Assessing the Effectiveness of Organized Crime Control Strategies ...

Assessing the Effectiveness of Organized Crime Control Strategies:
A Review of the Literature
An analysis of definitions used by 15 scholars over a period of more than 15 years has revealed
that, collectively, they have identified 11 different attributes of OC (Albanese, 1996). The table
below lists these attributes and the number of authors identifying them.
TABLE 1
DEFINITIONS OF ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE SCHOLARLY LITERATURE
Characteristics
Number of Authors
Organized Hierarchy Continuing 15
Rational Profit through Crime 12
Use of Force or Threat 11
Corruption to Maintain Immunity 11
Public Demand for Services 6
Monopoly over Particular Market 5
Restricted Membership 3
Non-Ideological 3
Specialization 3
Code of Secrecy 3
Extensive Planning 2
Source: J. Albanese, Organized Crime in America (3rd edition). Cincinnati: Anderson, 1996.
This analysis indicates that there is some consensus that OC operates as a continuing enterprise,
works rationally to make a profit, uses threats or force, and corrupts public officials to achieve
immunity from prosecution. There is less consensus about such things as exclusive membership,
OC’s non-political nature, its specialization in certain activities, the existence of codes of
secrecy, and the degree of planning in carrying out activities.
Abadinsky (2003) adds another element to those identified above. OC groups are often seen as
being governed by a set of rules covering the conduct expected of their members. Violators of
such rules can expect to be disciplined if it is perceived to be in the interest of the organization
(Maltz, 1994:31 in Kelly et al.).
Maltz (1994) further asserts that involvement in legitimate businesses is a frequent, although not
necessary, characteristic of OC groups. Legitimate businesses may serve as cover for illicit
activities, facilitate money laundering, provide respectability to group members, or serve as
payment for gambling or loan shark debts.
Schelling (1971) also expanded the definition of OC by pointing out that, aside from the direct
provision of illegal goods and services, OC acted as a “government” by extorting those criminals
who were supplying these services. Those engaged in drug dealing, prostitution, and
bookmaking pay tribute to the gangsters protecting their territory. A criminal organization can
also mediate disputes between neighbouring bookmakers, loan sharks, or narcotics dealers.
Beare (1996:14) asserts that OC’s essential characteristic is that of a process or method of
committing crimes, rather than a distinct type of crime or criminal. Indeed, a constant theme in
the literature is the duality of definitions, the debate as to whether OC is characterized primarily
by its enterprise quality or by certain types of activities that are thought to require some degree
of organization--e.g., protection rackets, loan sharking, and illicit gambling (Stelfox, 1998). The
Canadian Criminal Code (Part XII.2), for example, identifies about three dozen offences as
enterprise crimes.
8 | Research and Statistics Division / Department of Justice Canada