strong>digenous population lack<strong>in</strong>g necessary<br />
higher education, bureaucracywill cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
<strong>to</strong> be <strong>in</strong>equitable. The lack of mechanism for<br />
Indigenous<br />
participation of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples <strong>in</strong> the<br />
state apparatus force them <strong>to</strong> participate <strong>in</strong> the<br />
state as passive subjects while the high castes<br />
rule the country. Inequitable representation<br />
thus has become a major area of resentment<br />
due <strong>to</strong> denial of their right <strong>to</strong> participate and<br />
source of perpetuat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>equality and discrim<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
Restriction on Freedom of Association and<br />
Expression: The <strong>Constitution</strong> of <strong>Nepal</strong> 1990<br />
guarantees freedom of assembly, <strong>to</strong> form<br />
unions and associations. But Article 12(3) of<br />
the same constitution prohibits the formation of<br />
any association based on castes, tribes, ethnicity<br />
or tribe. Cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g legacy of Panchayat era,<br />
any voice and assertion for promotion of rights<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>digenous population is officially regarded<br />
as someth<strong>in</strong>g detrimental <strong>to</strong> national <strong>in</strong>tegration<br />
and "communal harmony". While the<br />
Election Commission rejected <strong>to</strong> recognize a<br />
number of political parties organized for the<br />
cause of Janajatis by the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples,<br />
the Shiva Sena <strong>Nepal</strong>, a H<strong>in</strong>du fundamentalist<br />
and extremist party was allowed <strong>in</strong> 1999 for the<br />
general election. Not only the freedom of<br />
association is curtailed but also expression of<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples' voice' is limited by<br />
Article 12(2)(3) of the <strong>Constitution</strong>, which states<br />
that laws can be made <strong>to</strong> impose restriction on<br />
acts that may disturb relations between "castes,<br />
tribes and communities". Discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry state<br />
policies of restriction on freedom of association<br />
and expressions under the democratic rule can<br />
only divide the society further. The united<br />
nationhood based on multicultural reality and<br />
mutual respect can foster only through listen<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>to</strong> peoples' concerns and address<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong> a<br />
just way.<br />
Centralized System of Governance: Ever<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the emergence of <strong>Nepal</strong> as nation-state<br />
after 1816 Sugauli treaty, it has reta<strong>in</strong>ed highly<br />
centralized system of governance. The state<br />
formation process replaced the cus<strong>to</strong>mary<br />
rights and traditional authority of the the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples with the feudal system supported<br />
Peoptes of <strong>Nepal</strong> and Human Rights<br />
by military force.<br />
The division of <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
areas <strong>in</strong><strong>to</strong> different adm<strong>in</strong>istrative zones has<br />
fragmented their ancestral doma<strong>in</strong> and clustered<br />
them for the purpose of adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
control. The centralized unitary system of governance<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> allows no local au<strong>to</strong>nomy and<br />
possibilities for decentralized self-government.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples' cus<strong>to</strong>mary laws and<br />
traditional rules of governance have been dismantled<br />
with no alternative structure for<br />
au<strong>to</strong>nomy.<br />
Unequal Access <strong>to</strong> Education: Up until 1950,<br />
education was monopolized by the traditional<br />
high caste elites whereas the ord<strong>in</strong>ary people<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities were<br />
barred from education. Nor has the education<br />
system <strong>in</strong>troduced after the Rana regime been<br />
able <strong>to</strong> address the educational needs of the<br />
larger population. The lagg<strong>in</strong>g beh<strong>in</strong>d of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities <strong>in</strong> education has<br />
become a fundamental cause for their exclusion.<br />
Exclusionaryeducational programme is<br />
responsible for such disparity. The education<br />
provided <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>i language, and the curricula<br />
and text books that promote the H<strong>in</strong>du value<br />
system and Sanskritization discrim<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the <strong>in</strong>digenousand population speak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ority languages.<br />
Denial of Communal Land and Resource<br />
Rights:The <strong>Nepal</strong>istate dur<strong>in</strong>g the course of its<br />
formation has disruptedthe <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples'<br />
collective nghts over their land and natural<br />
resources.<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>gforest, water, and pastures.<br />
By claim<strong>in</strong>g the H<strong>in</strong>du k<strong>in</strong>g as the owner of all<br />
the land, the Gorkha Empire expropriated the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenouslandsas freely available for new settlements.<br />
Kipat lands were distributed <strong>to</strong> the<br />
high caste noblesas birta, raikar and guthi. The<br />
land of <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples was further<br />
encroached upon by unfair money lend<strong>in</strong>g system<br />
supported by prejudiced legal practices<br />
throughout his<strong>to</strong>ry. Lastly, development projects<br />
especially wild life conservation and<br />
national parks have evicted many <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
population from their settlements and deprived<br />
them from their cus<strong>to</strong>mary rights <strong>to</strong> forest, rivers<br />
and pastures they had enjoyed traditionally.<br />
Denial of communal land and resource rights is<br />
one of the major reasons for the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples' deprivation and poverty <strong>to</strong>day.<br />
Unequal Resource Investment by the State for<br />
Welfare: The resource <strong>in</strong>vestment by the state<br />
is unequally distributed among different caste<br />
and ethnic groups. The overt budget provisions<br />
and state support for Sanskrit education, publications<br />
through Royal <strong>Nepal</strong> Academy, and promotion<br />
of s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>Nepal</strong>i language are taken as<br />
some of the obvious examples of the state's<br />
favoritism. The same is also true for euducation,<br />
health and agricultural services provided<br />
by the state where majority of the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples are not able <strong>to</strong> get benefitted. The disproportionate<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment has negatively affected<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and their welfare.<br />
Denial of Right <strong>to</strong> Self Development: F<strong>in</strong>ally.<br />
denial of right <strong>to</strong> self development is another<br />
key fac<strong>to</strong>r for the persistent <strong>in</strong>equality and discrim<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
Like the bureaucracy, the development<br />
projects, whether run by government m<strong>in</strong>istries,<br />
foreign donor assistance programmes or<br />
associated NGOs, are largely controlled by<br />
High caste elites. These projects are planned,<br />
implemented and moni<strong>to</strong>red by outside<br />
"experts" <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous communities at best,<br />
with welfare approach. Denial of the rights of<br />
the people <strong>to</strong> do their own development by<br />
themselves has resulted <strong>in</strong> large disparity <strong>in</strong><br />
society. The development <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>, therefbre,<br />
has rather created discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry and unequal<br />
society, and essentially works aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples.<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong>al Provisions and Intemational<br />
Standards<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong>al Provisions<br />
Despite the fact that the 1990 <strong>Constitution</strong> of<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> is contradic<strong>to</strong>ry and discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>in</strong> fundamental<br />
ways, it has laid down some provisions<br />
for recogniz<strong>in</strong>g the multicultural nature of<br />
the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese society and the state's responsi-<br />
139
ility for social, economic and political justice <strong>to</strong><br />
the people. Depart<strong>in</strong>g significantly from the pre-<br />
VIOUS position, the constitution of 1990 recognizes<br />
the k<strong>in</strong>gdom as "a multiethnic and multil<strong>in</strong>gual"<br />
country (Article 4.1). Although, claim<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> as a "H<strong>in</strong>du K<strong>in</strong>gdom", <strong>in</strong>stantly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
same clause contradicts the democratic spirit,<br />
the recognition of plural nature of the <strong>Nepal</strong>i<br />
society should be taken as relatively positive<br />
aspect 0; the constitution.<br />
Languages<br />
WI Article 6, the <strong>Constitution</strong> further recognizes<br />
the plurality of the language <strong>in</strong> the country and<br />
terms all languages of <strong>Nepal</strong> as "national languages"<br />
while designat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Nepal</strong>i as the official<br />
language and "language of the nation".<br />
Elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g the unequal treatment <strong>to</strong> the "languages<br />
of the nation", this constitutional clause<br />
should be enacted <strong>to</strong> provide l<strong>in</strong>guistic right <strong>to</strong><br />
speakers of all the languages.<br />
Article 6<br />
(1) The <strong>Nepal</strong>i language <strong>in</strong> the Devnagari script<br />
is the language of the nation of <strong>Nepal</strong>. The<br />
(2) All the languages spoken as the mother<br />
<strong>to</strong>ngue <strong>in</strong> the various part of <strong>Nepal</strong> are the<br />
nationailanguages<br />
Right <strong>to</strong> Equality<br />
of <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Article 11 (2) and (3) provide provisions for right<br />
<strong>to</strong> equality <strong>to</strong> all the citizens <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g special<br />
provisions for the protection and advancement<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>terest of the weaker section of society.<br />
This provision is equally relevant <strong>to</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people who are be<strong>in</strong>g marg<strong>in</strong>alized<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>i language shall be the official language.<br />
economically,<br />
socially and educationally. This clause provides<br />
necessary ground for policies of affirmative<br />
action and positive<br />
Article 11<br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
(2) No discrim<strong>in</strong>ation shall be made aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
any citizen <strong>in</strong> the application of general<br />
laws on the grounds of religion, race; sex,<br />
caste, tribe or ideological conviction or any<br />
of these.<br />
(3) The state shall not discrim<strong>in</strong>ate citizens<br />
among citizens on grounds of religion, race,<br />
sex, caste, tribe or ideological conviction or<br />
any of these.<br />
Provided that special provisions may be made<br />
by law for the protection and advancement of<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terest of women, children, the aged, or<br />
those who belong <strong>to</strong> a class which is economically,<br />
socially or educationally backward.<br />
Cultural and Educational Right<br />
As the follow<strong>in</strong>g clauses show, the <strong>Constitution</strong><br />
grants right <strong>to</strong> people for preserv<strong>in</strong>g and promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their language, script and culture.<br />
Further, it also makes provision that children be<br />
taught <strong>in</strong> their mother <strong>to</strong>ngue up <strong>to</strong> primary education.<br />
However, not allow<strong>in</strong>g the languages of<br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples <strong>to</strong> be used <strong>in</strong> public<br />
offices and education above primary level, is<br />
one of the discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry provisions <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong>. Due <strong>to</strong> the unwill<strong>in</strong>gness on the<br />
part of the power centers and govemment<br />
bureaucracy controlled by the high caste<br />
Parbatiya group, even the m<strong>in</strong>imal provision for<br />
education <strong>in</strong> mother <strong>to</strong>ngue <strong>in</strong> primary schools<br />
has not <strong>in</strong>stituted systematically <strong>to</strong> date.<br />
Article 18<br />
(1) Each community resid<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom of <strong>Nepal</strong> shall have the right <strong>to</strong><br />
preserve and<br />
(2) promote its language, script and culture.<br />
Each community shall have the right <strong>to</strong> operate<br />
schools up <strong>to</strong> the primary level <strong>in</strong> its own mother<br />
<strong>to</strong>ngue for impart<strong>in</strong>g education <strong>to</strong> its children.<br />
Further, the <strong>Constitution</strong> outl<strong>in</strong>es the directive<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and state policies for elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g all<br />
types of <strong>in</strong>equalities, preserv<strong>in</strong>g cultural diversity<br />
and establish<strong>in</strong>g harmonious relationship<br />
between various castes, tribes, religions, languages,<br />
race and communities.<br />
Directive Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of the State<br />
Article 25<br />
(3) The social objective of the state shall be <strong>to</strong><br />
establish and develop, on the foundation of<br />
justice and morality, a healthy social life, by<br />
elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g all types of economic and social<br />
<strong>in</strong>equalities and by establish<strong>in</strong>g harmony<br />
amongst the various castes, tribes, religions,<br />
languages,<br />
races and communities.<br />
(4) It shall be the chief responsibility of the<br />
state <strong>to</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> condition suitable <strong>to</strong> the<br />
enjoyment of the fruits of democracy<br />
through wider participation of the people <strong>in</strong><br />
the governance of the country and by the<br />
way of decentralization, and <strong>to</strong> promote<br />
general welfare by mak<strong>in</strong>g provisions for<br />
the protection of human right, by ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
tranquility<br />
State Policies<br />
Article 26<br />
and order <strong>in</strong> the society.<br />
(2) The state shall, while ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the culture<br />
diversity of the country, pursuer a policy<br />
of strengthen<strong>in</strong>g the nation's unity by<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g healthy and cordial social relations<br />
amongst the various religions, castes,<br />
tribes, communities and l<strong>in</strong>guistic groups,<br />
and by help<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the promotion<br />
of their languages,<br />
literatures, literatures, scripts, art<br />
and cultures.<br />
In the absence of necessary laws, bylaws<br />
and programs on the part of the state, the<br />
constitutional guarantee for right <strong>to</strong> equality,<br />
however, rema<strong>in</strong> unfulfilled. Proactive<br />
efforts <strong>to</strong> develop special provision for protection<br />
and advancement <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g programmes<br />
of 'positive discrim<strong>in</strong>ation', <strong>in</strong> education,<br />
employment, political representation<br />
is essential. Provid<strong>in</strong>g a degree of au<strong>to</strong>nomy<br />
<strong>to</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples for democratic<br />
devolution<br />
and right <strong>to</strong> self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
are other important a'spects <strong>in</strong> atta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
state objective of national unity, democracy<br />
and cultural diversity.<br />
These <strong>Constitution</strong>al provisions have generally<br />
failed <strong>to</strong> benefit the Adibasi Janajatis and<br />
address their collective aspirations <strong>in</strong> practice.<br />
In addition, NEFIN states that there are 26 discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
clauses <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong> and 49 different legal Acts that discrim<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples xx .<br />
The constitutional reform through constituent<br />
assembly or other ways, therefore. is thought<br />
essential for resolv<strong>in</strong>g the exist<strong>in</strong>g contradiction<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Constitution</strong>.<br />
International<br />
Standards<br />
There are a number of <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>struments<br />
<strong>to</strong> ensure the rights of the Indigenous peoples<br />
as special groups of people. Indigenous peoples<br />
are entitled <strong>to</strong> enjoy the full protection of<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational human rights law and the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
human rigt1ts conventions. There are two<br />
specific conventions for the Indigenous<br />
Peoples; ILO Convention (No. 169) Concem<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Indigenous and Tribal Peoples <strong>in</strong> Independent<br />
Countries and Draft United Nations Declaration<br />
on Indigenous Peoples. The most important<br />
conventions and selection of articles from <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
standards <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
Charter of the United Nations (1945)<br />
We The Peoples of The United Nations<br />
Determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>to</strong> reaffirm faith <strong>in</strong> fundamental human rights. <strong>in</strong><br />
the dignity and worth of the human person, <strong>in</strong><br />
the equal rights of men and women<br />
and nations<br />
large and small, and <strong>to</strong> establish condition<br />
under which justice and respect for the obligations<br />
aris<strong>in</strong>g from treaties and other sources of<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational law can be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed. and<br />
To promote social progress and better standards<br />
of life <strong>in</strong> larger freedom,<br />
International Covenant on Civil and Political<br />
Rights (1966)<br />
Common Article 1 (ICCPR and ICESCR)<br />
All people have the right of self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
By virtue<br />
of that right they freely determ<strong>in</strong>e their<br />
pOlitical status and freely pursue their economic.<br />
social and cultural development.<br />
Article 26<br />
All persons are equal before the law and are<br />
entitled without any discrim<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>to</strong> the equal
protection of the law. In this respect, the law<br />
shall prohibit any discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and guarantee<br />
<strong>to</strong> all persons equal and effective protection<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st discrim<strong>in</strong>ation on any ground such as<br />
race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or<br />
other op<strong>in</strong>ion, national or social orig<strong>in</strong>, property,<br />
birth or other status.<br />
Article 27<br />
In those states <strong>in</strong> which ethnic, religious or l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
m<strong>in</strong>orities exist, persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong><br />
such m<strong>in</strong>orities shall not be denied the right <strong>in</strong><br />
cemmunity with the other members of their<br />
group, <strong>to</strong> enjoy their own culture, <strong>to</strong> profess and<br />
practice their own religion, or <strong>to</strong> use their own<br />
language.<br />
Intemational Convention on the Elim<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
of All Formsof Racial Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation (1965)<br />
Article 1 (1)<br />
In this Convention, the term "racial discrim<strong>in</strong>ation"<br />
shall mean any dist<strong>in</strong>ction, exclusion,<br />
restriction or preference based on race, colour,<br />
descent, or national or ethnic orig<strong>in</strong> which has<br />
the purpose or effect of nullify<strong>in</strong>g or impair<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an<br />
equal foot<strong>in</strong>g. of human rights and fundamental<br />
freedoms <strong>in</strong> the political, economic, social, cultural<br />
or any other field of public life.<br />
The International Covenant on Economic,<br />
Social and Cultural Rights (1966)<br />
Article 2 (2)<br />
The States Parties <strong>to</strong> the present Covenant<br />
undertake<strong>to</strong> guarantee that the rights enunciated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the present Covenant will be exercised<br />
without discrim<strong>in</strong>ation of any k<strong>in</strong>d as <strong>to</strong> race,<br />
colour, sex. language, religion, political or other<br />
op<strong>in</strong>ion, national or social orig<strong>in</strong>, property, birth<br />
or other status.<br />
United Nations Conventions on the Rights of<br />
the Child (1989)<br />
Article 29<br />
(c) The development of respect for the child's<br />
parents. his or her own cultural identity, language'and<br />
values, for the national values of<br />
the country <strong>in</strong> which the child is liv<strong>in</strong>g, the<br />
country from which he or she may orig<strong>in</strong>ate.<br />
and for civilizations different from his or her<br />
own;<br />
(d) The preparation of the child for responsible<br />
life <strong>in</strong> a free society, <strong>in</strong> the spirit of understand<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
peace, <strong>to</strong>lerance, equality of<br />
sexes, and friendship among all peoples,<br />
ethnic, national and religious groups and<br />
persons of <strong>in</strong>digenous orig<strong>in</strong>;<br />
Article 30<br />
In those States <strong>in</strong> which ethnic, religious or l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
m<strong>in</strong>orities or persons of <strong>in</strong>digenous orig<strong>in</strong><br />
exist, a child belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> such a m<strong>in</strong>ority or<br />
who is <strong>in</strong>digenous shall not be denied the right,<br />
<strong>in</strong> community with other members of his or her<br />
group, <strong>to</strong> enjoy his or her own culture, <strong>to</strong> profess<br />
and practice his or her own religion, or <strong>to</strong> use<br />
his or her own language.<br />
Declaration on the Rights of Persons<br />
Belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> National or Ethnic, Religious or<br />
L<strong>in</strong>guistic M<strong>in</strong>orities (1992)<br />
Inspired by the provisions of article 27 of the<br />
International Covenant on Civil and Political<br />
Rights concern<strong>in</strong>g the rights of persons belong<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>to</strong> ethnic, relrgious or l<strong>in</strong>guistic m<strong>in</strong>orities:<br />
Consider<strong>in</strong>g that the promotion and protection<br />
of the rights of persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> national or<br />
ethnic, religious and l<strong>in</strong>guistic m<strong>in</strong>orities contribute<br />
<strong>to</strong> the political and social stability of<br />
States <strong>in</strong> which they live,<br />
Emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g that the constant promotion and<br />
realization of the rights of persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong><br />
national or ethnic, religious and l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
m<strong>in</strong>orities, as an <strong>in</strong>tegral part of the development<br />
of society as a whole and with<strong>in</strong> a democratic<br />
framework based on the rule of law,would<br />
contribute <strong>to</strong> the strengthen<strong>in</strong>g of friendship and<br />
cooperation among peoples and States,<br />
Article 1<br />
(1) States shall protect the existence and the<br />
national or ethnic, cultural, religious and l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
identity of m<strong>in</strong>orities with<strong>in</strong> their<br />
respective terri<strong>to</strong>ries and shall encourage<br />
conditions for the promotion of that identity.<br />
(2) States shall adopt appropriate legislative<br />
Article 2<br />
and other measures <strong>to</strong> achieve those ends.<br />
(1) Persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> national or ethnic, religious<br />
and l<strong>in</strong>guistic m<strong>in</strong>orities (here<strong>in</strong>after<br />
referred <strong>to</strong> as persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> m<strong>in</strong>orities)<br />
have the right <strong>to</strong> enjoy their own culture,<br />
<strong>to</strong> profess and practice their own religion,<br />
and <strong>to</strong> use their own language, <strong>in</strong> private<br />
and <strong>in</strong> public, freely and without <strong>in</strong>terference<br />
or any form of discrim<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
(2) Persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> m<strong>in</strong>orities have the<br />
right <strong>to</strong> participate effectively <strong>in</strong> cultural,<br />
religious, social, economic and public life.<br />
(3) Persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> m<strong>in</strong>orities have the<br />
right <strong>to</strong> participate effectively <strong>in</strong> decisions<br />
on the national and, where appropriate,<br />
regional level concern<strong>in</strong>g the m<strong>in</strong>ority <strong>to</strong><br />
which they belong or the regions <strong>in</strong> which<br />
they live, <strong>in</strong> a manner not <strong>in</strong>compatible with<br />
national legislation.<br />
(4) Persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> m<strong>in</strong>orities have the<br />
right <strong>to</strong> establish and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their own<br />
associations.<br />
(5) Persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> m<strong>in</strong>orities have the<br />
right <strong>to</strong> establish and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>, without any<br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>ation, free and peaceful contacts<br />
with other members of their group and with<br />
persons belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> other m<strong>in</strong>orities, as<br />
well as contacts across frontiers with citizens<br />
of other States <strong>to</strong> whom they are<br />
related by national or ethnic, religious or<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistic ties.<br />
Convention (No. 169) Concern<strong>in</strong>g Indigenous<br />
and Tribal Peoples <strong>in</strong> Independent Countries<br />
(1989) The General Con~rence of the<br />
International Labour Organisation,<br />
Recognis<strong>in</strong>g the aspirations of these peoples <strong>to</strong><br />
exercise control over their own <strong>in</strong>stitutions,<br />
ways of life and economic development and <strong>to</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>and develop their identities, languages<br />
and religions, with<strong>in</strong> the framework of the States<br />
<strong>in</strong> which they live, and<br />
Not<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>in</strong> many parts of the world these<br />
peoples are unable <strong>to</strong> enjoy their fundamental<br />
human rights <strong>to</strong> the same degree as the rest of<br />
the Dopulation of the States with<strong>in</strong> which they<br />
live and that their laws, values, cus<strong>to</strong>ms and<br />
perspectives have often been eroded,<br />
Article 1 (2)<br />
Self-identification as <strong>in</strong>digenous or tribal shall<br />
be regarded as a fundamental criterion for<br />
determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the groups <strong>to</strong> which the provisions<br />
of this Convention apply.<br />
Article 2 (1)<br />
Govemments shall have the responsibility for<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g, with the participation of the peoples<br />
concerned, co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated and systematic action<br />
<strong>to</strong> protect the rights of these peoples and <strong>to</strong><br />
guarantee respect for their <strong>in</strong>tegrity.<br />
Article 5<br />
In apply<strong>in</strong>g the provisions of this Convention:<br />
(a) The social, cultural, religious and spiritual<br />
values and practices of these peoplesshall<br />
be recognised and protected, and due<br />
account shall be taken of the natureof the<br />
problems which face them both as groups<br />
and as <strong>in</strong>dividuals;<br />
Article 6<br />
In apply<strong>in</strong>g the provisions of this Convention.<br />
Governments shall:<br />
(a) Consult the peoples concerned. through<br />
appropriate procedures and <strong>in</strong> particular<br />
through their representative <strong>in</strong>stitutions,<br />
whenever consideration is be<strong>in</strong>g given <strong>to</strong><br />
legislative or adm<strong>in</strong>istrative measures<br />
which may affect them directly;<br />
(b) Establish means by which these peoples<br />
can freely participate, <strong>to</strong> at least the same<br />
extent as other sec<strong>to</strong>rs of the population,at<br />
all levels of decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> elective<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions and adm<strong>in</strong>istrative and other<br />
bodies responsible for policies and programmes<br />
which concern them;<br />
(c) Establish means for the full developmen<strong>to</strong>f<br />
these peoples' own <strong>in</strong>stitutions and <strong>in</strong>itiatives,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> appropriate cases providethe<br />
resources necessary for this purpose.<br />
Indigenous<br />
Peoples of <strong>Nepal</strong> and Human Rights
Article 7 (1)<br />
The peoples concerned shall have the right <strong>to</strong><br />
decide their own priorities for the process of<br />
development as it affects their lives, beliefs,<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions and spiritual well-be<strong>in</strong>g and the<br />
lands they occupy or otherwise use, and <strong>to</strong><br />
exercise control, <strong>to</strong> the extent possible, over<br />
their own economic, social and cultural development.<br />
In addition, they shall participate <strong>in</strong> the<br />
formulation, implementation and evaluation of<br />
plans and programmes for national and regional<br />
development which may affect them directly.<br />
Draft United Nations Declaration<br />
on the Rights<br />
of Indigenous Peoples (1994)<br />
Concerned that <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples have been<br />
deprived of their human rights and fundamental<br />
freedoms, result<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>ter alia, <strong>in</strong> their colonization<br />
and dispossession of their lands, terri<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
and resources, thus prevent<strong>in</strong>g them from exercis<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>in</strong> particular, their right <strong>to</strong> development <strong>in</strong><br />
accordance with their own needs and <strong>in</strong>terests,<br />
Article 1<br />
Indigenous peoples have the right <strong>to</strong> the full and<br />
effective enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental<br />
freedoms recognized <strong>in</strong> the Charter of<br />
the United Nations. the Universal Declaration of<br />
Human Rights and <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights<br />
law.<br />
Article 3<br />
Indigenous peoples have the right of self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
By virtue of that right they freely determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
their political status and freely pursue their<br />
economic, social and cultural development.<br />
Article 29<br />
Indigenous peoples are entitled <strong>to</strong> the recognition<br />
of the full ownership. control and protection<br />
of their cultural and <strong>in</strong>tellectual property. They<br />
have the right <strong>to</strong> special measures <strong>to</strong> control,<br />
develop and protect their sciences, technologies<br />
and cultural manifestations, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
human and other genetic resources, seeds,<br />
medic<strong>in</strong>es, knowledge of the properties of-fauna<br />
and flora, oral traditions, literatures, designs<br />
and visual and perform<strong>in</strong>g arts.<br />
ArtIcle 30<br />
Indigenouspeoples have the right <strong>to</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and develop priorities and strategies for the<br />
development or use of their lands, terri<strong>to</strong>ries<br />
and other resources, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the right <strong>to</strong><br />
require that States obta<strong>in</strong> their free and<br />
<strong>in</strong>formed consent prior <strong>to</strong> the approval of any<br />
projectaffect<strong>in</strong>gtheir lands, terri<strong>to</strong>ries and other<br />
resources, particularly <strong>in</strong> connection with the<br />
development,utilizationor exploitation of m<strong>in</strong>erai,<br />
water or other resources. Pursuant <strong>to</strong> agreement<br />
with the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples concerned,<br />
just and fair compensationshall be provided for<br />
any such activities and measures taken <strong>to</strong> mitigate<br />
adverse environmental, economic, social,<br />
cultural or spiritual impact.<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong>al and Legal Reforms<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong>al revision is one of the press<strong>in</strong>g<br />
needs of the country. By remov<strong>in</strong>g contradic<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
and discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry clauses <strong>in</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Constitution</strong> of 1990, amendments and revisions<br />
should be made <strong>to</strong> ensure full right of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and m<strong>in</strong>orities.<br />
Subsequently,necessary laws and regulations<br />
should be formulated<strong>to</strong> implement the constitutional<br />
provision so that long-term peace and<br />
harmony <strong>in</strong> multicultural state can be established.<br />
Ratification and Implementation<br />
International Human Rights Standards<br />
The governmen<strong>to</strong>f <strong>Nepal</strong> should ratify the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
conventions related <strong>to</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenouS<br />
peoples; specially Draft. United Nations<br />
Declaration on Indigenous Peoples 1994, ILOc<br />
convention (No. 169) concern<strong>in</strong>g IndigenoUS;<br />
and Tribal Peoples <strong>in</strong> Independent Countri<br />
(1989), and Declaration on the Rights<br />
Persons Belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> National or Ethni<br />
Religiousor Li~guistic M<strong>in</strong>orities (1992).<br />
governmentshould implement all human rig<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational standards it has signed <strong>to</strong> express<br />
state commitments. The govemment should<br />
also enable <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>to</strong> claim redress from<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational bodies for the violation 'of their<br />
human rights.<br />
Effective Au<strong>to</strong>nomy <strong>to</strong> The Indigenous<br />
Peoples<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> ensure democratic devolution and<br />
right <strong>to</strong> self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation, mechanismfor effective<br />
au<strong>to</strong>nomy <strong>to</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoplesshould<br />
be worked out <strong>in</strong> consultation with all concemed<br />
parties. The state effectively represent<strong>in</strong>gthe<br />
whole of its population <strong>in</strong> govemance would be<br />
considered as conduct<strong>in</strong>g itself <strong>in</strong> conformity<br />
with the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of equal rights and self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
Equitable and Inclusive Representations <strong>in</strong> All<br />
Sec<strong>to</strong>rs<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> strike a balance <strong>in</strong> caste and ethnic<br />
equity <strong>in</strong> different sec<strong>to</strong>rs <strong>in</strong>clUd<strong>in</strong>ggovemance,<br />
bureaucracy, civil society and private sec<strong>to</strong>r,<br />
national level policy should be formUlated.<br />
Current trend of progressively low representation<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples <strong>in</strong> the various<br />
arenas of societal life should be reversed.<br />
Ensureright Over Land and Natural Resources<br />
The primary reason for extreme poverty and<br />
powerlessness among the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
is dispossession from their land and natural<br />
resources. The Adibasi relationship <strong>to</strong> their<br />
land, terri<strong>to</strong>ry and natural surround<strong>in</strong>g is also<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>to</strong> their spirituality and cultural identity.<br />
There is need <strong>to</strong> ensure their right over ancestral<br />
land and natural resources. The state<br />
should review the Acts related <strong>to</strong> land adm<strong>in</strong>istration,<br />
forest, national park and wildlife conservations.<br />
Ensure Right <strong>to</strong> Self Development<br />
In' l<strong>in</strong>e with the Declaration on Right <strong>to</strong><br />
Development, the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoDles' right <strong>to</strong><br />
their own development as a group should be<br />
ensured. The current practice of do<strong>in</strong>g development<br />
by the dom<strong>in</strong>ant section of society<br />
should be discouraged and the <strong>in</strong>digenous people<br />
themselves be given the responsibility for<br />
development process and outcomes accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>to</strong> their aspirations and cultural context.<br />
Affirmative Action<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> correct the his<strong>to</strong>rical <strong>in</strong>justice made<br />
<strong>to</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples as well as <strong>to</strong> observe<br />
the right of the people <strong>to</strong> be equal, there is a<br />
need <strong>to</strong> formulate and implement programmes<br />
of affirmative action for the marg<strong>in</strong>alized <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
population. Affirmative action or positive<br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>ation may be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the sphere of<br />
education, employment <strong>in</strong> all sec<strong>to</strong>rs, and general<br />
services until desirable balance is reached.<br />
Affirmative action should be unders<strong>to</strong>od as the<br />
right of the people rather than a favor from the<br />
authority.<br />
Elim<strong>in</strong>ation of Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation Aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
Indigenous Peoples<br />
Although caste based discrim<strong>in</strong>ation is formally<br />
outlawed, discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry practice cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>to</strong><br />
exist <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Nepal</strong>ese society. The members<br />
from the 'upper' caste groups tend <strong>to</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
the caste based discrim<strong>in</strong>a<strong>to</strong>ry practices <strong>to</strong> stigmatize,<br />
degrade or segregate the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples <strong>in</strong> both public and private spheres.<br />
Enforcement of legal provision as well as education<br />
and broad-based awareness programs <strong>to</strong><br />
all is <strong>to</strong> be implemented <strong>in</strong> proactive fashion.<br />
Resolution of Current Armed Conflict<br />
In order <strong>to</strong> resolve the current armed conflict,<br />
peace <strong>in</strong>itiatives and unconditional political dialogue<br />
between government and CPN (Maoist) ••<br />
should be held as soon as possible. The United<br />
Nations and <strong>in</strong>ternational bodies should be<br />
called dUr<strong>in</strong>g the dialogue and peace talk for<br />
mediation or witness<strong>in</strong>g the process. A genu<strong>in</strong>e<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g of the cause of conflict and<br />
demilitarization of the country is fundamental <strong>to</strong><br />
the res<strong>to</strong>ration of long-term peace.<br />
Strengthen Human Rights Institutions<br />
The <strong>in</strong>stitutions currently function<strong>in</strong>g <strong>to</strong> protect
human rights, ma<strong>in</strong>ly National Human<br />
Rights<br />
Commission (NHRC), should be strengthened.<br />
In addition, it is recommended that Human<br />
Rights Court be established <strong>in</strong> each district.<br />
order <strong>to</strong> properly address the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
In<br />
concerns,<br />
these human rights protection bodies<br />
should ensure representation of members from<br />
Adibasi Janajatis.<br />
These <strong>in</strong>stitutions should be<br />
empowered <strong>to</strong> function au<strong>to</strong>nomously and<br />
proactively with power <strong>to</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>in</strong>dependently<br />
the human rights violation <strong>in</strong>cidents. In<br />
order <strong>to</strong> end the current state of impunity, action<br />
,. should be taken aga<strong>in</strong>st violation of<br />
human rights.<br />
Adivasi Janajati Utthan Pratisthan A<strong>in</strong> 2058 as or<br />
National Foundation for Development of Indigenous<br />
Nationalities Act passed on 7 February 2002.<br />
Gurung. H.. Malia. K. S.• Bhattachan K.. Gurung. O.<br />
2000. Janajati Bikasko Jukti (Ideas for the<br />
Development of Nationalities). Kathmandu: Janajati<br />
Bikas Samanwaya Kendra.<br />
Achraya. Baburam. 2054 BS. <strong>Nepal</strong>ko Sanskritik<br />
Parampara (Cultural heritage of <strong>Nepal</strong>). Kathmanu:<br />
Shree Krishna Acharya.<br />
See Regmi. M.C. 1978. Thatched huts and stucco<br />
palaces: Peasants and landlords <strong>in</strong> 19 th century<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>. Kathmandu and David Holmberg.<br />
1989. Order<br />
and Paradox. Cornell University Press. Ithaca.<br />
Bennett. L. 2003. Towards and <strong>in</strong>clusive society:<br />
agency. structure and diversity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Paper presented<br />
at the conference "The agenda of transformation:<br />
<strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>i democracy". See also Stacy<br />
Leigh Pigg. 1992. Invent<strong>in</strong>g Social Categories through<br />
Place: Social representation and development <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Nepal</strong>" In Comparative Studies <strong>in</strong> Society and His<strong>to</strong>ry<br />
34:492-513.<br />
See A~un Gunaratne, 2002:95. Many <strong>to</strong>ngues, one<br />
people: the mak<strong>in</strong>g ofTharu identity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong> and Cox,<br />
Thomas. 1995 "Backward Society Education: The<br />
Development of a Grassroots Movement" unpublished.<br />
Subba, Chaitanya et.al. 2002. Adivasi/Janajatis <strong>in</strong><br />
national development: Major issues, constra<strong>in</strong>ts and<br />
opportunities.<br />
Prepared by the Work<strong>in</strong>g Group on the classification<br />
of <strong>in</strong>digenous nationalities and endorsed by meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of the federal council of NEFIN on March 1, 2004<br />
i2060/11/18). The work<strong>in</strong>g Group was coord<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
Dr. Om Gurung, General Secretary of NEFIN.<br />
See Tur<strong>in</strong>, M. and Lama-Tamang, M. 2003.<br />
Indigenous People's Development Plan (IPDP) for<br />
Education for All Program <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>, preprared for<br />
World Bank.<br />
Education for All, Core Document, prepared by<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Education/HMG 2003.<br />
See Subba, Chaitanya et.al. 2002. Adivasi/Janajatis<br />
<strong>in</strong> national development:<br />
opportunities.<br />
Ibid. Also see M<strong>in</strong>ority<br />
Major issues, constra<strong>in</strong>ts and<br />
Rights Group International and<br />
<strong>Nepal</strong> Tamang Ghedung 2002. Sett<strong>in</strong>g Priorities for<br />
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
Kathmandu.<br />
Ibid.<br />
Ibid.<br />
Ibid. cited from New Era study conducted <strong>in</strong> 40 districts.<br />
Gurung, H. 1998. <strong>Nepal</strong>: Social demography and<br />
expressions.<br />
Kathmandu.<br />
Pyakurel, S. 2003. Nature of Human Rights Violation<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>: Notes for further consideration. In Conffict.<br />
Human Rights and Peace Challenges before <strong>Nepal</strong>.<br />
(ed.) Bip<strong>in</strong> Adhikari. National Human Rights<br />
Commission (NHRC). Kathmandu<br />
Gurung, H. <strong>Nepal</strong>: Maoist Insurgency and Indigenous<br />
peoples. In <strong>Nepal</strong>i Journal of Contemporary Studies 3<br />
(2):1-18.<br />
Bhattachan, K.B. 1999. <strong>Nepal</strong>: M<strong>in</strong>ority Rights <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Preda<strong>to</strong>ry <strong>Nepal</strong>ese State. In Sumanta Banerjee<br />
(ed.), Shr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g space. M<strong>in</strong>ority Rights <strong>in</strong> South Asia.<br />
South Asia Forum for Human Rights. Also see<br />
M<strong>in</strong>ority Rights Group International and <strong>Nepal</strong><br />
Tamang Ghedung 2002. Sett<strong>in</strong>g Priorities for the<br />
'Rights of Indigenous Peoples <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Kathmandu<br />
NEFEN. 1999. National consultation on <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
strategies for the promot<strong>in</strong>g the rights of <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples <strong>in</strong> <strong>Nepal</strong>. Kathmandu: Federal Council<br />
Secretariat. NEFEN <strong>in</strong> cooperation with M<strong>in</strong>ority<br />
Rights Group International.