barcelona . spain - European Association for the Study of the Liver
barcelona . spain - European Association for the Study of the Liver
barcelona . spain - European Association for the Study of the Liver
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
EASL POSTGRADUATE COURSE<br />
ALCOHOLIC<br />
LIVER DISEASE<br />
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012<br />
COURSE DIRECTORS:<br />
R. Bataller, USA<br />
A. Hadengue, Switzerland<br />
F. Zoulim, France<br />
EASL EDUCATIONAL COUNCILLORS:<br />
J.F. Dufour, Switzerland<br />
F. Zoulim, France
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
2 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 3<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
WELCOME MESSAGE<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
8<br />
11<br />
17<br />
25<br />
32<br />
38<br />
43<br />
54<br />
59<br />
76<br />
81<br />
87<br />
93<br />
98<br />
103<br />
112<br />
116<br />
121<br />
131<br />
136<br />
140<br />
147<br />
152<br />
158<br />
165<br />
WELCOME MESSAGE<br />
EASL GOVERNING BOARD<br />
PROGRAMME<br />
POSTGRADUATE COURSE FACULTY<br />
CONTRIBUTORS:<br />
H. CORTEZ-PINTO, PORTUGAL<br />
N. SHERON, UK<br />
S. ZAKHARI, USA<br />
F. STICKEL, SWITZERLAND<br />
S. LOTERSZTAJN, FRANCE<br />
F. MARRA, ITALY<br />
T. ROSKAMS, BELGIUM<br />
S. MUELLER, GERMANY<br />
A. GUAL, SPAIN<br />
G. ADDOLORATO, ITALY<br />
J. FERNÁNDEZ-SOLÀ, SPAIN<br />
E.H. FORREST, UK<br />
F. NEVENS, BELGIUM<br />
A. HADENGUE, SWITZERLAND<br />
J-C. DUCLOS-VALLÉE, FRANCE<br />
J. NEUBERGER, UK<br />
H. SEITZ, GERMANY<br />
T. DECAENS, FRANCE<br />
G.P. PAGEAUX, FRANCE<br />
P. BURRA, ITALY<br />
B. GAO, USA<br />
L. SPAHR, SWITZERLAND<br />
P. ANDERSON, UK<br />
D.W. LACHENMEIER, GERMANY<br />
Dear Colleagues,<br />
It is with great pleasure that we welcome you to <strong>the</strong> Postgraduate Course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> International <strong>Liver</strong><br />
Congress 2012, <strong>the</strong> 47 th annual meeting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> <strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Liver</strong>.<br />
The topic <strong>for</strong> this year’s Postgraduate Course is Alcoholic <strong>Liver</strong> Disease, <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> which is<br />
indisputable given that it remains <strong>the</strong> most common cause <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis and liver mortality in Europe. We<br />
have attempted to cover all aspects <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease from public health to transplantation in<br />
order to provide a comprehensive educational opportunity. The programme includes sessions on <strong>the</strong><br />
recognition and management <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence which some <strong>of</strong> you may consider to be outside<br />
your field <strong>of</strong> expertise. However, with <strong>the</strong> increasing burden <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease in many countries it<br />
increasingly defaults to <strong>the</strong> hepatologists to provide or commission appropriate services <strong>for</strong> this problem.<br />
The EASL Governing Board are indebted to <strong>the</strong> course organisers; Ramon Bataller, Antoine Hadengue<br />
and Fabien Zoulim <strong>for</strong> putting <strong>the</strong> programme toge<strong>the</strong>r using case-based discussions to improve <strong>the</strong><br />
educational value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> course. In addition, we would like to thank Philippe Mathurin, Ramon and<br />
Antoine, toge<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r panellists <strong>for</strong> putting toge<strong>the</strong>r EASL’s Clinical Practice Guidelines on<br />
Alcoholic <strong>Liver</strong> Disease which <strong>the</strong>y will present as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> course.<br />
We hope you have <strong>the</strong> opportunity to enjoy <strong>the</strong> Postgraduate Course as well as <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> International<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Congress.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Mark Thursz, MD FRCP<br />
EASL SECRETARY GENERAL<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Markus Peck-Radosavljevic<br />
EASL VICE-SECRETARY
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
4 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 5<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
EASL GOVERNING BOARD<br />
PROGRAMME<br />
SECRETARY GENERAL<br />
Mark Thursz, London, UK<br />
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 18, 2012<br />
HALL A<br />
VICE-SECRETARY<br />
Markus Peck-Radosavljevic, Vienna, Austria<br />
TREASURER<br />
Mauro Bernardi, Bologna, Italy<br />
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE<br />
Matías A. Avila. Pamplona, Spain<br />
Frank Lammert, Homburg, Germany<br />
George V. Papa<strong>the</strong>odoridis, A<strong>the</strong>ns, Greece<br />
Daniele Prati, Lecco, Italy<br />
Tania Roskams, Leuven, Belgium<br />
EDUCATIONAL COUNCILLORS<br />
Jean-Francois Dufour, Bern, Switzerland<br />
Fabien Zoulim, Lyon, France<br />
EU POLICY COUNCILLOR<br />
Dominique-Charles Valla, Paris, France<br />
11:30-17:30 Postgraduate Course<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
Course Directors: R. Bataller, USA<br />
A. Hadengue, Switzerland<br />
F. Zoulim, France<br />
11:30 Introduction<br />
A. Hadengue, Switzerland<br />
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUES<br />
11:35 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: QUESTIONS<br />
11:40 INCREASING BURDEN OF ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE IN EUROPE<br />
H. Cortez-Pinto, Portugal<br />
11:55 CURRENT ACTIONS TO CONFRONT ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
IN EUROPE<br />
N. Sheron, UK<br />
12:10 PATTERNS OF ALCOHOL INTAKE AND ALD: EFFECTS OF BINGE<br />
DRINKING ON THE LIVER<br />
S. Zakhari, USA<br />
12:25 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: ANSWERS<br />
NATURAL HISTORY AND MECHANISMS<br />
12:35 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: QUESTIONS<br />
12:40 NATURAL HISTORY OF ALD: ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL<br />
AND GENETIC FACTORS<br />
F. Stickel, Switzerland<br />
12:55 NOVEL MECHANISMS OF ALCOHOLIC STEATOHEPATITIS<br />
S. Lotersztajn, France<br />
13:10 MECHANISMS OF ALCOHOL-INDUCED LIVER FIBROSIS<br />
F. Marra, Italy<br />
13:25 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: ANSWERS<br />
13:35 – 14:00 LUNCH
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
6 7<br />
POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 18, 2012 continued<br />
THURSDAY, APRIL 19, 2012<br />
HALL A<br />
THE PATIENT WITH CHRONIC ALD<br />
14:00 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: CLINICAL CASE (QUESTIONS)<br />
Fellow: F. Artru, France<br />
14:05 HISTOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF ALD<br />
T. Roskams, Belgium<br />
08:30-12:00 Postgraduate Course<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
Course Directors: R. Bataller, USA<br />
A. Hadengue, Switzerland<br />
F. Zoulim, France<br />
LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF ALD<br />
14:20 NONINVASIVE TOOLS IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF ALD<br />
S. Mueller, Germany<br />
14:35 ABUSE OR DEPENDENCE ASSESSING THE ALCOHOLIC PATIENT<br />
IN THE CLINIC<br />
A. Gual, Spain<br />
14:50 MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE IN PATIENTS WITH ALD<br />
G. Addolorato, Italy<br />
15:05 EXTRAHEPATIC INVOLVEMENT IN PATIENTS WITH ALD<br />
J. Fernández-Solà, Spain<br />
15:20 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: CLINICAL CASE (ANSWERS)<br />
A. Louvet, France<br />
15:35-16:00 COFFEE BREAK<br />
THE ACUTELY ILL PATIENT<br />
16:00 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: CASE PRESENTATION (QUESTIONS)<br />
Fellow: J.T. Altamirano, Spain<br />
16:05 MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL<br />
E.H. Forrest, UK<br />
16:20 ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS OR DECOMPENSATED CIRRHOSIS: DIAGNOSTIC<br />
AND PROGNOSTIC ISSUES<br />
F. Nevens, Belgium<br />
16:35 MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS<br />
A. Hadengue, Switzerland<br />
CONTROVERSY: CAN WE OFFER LIVER TRANSPLANTATION TO PATIENTS WITH<br />
ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS<br />
16:50 YES<br />
J-C. Duclos-Vallée, France<br />
17:05 NO<br />
J. Neuberger, UK<br />
17:20 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: CASE PRESENTATION (ANSWERS)<br />
J. Caballería, Spain<br />
08:30 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: CASE PRESENTATION (QUESTIONS)<br />
Fellow: N. Goossens, Switzerland<br />
08:35 ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AS A CO-FACTOR FOR OTHER<br />
LIVER DISEASES<br />
H. Seitz, Germany<br />
08:50 HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: IS IT DIFFERENT IN PATIENTS<br />
WITH ALD<br />
T. Decaens, France<br />
09:05 EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF CANDIDATES FOR LIVER<br />
TRANSPLANTATION<br />
G.P. Pageaux, France<br />
09:20 PATIENTS WITH ALD AND LIVER TRANSPLANTATION: SPECIFIC ISSUES<br />
P. Burra, Italy<br />
09:35 Q&A INTERACTIVE SESSION: CASE PRESENTATION (ANSWERS)<br />
A. De Gottardi, Switzerland<br />
10:00-10:30 COFFEE BREAK<br />
FUTURE PROSPECTS IN ALD<br />
10:30 NOVEL TARGETS FOR THERAPY IDENTIFIED IN TRANSLATIONAL STUDIES<br />
B. Gao, USA<br />
10:45 STEM CELLS IN ALD: THE ROAD FROM ANIMAL MODELS TO HUMAN<br />
STUDIES<br />
L. Spahr, Switzerland<br />
11:00 CURRENT POLICIES TO DECREASE THE HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL<br />
IN EUROPE<br />
11:15 ILLEGALLY PRODUCED SPIRITS IN EASTERN EUROPE: TO WHAT EXTENT<br />
AND AT WHAT RISK<br />
D.W. Lachenmeier, Germany<br />
11:30 PRESENTATION OF THE EASL CLINICAL PRACTICAL GUIDELINES ON<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
P. Mathurin, France<br />
11:55 CONCLUDING REMARKS<br />
R. Bataller, USA
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
8 9<br />
POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Bin GAO<br />
Laboratory <strong>of</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Diseases, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes <strong>of</strong><br />
Health, Be<strong>the</strong>sda, USA<br />
POSTGRADUATE COURSE FACULTY<br />
Nicolas GOOSSENS<br />
Division <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Cantonal Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland<br />
Antoni GUAL<br />
Alcohol Unit, Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Spain<br />
COURSE DIRECTORS:<br />
R. Bataller, USA<br />
A. Hadengue, Switzerland<br />
F. Zoulim, France<br />
EASL EDUCATIONAL COUNCILLORS:<br />
J. Dufour, Switzerland<br />
F. Zoulim, France<br />
Antoine HADENGUE<br />
Division <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Cantonal Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland<br />
Dirk LACHENMEIER<br />
Alcohol Laboratory, Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Agency Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany<br />
Alexandre LOUVET<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Digestive Diseases, Hôpital Huriez, Lille, France<br />
Giovanni ADDOLORATO<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Internal Medicine, Catholic University <strong>of</strong> Rome, Rome, Italy<br />
Jose T. ALTAMIRANO<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Unit, <strong>Liver</strong> Fibrosis Laboratory, Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, Spain<br />
Peter ANDERSON<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK<br />
Florent ARTRU<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Digestive Diseases, Hôpital Huriez, Lille, France<br />
Ramon BATALLER<br />
Division <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology & Hepatology, University <strong>of</strong> North Carolina at Chapel Hill, UNC, USA<br />
Patrizia BURRA<br />
Multivisceral Transplant Unit, Department <strong>of</strong> Surgical, Oncological and Gastroenterological Sciences, Padova<br />
University Hospital, Padova, Italy<br />
Juan CABALLERÍA<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Unit, Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, Spain<br />
Helena CORTEZ-PINTO<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology, Hospital <strong>of</strong> Santa Maria, Unit <strong>of</strong> Nutrition and Metabolism, FML, Instituto de<br />
Medicina Molecular (IMM), Lisbon, Portugal<br />
Andrea DE GOTTARDI<br />
University Clinic <strong>of</strong> Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland<br />
Thomas DECAENS<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Hepatology, Henri Mondor Hospital, University <strong>of</strong> Paris, Créteil, France<br />
Jean-Charles DUCLOS-VALLÉE<br />
Centre Hépato-Biliaire, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, Villejuif, France<br />
Jean Francois DUFOUR<br />
University Clinic <strong>of</strong> Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland<br />
Joaquim FERNÁNDEZ-SOLÀ<br />
Alcohol Unit, Department <strong>of</strong> Medicine, Hospital Clínic, University <strong>of</strong> Barcelona, Spain<br />
Ewan FORREST<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Castle Street, Glasgow, UK<br />
Sophie LOTERSZTAJN<br />
Inserm U955, Hospital Henri Mondor, Créteil, France<br />
Fabio MARRA<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Internal Medicine, University <strong>of</strong> Florence, Florence, Italy<br />
Philippe MATHURIN<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Digestive Diseases, Hôpital Huriez, Lille, France<br />
Sebastian MUELLER<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Medicine, Salem Medical Centre and Centre <strong>for</strong> Alcohol Research, University <strong>of</strong> Heidelberg,<br />
Heidelberg, Germany<br />
Frederik NEVENS<br />
Department <strong>Liver</strong> and Biliopancreatic diseases, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, K.U. Leuven, Belgium<br />
James NEUBERGER<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Unit, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UK<br />
Georges-Philippe PAGEAUX<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Hepato-Gastroenterology, CHU Saint Eloi, Montpellier, France<br />
Tania ROSKAMS<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Morphology and Molecular Pathology, University <strong>of</strong> Leuven, Leuven, Belgium<br />
Helmut SEITZ<br />
Centre <strong>of</strong> Alcohol Research, University <strong>of</strong> Heidelberg and Department <strong>of</strong> Medicine, Salem Medical Centre,<br />
Heidelberg, Germany<br />
Nick SHERON<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Clinical Hepatology, University <strong>of</strong> Southampton, Southampton, UK<br />
Laurent SPAHR<br />
Division <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland<br />
Felix STICKEL<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Inselspital, University <strong>of</strong> Bern, Switzerland<br />
Sam ZAKHARI<br />
Division <strong>of</strong> Metabolism and Health Effects, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National<br />
Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health, Be<strong>the</strong>sda, USA<br />
Fabien ZOULIM<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Department, Hôtel Dieu Hospital & Hepatitis Research Laboratory, Lyon, France
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
11<br />
INCREASING BURDEN OF ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE IN EUROPE<br />
COME AND<br />
VISIT THE<br />
EASL BOOTH<br />
RENEW<br />
YOUR MEMBERSHIP<br />
JOIN THE<br />
EASL COMMUNITY<br />
TODAY<br />
Helena Cortez-Pinto<br />
Lisbon, Portugal<br />
E-mail: hlcortezpinto@netcabo.pt<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcohol is <strong>the</strong> main cause <strong>of</strong> liver disease in Europe. The prevalence <strong>of</strong> alcoholic disease is<br />
increasing mostly in Eastern countries but also in some Western countries such as United<br />
Kingdom, Ireland and Finland.<br />
• Alcoholic liver disease is partially preventable through policies that reduce alcohol consumption,<br />
since a good correlation between alcohol consumption and cirrhosis mortality has been<br />
demonstrated. Policies that reduce <strong>the</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> alcohol ei<strong>the</strong>r though pricing increase or<br />
reducing hours <strong>of</strong> sale, have shown to be <strong>the</strong> more effective.<br />
• Binge drinking is increasing and more data is needed on its impact on liver disease.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is <strong>the</strong> main cause <strong>of</strong> liver-related mortality in Europe. However, viral- and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r liver diseases have attracted much more attention in what concerns investigation in <strong>the</strong> past decades.<br />
This is very well illustrated by <strong>the</strong> Death-To-Trials ratio score (ETOh), that is <strong>the</strong> ratio <strong>of</strong> estimated deaths<br />
attributed to a disease to <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> trials focused on that disease. Alcoholic liver disease has a very<br />
high score when compared <strong>for</strong> example with hepatitis C virus, 358 vs 4.8, thus demonstrating that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is a lack <strong>of</strong> studies per<strong>for</strong>med on ALD. Among <strong>the</strong> causes <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> relative low interest <strong>for</strong> ALD, may be<br />
<strong>the</strong> fact that o<strong>the</strong>r liver diseases have more potential to be treated, or that alcoholic liver disease affects<br />
individuals that are poorer or less influential in Society. However, recent years have witnessed advances<br />
in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis and treatment <strong>of</strong> ALD. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, a remarkable increase in <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
consumption, and consequently <strong>of</strong> ALD has been demonstrated mostly in Europe, and particularly in<br />
Eastern <strong>European</strong> countries. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, it is likely that in short-term, viral-related diseases are<br />
going to become much less important. Consequently, it is <strong>for</strong>eseeable that metabolic and alcoholic liver<br />
disease will become <strong>the</strong> main focus <strong>of</strong> research in liver disease.<br />
EFFECT OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION ON MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY<br />
Alcohol consumption accounts <strong>for</strong> 3.8% <strong>of</strong> global mortality and 4.6% <strong>of</strong> DALYs, that are <strong>the</strong> sum <strong>of</strong> life years<br />
lost due to premature death or years lived in disability, according to <strong>the</strong> World Health Organization (WHO).<br />
If Europe alone is considered, <strong>the</strong>se numbers are higher, with 6.5% <strong>of</strong> all deaths and 11.6% <strong>of</strong> DALY’s<br />
(Figure 1 and 2). It is <strong>of</strong> note that males are predominantly affected, with 17.3% <strong>of</strong> male and 4.4% <strong>of</strong> female<br />
DALY’s in Europe, after accounting <strong>for</strong> health benefits. Also young people share a disproportionate amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> burden <strong>of</strong> disease, with alcohol being responsible <strong>for</strong> over 10% and 25% <strong>of</strong> female and male youth<br />
mortality, respectively. Altoge<strong>the</strong>r, alcohol consumption ranks third as a cause <strong>of</strong> premature death and<br />
disability in <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> Union (EU), just after tobacco smoking and high blood pressure (1).<br />
Indeed, liver disease represents 9.5% <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related DALY’s worldwide, although <strong>the</strong>se rates may vary<br />
according to different countries and areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world (2). For instance in Portugal, liver-related DALY’s<br />
accounted <strong>for</strong> 31.5% <strong>of</strong> all alcohol-related DALY´s.<br />
EASL Office<br />
easl<strong>of</strong>fice@easl<strong>of</strong>fice.eu<br />
www.easl.eu<br />
membership@easl<strong>of</strong>fice.eu
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
12 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 13<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
PREVALENCE AND TRENDS IN ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AND ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
The trends in alcohol consumption and alcohol-related harm vary significantly among different countries<br />
and areas <strong>of</strong> Europe as well as according to policies and interventions in each country. In fact, in <strong>the</strong> period<br />
1990‒2006, <strong>the</strong>re have been substantial fluctuations with decrease, increase and <strong>the</strong>n stabilization. There<br />
is evidence <strong>of</strong> a very marked disparity in alcohol consumption trends among different countries, with a<br />
predominance <strong>of</strong> Eastern <strong>European</strong> countries experiencing an increase. Also, <strong>the</strong> financial crisis in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>European</strong> Union is probably going to result in an increase in alcohol-related harm. In fact, already a more<br />
than three per cent increase in unemployment is associated with as much as a 28 per cent increase in<br />
deaths from alcohol use disorders (3).<br />
It is difficult to estimate <strong>the</strong> true prevalence <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease in <strong>the</strong> population. A population based<br />
study in France, using transient elastography as a screening tool, found that alcohol was <strong>the</strong> probable<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> one third <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> excess fibrosis (4). However, we really need fur<strong>the</strong>r studies combining<br />
serum markers, ultrasound and elastography to better define <strong>the</strong> real prevalence <strong>of</strong> compensated and<br />
decompensated alcoholic liver disease. Fur<strong>the</strong>r studies also need more detailed alcohol drinking pattern,<br />
since that may have implications on <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> liver disease. In fact, it is still unclear if <strong>the</strong> risk is different<br />
when alcohol consumption concentrates on one or two days <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> week, or if it distributes homogeneously<br />
during <strong>the</strong> week. Also, <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> binge drinking (by definition more than 5 drinks <strong>for</strong> men, and more than<br />
4 drinks <strong>for</strong> women in two hours) on <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> progression to more advanced <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> ALD is yet ill-defined.<br />
Since binge drinking is steeply increasing, mostly in young people, and in some countries, <strong>the</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
would be <strong>of</strong> great importance.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> cirrhosis mortality remains <strong>the</strong> best tool to evaluate <strong>the</strong> burden and trends <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease,<br />
although it is still subject to important bias, including differences in death certificates accuracy according to<br />
different countries, and <strong>the</strong> reluctance to include alcohol in <strong>the</strong> death certificate due to legal implications.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> last 30 years, mortality due to liver cirrhosis followed a pattern similar to alcohol consumption,<br />
with a large disparity between countries. In fact, it was well shown that per capita alcohol consumption is<br />
strongly correlated with liver cirrhosis mortality rates across countries.<br />
There have been sharp declines in liver cirrhosis mortality in about half <strong>the</strong> countries in Europe, mostly<br />
Western <strong>European</strong> countries, such as Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal and Spain, but also in<br />
Eastern countries such as Hungary and Romania. On <strong>the</strong> opposite, impressive increases in liver mortality<br />
cirrhosis are seen in Eastern countries, such as Russia, Lithuania, Estonia and Polonia, but also in some<br />
Western countries such as United Kingdom and Ireland and Finland (Figure 3). It is <strong>of</strong> interest that <strong>the</strong>se<br />
differences are more evident in <strong>the</strong> group older than 45 years. Also, incidence <strong>of</strong> ALD is 2 to 3 times higher<br />
in males than females, although frequency between males and females tend to correlate in every country<br />
and <strong>for</strong> each level <strong>of</strong> consumption (5).<br />
Data from <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Transplantation Registry showed that alcohol represents one third <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> causes <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis leading to liver transplantation and is <strong>the</strong> second cause <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation<br />
(Figure 4). These numbers underscore <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> alcohol as a cause <strong>of</strong> liver disease, although still<br />
underestimating it, since alcoholics are probably less transplanted than o<strong>the</strong>r patients. Also, and according<br />
to <strong>the</strong> same study, <strong>the</strong>re has been a recent increase in <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> patients transplanted due to alcoholic<br />
liver disease (6).<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r important issue is <strong>the</strong> recent change in <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption, and how is it going to<br />
affect <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> liver disease. In fact, recent years have shown an increase in <strong>the</strong> binge drinking pattern,<br />
particularly in young people, and <strong>the</strong>re is evidence that binge-drinking can cause liver cirrhosis, with <strong>the</strong><br />
risk increasing with <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> binge episodes (7). This evidence comes from experimental as well<br />
as epidemiological studies. Besides from <strong>the</strong> effect on <strong>the</strong> liver, binge has also been associated with an<br />
increased risk <strong>of</strong> atrial fibrillation and ventricular arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, as well as haemorrhagic<br />
and ischaemic strokes.<br />
Besides from <strong>the</strong> effect on <strong>the</strong> liver, it is increasingly recognized that alcohol has a very important role<br />
in several o<strong>the</strong>r diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, showing a very strong risk association with<br />
hypertension, hemorrhagic stroke and cancer. Indeed, alcohol metabolism produces acetaldehyde,<br />
strongly involved in alcohol-associated carcinogenesis; in addition, ethanol itself stimulates carcinogenesis<br />
by inhibiting DNA methylation and by interacting with retinoid metabolism. The importance <strong>of</strong> alcohol as<br />
a risk <strong>for</strong> cancer, namely <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, liver, colon, rectum, larynx and female<br />
breast have been well recognized. According to <strong>the</strong> WHO estimates <strong>for</strong> global burden <strong>of</strong> disease, more<br />
than 389,000 cases <strong>of</strong> cancer were attributable to alcohol drinking worldwide, thus representing 3.6% <strong>of</strong><br />
all cancers, (5.2% in men, and 1.7% in women). Similar results were found by <strong>the</strong> International Agency <strong>for</strong><br />
Research on Cancer, that alcohol is a risk factor <strong>for</strong> upper aerodigestive tract cancer (oral cavity, pharynx,<br />
hypopharynx, larynx, and esophagus), liver cancer, colorectal cancer, and breast cancer. In fact, it was<br />
only recently that <strong>the</strong> increased risk <strong>for</strong> breast cancer, even <strong>for</strong> very low consumptions, was highlighted and<br />
documented, with breast cancer comprising 60% <strong>of</strong> alcohol-attributable cancers, in women. It is also <strong>of</strong> note<br />
that alcohol consumption and smoking has a synergistic effect on <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se cancers. Alcoholassociated<br />
changes in behavior, is also a major cause <strong>of</strong> intentional and unintentional injuries, ei<strong>the</strong>r to <strong>the</strong><br />
drinker or to o<strong>the</strong>rs. It is also an important cause <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional absenteeism and low per<strong>for</strong>mance, as<br />
well as family violence and disruption. Alcohol is also a potent teratogen and a cause <strong>of</strong> neurological and<br />
psychiatric disturbances.<br />
ECONOMIC BURDEN<br />
It was estimated that <strong>the</strong> total tangible costs <strong>of</strong> alcohol to <strong>the</strong> EU in 2003 were about €125 billion (€79bn-<br />
€220bn), equivalent to 1.3% (0.9–2.4%) <strong>of</strong> gross domestic product (GDP). Actual spending on alcoholrelated<br />
problems accounts <strong>for</strong> €66 billion <strong>of</strong> this, while potential production not realized due to absenteeism,<br />
unemployment and premature mortality accounts <strong>for</strong> a fur<strong>the</strong>r €59 billion. This amount largely exceeds<br />
<strong>the</strong> reported contribution <strong>of</strong> around 9 billion euros to <strong>the</strong> goods account balance <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> EU. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,<br />
it seems to contribute to health inequalities between and within <strong>European</strong> Member States, due to more<br />
frequent risky alcohol use in lower socioeconomic groups and also to greater mortality from directly alcoholrelated<br />
conditions (8).<br />
HOW TO DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM<br />
Since alcohol is indeed a major health risk factor and simultaneously a heavy economic burden, it becomes<br />
obvious that measures need to be taken to change/reduce <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> consumption. One <strong>the</strong> major<br />
problems regarding control <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption is that drinking alcohol can be harmless and is very<br />
strongly rooted in our Society. In fact, it is not constantly harmful as <strong>for</strong> example tobacco smoking, and this<br />
duality results in difficulty in delineating measures to reduce consumption and to implement <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first controversies is what <strong>the</strong> safe-drinking limit is In what regards <strong>the</strong> threshold <strong>for</strong> liver<br />
cirrhosis, Rehm et al. found in a recent meta-analysis, an increased risk <strong>of</strong> mortality from liver cirrhosis<br />
among men and women drinking 12-24g/ethanol per day (9), and a large epidemiological study on Italy,<br />
found that <strong>the</strong>re was an increased risk <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis in those drinking 30 g/ethanol per day. More difficult and<br />
controversial is to find a threshold in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> binge-drinking (7). It is possible that <strong>for</strong> some diseases<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is not a safe limit. For example, in breast cancer, a recent meta-analysis that included 98 studies<br />
reported a 10% increase in breast cancer risk per 10 g <strong>of</strong> alcohol con¬sumed per day, with no definition <strong>of</strong><br />
a safe threshold.<br />
Alcohol policies and <strong>the</strong>ir effectiveness<br />
Several policy targeted areas have been developed, including in<strong>for</strong>mation and education, health<br />
sector response, community programmes, drink driving policies, availability <strong>of</strong> alcohol, marketing <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol beverages, pricing policies, harm reduction, and reducing <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> illegal produced alcohol.<br />
Regarding interventions on in<strong>for</strong>mation and education, <strong>the</strong>y are not expensive, but systematic reviews <strong>of</strong><br />
this programmes showed that <strong>the</strong>y do not particularly affect consumption levels or health outcomes (10),<br />
although <strong>the</strong>y are important to convey awareness and knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem. O<strong>the</strong>r policies, like drinkdriving,<br />
seem to be quite effective, mostly if <strong>the</strong>y are efficiently implemented and rigorously en<strong>for</strong>ced (10).<br />
Also, brief interventions to those at-risk seem to be useful.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most effective measures is reducing availability <strong>of</strong> alcohol, ei<strong>the</strong>r through <strong>the</strong> pricing policies<br />
or <strong>the</strong> hours and places <strong>of</strong> sale and minimum purchase age laws (8). In fact, laws that set a minimum age<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> purchase <strong>of</strong> alcohol show clear reduction in drink-driving casualties and o<strong>the</strong>r alcohol-related harm.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
14 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 15<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Also, reduction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hours or days <strong>of</strong> sale leads to fewer alcohol-related problems. However, <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
evidence that strict restriction can lead to illicit market. Pricing policies have very well demonstrated an<br />
inverse correlation between alcohol price and consumption. A recent report commissioned by <strong>the</strong> EU,<br />
concluded that <strong>the</strong>re is a positive relationship between alcohol af<strong>for</strong>dability and alcohol consumption, and<br />
also between alcohol consumption and 3 types <strong>of</strong> harms: traffic injuries, traffic deaths, and liver cirrhosis.<br />
The report also concludes that cross-border alcohol consumption due to tax differentials can lead to<br />
increases in consumption.<br />
Figure 1<br />
Alcohol-attributable deaths as proportion <strong>of</strong> all deaths by sex in Europe and World. Data from WHO Global<br />
Burden 2004.<br />
Undoubtedly, increasing alcohol taxes reduces alcohol consumption and related harm and increases<br />
government revenue. The effect tends to be stronger in <strong>the</strong> long term, delaying <strong>the</strong> start <strong>of</strong> drinking, and<br />
slowing young people’s progression to heavy drinking. It also reduces young people heavy drinking and <strong>the</strong><br />
volume <strong>of</strong> alcohol per occasion, and has a much stronger effect on heavier than on light drinkers.<br />
Also, alcohol marketing has a major impact in levels and patterns <strong>of</strong> consumption, especially in young<br />
people. In fact, <strong>the</strong>re is an impressive sophisticated advertising in mainstream media. Powerful marketing<br />
campaigns link alcohol brands to sports and cultural activities, through sponsorships, internet, podcasting<br />
and mobile phones. It has been shown that exposure to alcohol advertising has an effect on initiation <strong>of</strong><br />
young drinking and on riskier patterns <strong>of</strong> youth drinking in 13 longitudinal studies including 38,000 young<br />
people. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, young people likely continue to increase <strong>the</strong>ir drinking as <strong>the</strong>y move in <strong>the</strong>ir twenties.<br />
Also, <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> exposure are cumulative. Individuals with higher consumptions in <strong>the</strong>ir mid-teens tend to<br />
be those with heavier consumption, alcohol dependence and alcohol-related harm, including poorer mental<br />
health and education outcome, and increased risk <strong>of</strong> crime, in early adulthood.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
WHO. Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.<br />
Rehm J, Ma<strong>the</strong>rs C, Popova S, Thavorncharoensap M, Teerawattananon Y, Patra J. Global<br />
burden <strong>of</strong> disease and injury and economic cost attributable to alcohol use and<br />
alcohol-use disorders. Lancet 2009;373:2223-33. *<br />
Stuckler D, Basu S, Suhrcke M, Coutts A, McKee M. The public health effect <strong>of</strong> economic crises<br />
and alternative policy responses in Europe: an empirical analysis. Lancet 2009;374:315-23.<br />
Roulot D, Costes JL, Buyck JF, Warzocha U, Gambier N, Czernichow S, Le Clesiau H,<br />
Beaugrand M. Transient elastography as a screening tool <strong>for</strong> liver fibrosis and cirrhosis in a<br />
community-based population aged over 45 years. Gut 2011;60:977-84.<br />
WHO. <strong>European</strong> Status Report on Alcohol and Health 2010. Copenhagen; 2010.<br />
Burra P, Senzolo M, Adam R, Delvart V, Karam V, Germani G, Neuberger J. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease in Europe: a study from <strong>the</strong> ELTR (<strong>European</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Transplant Registry).<br />
Am J Transplant 2010;10:138-48.<br />
Mathurin P, Deltenre P. Effect <strong>of</strong> binge drinking on <strong>the</strong> liver: an alarming public health issue Gut<br />
2009;58:613-7.<br />
Rabinovich L, Brutscher P-B, Vries H, Tiessen J, Clift J, Reding A. The af<strong>for</strong>dability <strong>of</strong> alcoholic<br />
beverages in <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> Union. Understanding <strong>the</strong> link between alcohol af<strong>for</strong>dability,<br />
consumption and harms; 2009.<br />
Rehm J, Taylor B, Mohapatra S, Irving H, Baliunas D, Patra J, Roerecke M. Alcohol as<br />
a risk factor <strong>for</strong> liver cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol<br />
Rev 2010;29:437-45*<br />
Anderson P, Chisholm D, Fuhr DC. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong> policies and<br />
programmes to reduce <strong>the</strong> harm caused by alcohol. Lancet 2009;373:2234-46.<br />
Figure 2<br />
Alcohol-attributable disability adjusted life years (DALYs) as proportion <strong>of</strong> all DALYs by sex in Europe and<br />
World. Data from WHO Global Burden 2004.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
16 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 17<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 3<br />
Mortality from liver cirrhosis among men in three groups <strong>of</strong> <strong>European</strong> countries (n=27), 2000-2005. Data<br />
from WHO report 2010<br />
Eur-A: 27 countries with very low child and adult mortality: Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, <strong>the</strong><br />
Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg,<br />
Malta, Monaco, <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and<br />
<strong>the</strong> United Kingdom.<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE IN EUROPE<br />
Nick Sheron<br />
Southampton, UK<br />
E-mail: nick.sheron@soton.ac.uk<br />
Eur-B: 17 countries with low child and adult mortality: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and<br />
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Georgia,Kyrgyzstan, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Tajikistan,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mer Yugoslav Republic <strong>of</strong> Macedonia, Turkey, Turkmenistan andUzbekistan.<br />
Eur-C: 9 countries with low child but high adult mortality: Belarus, Estonia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Latvia,<br />
Lithuania, Republic <strong>of</strong> Moldova, <strong>the</strong> Russian Federation and Ukrain<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Mortality from liver disease is directly proportional to population level alcohol consumption<br />
within each country in <strong>the</strong> EU.<br />
• There is a strong evidence base <strong>for</strong> effective policies which can reduce liver deaths by reducing<br />
population level alcohol consumption.<br />
• These effective and cost effective policies are based on <strong>the</strong> 4p’s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> marketing mix: price,<br />
product, place <strong>of</strong> sale and promotion.<br />
• The drinks industry are reliant on hazardous and harmful drinkers <strong>for</strong> around 75% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
turnover in <strong>the</strong> UK, and by inference many o<strong>the</strong>r EU member states.<br />
• As with tobacco, <strong>the</strong> EU liver community will need to be pro-active in countering <strong>the</strong> sophisticated<br />
lobbying <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drinks industry if effective alcohol strategies are to be achieved.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The <strong>European</strong> region is <strong>the</strong> heaviest drinking region in <strong>the</strong> world and <strong>the</strong> evidence detailing <strong>the</strong> burden <strong>of</strong><br />
ill health and <strong>the</strong> economic costs attributable to excessive consumption <strong>of</strong> alcohol is extensive. The World<br />
Health Organisation recognises alcohol as <strong>the</strong> third leading risk factor <strong>for</strong> poor health in Europe(1), resulting<br />
in 200,000 deaths each year with a cost to society <strong>of</strong> around €125 billion, or 1.3% <strong>of</strong> gross domestic<br />
product(2).<br />
Figure 4<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> transplantion in Europe. Indications in cirrhosis. Data from <strong>European</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Transplantation Registry<br />
(ELTR) 2010<br />
Different varieties <strong>of</strong> harm result from different patterns <strong>of</strong> drinking alcohol; acute intoxication causes people<br />
to put <strong>the</strong>mselves and o<strong>the</strong>rs at risk and is implicated in sexual and o<strong>the</strong>r violence, suicide, accidental<br />
death and trauma. Regular heavy drinking can lead to alcohol dependency and chronic ill health. Alcohol<br />
is metabolised by <strong>the</strong> liver, and regular heavy intake causes progressive fibrosis, cirrhosis, liver failure<br />
and death. Alcohol-related disease is <strong>the</strong> most common cause <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis, liver death rates are a reliable<br />
indicator <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> harm caused by regular heavy drinking and <strong>the</strong>re is a strong relationship between liver<br />
death rates (liver SDR) and overall alcohol consumption which becomes stronger as overall consumption<br />
increases (Figure 1).<br />
Over <strong>the</strong> last 30 years liver death rates in <strong>the</strong> EU have gradually declined in response to changing patterns<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol intake. In 1970 <strong>the</strong> EU liver death rate was 13.25 and in 2007 it had declined to 8.01 (<strong>for</strong> pre 2004<br />
EU member states) - a reduction <strong>of</strong> 60%. But this overall decline conceals very large differences between<br />
Member States. France and Italy, <strong>the</strong> countries with <strong>the</strong> largest decline in liver deaths, have seen three to<br />
four-fold reductions in liver mortality. Whereas UK and Finland have seen liver deaths rise by more than five<br />
fold over <strong>the</strong> same period <strong>of</strong> time (figure 2). These are very dramatic changes in liver mortality and in this<br />
paper we examine possible reasons <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>se changes, and <strong>the</strong> lessons <strong>the</strong>y may hold <strong>for</strong> liver clinicians.<br />
Drinking cultures<br />
Across <strong>the</strong> EU <strong>the</strong>re are many different cultural behaviours related to alcohol consumption and <strong>the</strong><br />
nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> resulting harm differs in terms <strong>of</strong> its impact on <strong>the</strong> individual, society and <strong>the</strong> economy. A<br />
traditional distinction has been drawn between nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>European</strong> countries and <strong>the</strong>ir sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>European</strong><br />
counterparts in terms <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption and drinking patterns, and it is tempting to place <strong>the</strong> origin <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se differences back in antiquity. In <strong>the</strong> epic Babylonian poem Gilgamesh (2700BC) - <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hero<br />
Enkidu was precipitated by seduction into drunkenness: “Enkidu drank <strong>the</strong> beer - seven jugs and became
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
18 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 19<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
expansive and sang with joy, he was elated and his face glowed”. But later he curses “May dregs <strong>of</strong> beer<br />
stain your beautiful lap, may a drunk soil your festal robe with vomit…”. The regular drinking <strong>of</strong> wine with<br />
meals was contrasted with barbarian drinking habits by Diodorus Siculus and Tacitus in <strong>the</strong> 1 st centuries BC<br />
and AD, and by Saints Boniface and Bede in <strong>the</strong> 9 th century AD. Epic feats <strong>of</strong> drunkenness are as much a<br />
feature <strong>of</strong> Celtic and Viking poetry as <strong>the</strong> battles which <strong>the</strong>y celebrated and epic feats <strong>of</strong> drunkenness and<br />
fighting remain a feature <strong>of</strong> Anglo-Saxon and Celtic society to this day.<br />
Whatever <strong>the</strong> underlying reasons, <strong>the</strong>se cultural difference are real. In <strong>the</strong> Eurobarometer alcohol survey<br />
<strong>of</strong> 2002, Ireland, UK and Finland had <strong>the</strong> highest number <strong>of</strong> occasions on which people thought <strong>the</strong>y ‘had<br />
drunk too much’ and had <strong>the</strong> lowest percentage <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption with meals, with Italy having <strong>the</strong><br />
highest. Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>European</strong> countries have historically controlled demand with strict controls on <strong>the</strong> supply<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol. These include: restrictions on <strong>the</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> alcohol (both <strong>for</strong> on-trade and <strong>of</strong>f-trade sale),<br />
restrictions on <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> premises licensed to sell alcohol, limited hours <strong>of</strong> trade and high prices and<br />
state monopolies on alcohol production and trade. In stark contrast, sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>European</strong> countries had<br />
limited policies in place to restrict <strong>the</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> alcohol be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> 1980s. The nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drinks<br />
industry in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe is also different, with a large variety <strong>of</strong> diverse wine producers, and local or<br />
regionally produced wines <strong>for</strong> local consumption.<br />
UK<br />
Changes in alcohol consumption in <strong>the</strong> UK have been driven by both cultural and market factors. Marketing<br />
- <strong>the</strong> art <strong>of</strong> selling - has four basic principles: <strong>the</strong> four P’s, place, product, price and promotion have all<br />
changed in association with a shift from local pubs to sales from supermarkets and local shops. Since<br />
1970 sales <strong>of</strong> wine and spirits increased - wine more than six-fold and spirits two-fold. Sales <strong>of</strong> strong lager<br />
increased 15-fold and cider six-fold, whereas sales <strong>of</strong> normal strength beer and lager fell by around 10%.<br />
The doubling <strong>of</strong> wine consumption was influenced by <strong>for</strong>eign holidays, globalisation and EU membership<br />
requiring harmonisation <strong>of</strong> duty on wine. But <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>of</strong> supermarkets also resulted in marked changes in<br />
<strong>the</strong> way that alcohol was promoted, to <strong>the</strong> extent that alcohol promotions are now used to drive footfall<br />
into stores, and stacks <strong>of</strong> cheap white wine are now routinely placed all over <strong>the</strong> store to facilitate impulse<br />
buying. This is an irresponsible way to sell a toxic dependence inducing drug. The UK House <strong>of</strong> Commons<br />
(HoC) Health Committee quotes Martin Plant: “supermarkets are exhibiting <strong>the</strong> morality <strong>of</strong> a crack<br />
dealer”(3).<br />
The early 1990’s saw <strong>the</strong> conjunction <strong>of</strong> plummeting whisky sales as an older generation moved on and <strong>the</strong><br />
emergence <strong>of</strong> a new and initially alcohol averse youth culture, leading to intense and successful industry<br />
lobbying on alcohol taxation. Duty on spirits was reduced <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> next 15 years. Since 1980 spirits have<br />
become 350% more af<strong>for</strong>dable, wine 270% and beer 170% (figure 3). The steep change came in <strong>the</strong> mid-<br />
1990’s as a direct result <strong>of</strong> industry pressure; drinks became even cheaper and stronger and liver death<br />
rates escalated. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, over <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> decade alcohol advertising expenditure increased by<br />
two thirds and <strong>the</strong> marketing focus shifted towards young people, with <strong>the</strong> introduction <strong>of</strong> alcopops, ‘vertical<br />
drinking’ pubs and alcohol sponsorship <strong>of</strong> music festivals; average alcohol consumption <strong>of</strong> 11-15 year<br />
children increased by two thirds and ‘Binge Britain’ was born. The HoC report outlined <strong>the</strong> abject failure <strong>of</strong><br />
self regulatory codes to protect young people from alcohol marketing.<br />
Finland<br />
Finland has also seen pr<strong>of</strong>ound changes in <strong>the</strong> previously very tight fiscal regulation <strong>of</strong> alcohol largely<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong> joining <strong>the</strong> EU. Finland was <strong>for</strong>ced to withdraw its alcohol monopoly on <strong>the</strong> production,<br />
import, export and wholesale <strong>of</strong> alcohol upon entering <strong>the</strong> EU in 1995. Then in 2004, prior to neighbouring<br />
Estonia’s entry into <strong>the</strong> EU, Finland was <strong>for</strong>ced to lower alcohol taxation to avoid significant loss to <strong>the</strong><br />
national tax base. Whilst this move was prompted by fiscal ra<strong>the</strong>r than public health objectives, it would<br />
arguably never have happened had <strong>the</strong> EU not introduced lighter controls on imports <strong>for</strong> personal use.<br />
Consumption jumped by 10% in 2004 and alcohol-induced liver disease increased by 29% on <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
year. Just like <strong>the</strong> UK, Finland has seen changes in <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumed, with a three-fold increase<br />
in wine consumption, a two-fold increase in beer consumption and a smaller 30% rise in spirits consumption<br />
since 1970.<br />
Given <strong>the</strong> relaxation in <strong>the</strong> previously relatively tough controls on alcohol in both countries it would be<br />
astonishing if liver deaths had not increased in <strong>the</strong> UK and Finland. But how can <strong>the</strong> marked fall in alcohol<br />
consumption and liver deaths in France and Italy be explained<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe<br />
The wine-producing countries <strong>of</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe, with <strong>the</strong> exception <strong>of</strong> Greece, have recorded declining<br />
trends in alcohol consumption since <strong>the</strong> 1960’s - long be<strong>for</strong>e alcohol control measures were implemented.<br />
Total alcohol consumption in France has fallen by 12 litres per capita since <strong>the</strong> 1950s whilst <strong>the</strong> trend in Italy<br />
began later, dropping from 15.9 litres <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol per capita in 1970 to 6.9 litres in 2005. This drop was<br />
due to an overwhelming decrease in wine consumption, and is likely due a variety <strong>of</strong> factors which may be<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> in phases.<br />
Somewhat later than <strong>the</strong> connection <strong>of</strong> smoking to lung cancer, <strong>the</strong> link between cirrhosis and alcohol intake<br />
was only fully established in <strong>the</strong> 1960’s. As such, alcohol was not a major concern <strong>for</strong> institutions controlling<br />
public health or public order. Wine consumption in Italy was closely linked to rural lifestyles and rural-urban<br />
migration led to less wine drinking. Similar trends occurred in France. The move to urbanisation was <strong>the</strong><br />
first phase, and was most active in <strong>the</strong> 1960’s and 70’s but consumption has continued to fall well into <strong>the</strong><br />
1990s and beyond - o<strong>the</strong>r factors were clearly also playing a part.<br />
Levels <strong>of</strong> wine production remained high in France and Italy. Measures taken by <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> Commission<br />
in <strong>the</strong> late 1970s and early 1980s to reduce wine production and improve <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product as part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Common Agricultural Policy cannot alone account <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> drop in internal consumption. Ra<strong>the</strong>r a move<br />
to quality <strong>of</strong> production was a reaction by <strong>the</strong> industry to consumer choice and reduced demand. The middle<br />
classes were <strong>the</strong> pioneers <strong>of</strong> change in France, with purchasing transferring to lower volume but higher<br />
quality options instead-“bottles with corks” as opposed to large plastic containers <strong>of</strong> very cheap wine (figure<br />
4). This is good news <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> wine industry and suggests that pr<strong>of</strong>itability and improved health can go hand<br />
in hand by moving towards quality and away from quantity – a lesson that UK supermarkets would do well<br />
to learn from <strong>the</strong>ir French and Italian counterparts.<br />
Perhaps ano<strong>the</strong>r reason <strong>for</strong> change was that most people countries had a friend or relative suffering <strong>the</strong><br />
health consequences <strong>of</strong> alcohol – something that has only really started in <strong>the</strong> UK more recently. Coupled<br />
with <strong>the</strong> health campaigns in both countries, <strong>the</strong> image <strong>of</strong> wine drinking wine was no longer as a source <strong>of</strong><br />
health and happiness and did not con<strong>for</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> emerging health consciousness trends.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> emerging trends in Italy, experts have identified <strong>the</strong> co-existence <strong>of</strong> two parallel alcohol<br />
consumption patterns: <strong>the</strong> traditional Mediterranean drinking pattern on <strong>the</strong> one hand, and a second pattern<br />
found among younger drinkers with 24% <strong>of</strong> 20-24 year-old Italians reporting binge drinking on occasion.<br />
In recent years alcoholic beverages have become more af<strong>for</strong>dable <strong>for</strong> young Italians, with alcohol experts<br />
again noting an overt marketing strategy targeting young people. There has been an associated increase<br />
in <strong>the</strong> social harm from alcohol and <strong>the</strong> policy reaction has included local restrictions and bans on <strong>the</strong> sale<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcoholic beverages to minors and regulations aimed at decreasing <strong>the</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> alcohol in public<br />
places and at public events. Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe is clearly not immune to nor<strong>the</strong>rn tendencies. This trend is<br />
hidden within <strong>the</strong> general trend towards lower per capita consumption, but is starkly apparent when you<br />
look at patterns <strong>of</strong> consumption by age group.<br />
Discussion and implications <strong>for</strong> policy<br />
Despite increasing homogenisation <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption in Europe, <strong>the</strong> trends in each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> four<br />
countries examined indicate that <strong>the</strong>re are a number <strong>of</strong> different drivers that impact upon levels <strong>of</strong> alcohol-
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
20 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 21<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
attributable liver mortality. In nor<strong>the</strong>rn Europe, a combination <strong>of</strong> primarily economic and market factors have<br />
contributed to increased levels <strong>of</strong> total consumption and its associated harm, whilst in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe<br />
social changes and health awareness have contributed to <strong>the</strong> downward trend in alcohol-related liver<br />
deaths from previously very high levels. For many years mortality rates in Nor<strong>the</strong>rn and Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe<br />
looked to be converging, but have crossed over <strong>the</strong> trends are continuing. In <strong>the</strong> UK mortality rates and<br />
hospital admissions driven cheap alcohol continue to increase. Alcohol consumption in <strong>the</strong> WHO <strong>European</strong><br />
Health Region remains <strong>the</strong> highest in <strong>the</strong> world and emerging trends, such as those seen among young<br />
people in Italy, mean that policy action needs to be taken to ensure that <strong>the</strong> decrease in liver cirrhosis is<br />
maintained. In global terms, Europe’s alcohol control policies are still not proportionate to <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> overall<br />
harm from alcohol.<br />
Taxation policy emerged as a crucial lever impacting upon alcohol consumption. In both <strong>the</strong> UK and Finland<br />
lower tax rates have helped to contribute to making alcohol more af<strong>for</strong>dable. In an EU context <strong>the</strong> relaxation<br />
<strong>of</strong> restrictions in cross border trade has had very deleterious effects in terms <strong>of</strong> taxation, price and alcoholrelated<br />
ill health.<br />
The marketing activities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alcohol industry and retailers have had a huge impact in young people.<br />
Self regulation in this respect has failed, and o<strong>the</strong>r mechanisms need to be explored. The UK House <strong>of</strong><br />
Commons Health Committee has recommended a fully independent regulatory authority to control alcohol<br />
marketing, and <strong>the</strong> EU would do well to examine <strong>the</strong>se proposals carefully.<br />
However <strong>the</strong> reduction in liver deaths in France has occurred alongside an increase in pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
wine industry as a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> industry model shifting from one based on quantity (<strong>the</strong> current UK model)<br />
to one based on quality, and here <strong>the</strong> EU in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> common agricultural policy may have had a<br />
beneficial effect, driving down <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> cheap alcohol that is produced in order to protect farmers.<br />
approaches are ineffective on <strong>the</strong> whole(4). The alcohol strategy has a number <strong>of</strong> components including <strong>the</strong><br />
EU Alcohol Forum, which again brings health and industry representatives toge<strong>the</strong>r in a <strong>for</strong>um <strong>for</strong> action.<br />
The EU liver community has been an active member <strong>of</strong> this <strong>for</strong>um via EASL and <strong>the</strong> RCP although o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than a promising work stream on <strong>the</strong> monitoring <strong>of</strong> marketing communications, hard outcomes have been<br />
few and far between.<br />
In 2011 <strong>the</strong> EU alcohol strategy will need to be renewed, initial soundings from <strong>the</strong> Commissioner <strong>for</strong><br />
Health were not promising, but a recent meeting <strong>of</strong> member states <strong>of</strong>fered unanimous support <strong>for</strong> a new<br />
alcohol strategy which will be in<strong>for</strong>med by an independent evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous five years work. The<br />
support <strong>of</strong> EASL and <strong>the</strong> EU liver community will be vital over <strong>the</strong> next year or so as this process moves<br />
<strong>for</strong>ward. The simple truth is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 200,000 alcohol related deaths in <strong>the</strong> EU every year, much due<br />
to liver disease, probably around two thirds are preventable if each country adopted effective policies to<br />
reduce alcohol related harm. The question <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver community is: “how big is our ambition to tackle liver<br />
mortality and are we prepared to be advocates <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> measures needed to achieve it”.<br />
Relationship between liver death rates and population level alcohol consumption<br />
Figure 1<br />
The relationship between standard liver death rates (per 100,000) and overall alcohol consumption (pure<br />
alcohol litres per capita, age 15+) in <strong>the</strong> 4 countries in <strong>the</strong> EU (pre 2004) with <strong>the</strong> largest rises or falls in<br />
liver deaths between 1970 and 2008. Data is from <strong>the</strong> World Health Organisation, <strong>European</strong> Health <strong>for</strong> All<br />
database (HFA-DB): http://data.euro.who.int/hfadb/<br />
Given <strong>the</strong> tight relationship between death rates and consumption, a reduction on <strong>the</strong> overall %ABV <strong>of</strong><br />
alcoholic beverages is ano<strong>the</strong>r mechanism whereby consumption can be reduced but pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
wine industry maintained or indeed increased. For example wine at 8.5% ABV is taxed at <strong>the</strong> same level as<br />
wine at 14% ABV under EU law – a nonsensical system that benefits nei<strong>the</strong>r consumer nor industry.<br />
Current alcohol policy in Europe<br />
Alcohol policy in Europe has two streams, at member state level <strong>the</strong> picture is mixed. Some countries,<br />
notably France, have developed outstanding examples <strong>of</strong> inventive and effective evidence based alcohol<br />
policy, <strong>for</strong> example <strong>the</strong> Loi Evin which has protected young people from <strong>the</strong> marketing pressures <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
drinks industry. O<strong>the</strong>r countries, notably <strong>the</strong> UK, have effectively transferred large segments <strong>of</strong> alcohol policy<br />
to <strong>the</strong> vested interests <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drinks industry via <strong>the</strong> ‘Responsibility Deals’. These are bodies comprising<br />
representatives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alcohol, food and retail industries which aim to introduce voluntary measures to curb<br />
alcohol related harm. This untested approach has drawn approbation from <strong>the</strong> health community in <strong>the</strong> UK<br />
who refused to sign <strong>the</strong> relevant agreements in 2010.<br />
The EU Commission alcohol strategy commenced in 2006, and has five priority areas:<br />
• Protect young people, children and <strong>the</strong> unborn child;<br />
• Reduce injuries and death from alcohol-related road accidents;<br />
• Prevent alcohol-related harm among adults and reduce <strong>the</strong> negative impact on <strong>the</strong><br />
workplace;<br />
• In<strong>for</strong>m, educate and raise awareness on <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> harmful and hazardous alcohol<br />
consumption, and on appropriate consumption patterns;<br />
• Develop and maintain a common evidence base at EU level.<br />
Political imperatives and <strong>the</strong> subsidiarity <strong>of</strong> EU taxation has meant that <strong>the</strong> Commission has also been<br />
heavily reliant on voluntary actions and self regulation by <strong>the</strong> drinks industry despite <strong>the</strong> evidence that such
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
22 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 23<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Trends in liver death rates in <strong>the</strong> four EU countries which have seen <strong>the</strong> largest changes since 1970<br />
Figure 2<br />
Trends in Finland, France Italy, UK and <strong>the</strong> EU (pre 2004) overall in standard liver death rates (under <strong>the</strong><br />
age <strong>of</strong> 65) over time between 1970 and 2008. Data is from <strong>the</strong> World Health Organisation, <strong>European</strong> Health<br />
<strong>for</strong> All database (HFA-DB):<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> death rates and <strong>the</strong> shift from table wine to higher quality wine consumption in France<br />
Figure 4<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> death rates in France have fallen as overall wine consumption has fallen. But <strong>the</strong> overall real value <strong>of</strong><br />
wine production has increased, as a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> huge shift in wine production from table wines to higher<br />
quality wine produced in specific regions (PSR) toge<strong>the</strong>r with appropriate marketing by <strong>the</strong> French wine<br />
industry.<br />
Affect <strong>of</strong> duty changes on <strong>the</strong> af<strong>for</strong>dability <strong>of</strong> different types <strong>of</strong> alcoholic beverage in <strong>the</strong> UK, strong<br />
drink has become relatively cheaper.<br />
Wine consumption data and liver death rate are given in comparison with <strong>the</strong> year 2000. Wine value is<br />
<strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong> total wine production given in <strong>European</strong> Union Purchasing Power Standard (PPS) – exports<br />
increased from 12% to 31% over <strong>the</strong> same period. Data are from Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.<br />
eu) and <strong>the</strong> WHO Statistical In<strong>for</strong>mation System (http://www.who.int/whosis).<br />
Figure 3<br />
The graph shows how income inflation has affected <strong>the</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> duty on various alcoholic beverages since<br />
1980. Trends in <strong>the</strong> duty on various alcoholic beverages were adjusted <strong>for</strong> changes in real disposable<br />
income – using a methodology developed by <strong>the</strong> NHS In<strong>for</strong>mation Centre (Statistics on Alcohol 2008, Appx<br />
A p95-96) to calculate an Alcohol Af<strong>for</strong>dability Index.<br />
The Beverage Duty Af<strong>for</strong>dability Index – is normalised to 100% in 1980.<br />
It was calculated as follows - using spirits as an example:<br />
Spirits Duty Index (SDI) = spirits duty normalised to 1980<br />
Relative Spirits Duty Index (RSDI) = SDI / Retail Price Index (RPI) x100<br />
Spirits Duty Af<strong>for</strong>dibility Index SDAI = Real Disposable Income (RDI) / RSDI x 100<br />
Beverage duty data were from <strong>the</strong> Beer and Pub Assocaition Handbook 2008, pages 50-52. RPI and RDI<br />
were from Statistcis on Alcohol 2008 Table 5.3
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
24 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 25<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Dr Nick Sheron is <strong>the</strong> Royal College <strong>of</strong> Physicians representative at <strong>the</strong> EU Alcohol Forum and parts <strong>of</strong> this<br />
article are reproduced with kind permission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> RCP Journal Clinical Medicine(5).<br />
REFERENCES<br />
World Health Organisation. Global status report on alcohol and health 2011.<br />
Anderson P, Baumberg B. Alcohol in Europe: A public health perspective. EU Health and<br />
Consumer Protection Directorate General; 2007.<br />
House <strong>of</strong> Commons Health Committee. Alcohol: First Report <strong>of</strong> Session 2009–10. London:<br />
Stationary Office; 2010 Jan 8.<br />
Babor TF, Caetano R, Casswell S, Edwards G, Giesbrecht N, Graham K, et al. Alcohol: No<br />
Ordinary Commodity—Research and Public Policy Ox<strong>for</strong>d and London: Ox<strong>for</strong>d University Press,<br />
2003.<br />
Jewell J, Sheron N. Trends in <strong>European</strong> liver death rates: implications <strong>for</strong> alcohol policy.<br />
Clin Med 2010 Jun;10(3):259-263.<br />
PATTERNS OF ALCOHOL INTAKE AND ALD: EFFECTS OF BINGE<br />
DRINKING ON THE LIVER<br />
Sam Zakhari<br />
Be<strong>the</strong>sda, Maryland, USA<br />
E-mail: zakhari@willco.niaaa.nih.gov<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Binge drinking (too much too fast ) is a pattern corresponds to consuming 5 or more drinks<br />
(male), or 4 or more drinks (female), in about 2 hours.<br />
• Binge drinking while fasting may result in hypoglycemia and severe lactic acidosis.<br />
• Binge drinking may precipitate acute severe alcoholic hepatitis (AH) against a background <strong>of</strong><br />
chronic liver disease. Thirty day mortality in patients with severe AH may exceed 40%.<br />
• If you drink, drink moderately with food.<br />
PATTERN OF DRINKING<br />
In <strong>the</strong> United States, <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> drinking is divided into three categories: moderate, low-risk, and high risk.<br />
• Moderate drinking, according to <strong>the</strong> U.S. dietary guidelines, is up to 2 drinks per day <strong>for</strong> men and up to<br />
1 drink per day <strong>for</strong> women. Obviously, <strong>the</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> moderate drinking varies in different countries.<br />
• Low-risk drinking is not just ano<strong>the</strong>r term <strong>for</strong> "moderate" drinking, even though <strong>the</strong> weekly amounts may<br />
be <strong>the</strong> same, but <strong>the</strong> daily ones are different; <strong>the</strong> recommendations serve different purposes <strong>for</strong> different<br />
types <strong>of</strong> drinkers. Low-risk drinking <strong>for</strong> healthy men under age 65 is no more than 4 drinks on any day and<br />
14 per week, and <strong>for</strong> healthy women (and men over 65) is no more than 3 drinks on any day and 7 per week.<br />
• High-risk drinking comprises: 1) binge drinking (too much too fast - A “binge” is a pattern <strong>of</strong> drinking<br />
alcohol that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 gram percent or above. For <strong>the</strong> typical adult,<br />
this pattern corresponds to consuming 5 or more drinks (male), or 4 or more drinks (female), in about 2<br />
hours; and 2) chronic heavy drinking (drinking too much too <strong>of</strong>ten).<br />
BINGE DRINKING AND THE LIVER<br />
While drinking too much and too <strong>of</strong>ten over a long period <strong>of</strong> time results in alcoholic liver disease (ALD),<br />
which encompasses fatty liver, steatohepatitis, liver fibrosis and cirrhosis, and may proceed to hepatocellular<br />
carcinoma, binge drinking can lead to glycogen depletion, which would be aggravated in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong><br />
liver disease, and may lead to acidosis and hypoglycemia. In addition, people who drink heavily tend to<br />
have hyperuricemia and hypertriglyceridemia, which may exacerbate diabetic hypertriglyceridemia.<br />
Correlation <strong>of</strong> Quantity and Frequency <strong>of</strong> Drinking and <strong>Liver</strong> Damage:<br />
The effects <strong>of</strong> drinking too much too fast, or too much too <strong>of</strong>ten on <strong>the</strong> liver have been sparingly studied.<br />
Past studies focused on <strong>the</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis among alcoholics (Lelbach et al., 1975), or sought <strong>the</strong><br />
clinical manifestations <strong>of</strong> alcoholism among cirrhotic patients (Caroli et al.,). In <strong>the</strong>se two approaches,<br />
<strong>the</strong> quantity <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumed and <strong>the</strong> drinking pattern were undetermined. A third indirect approach<br />
attempted to correlate average quantities <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption (based on demographic and economic<br />
statistics) with cirrhosis mortality. This approach, however, did not measure <strong>the</strong> quantity and frequency <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol consumption, and did not provide in<strong>for</strong>mation on individual consumption and risk.<br />
In a prospective study, Kamper-Jørgensen and colleagues (2004) interviewed a cohort <strong>of</strong> 6152 alcoholabusing<br />
men and women about <strong>the</strong>ir drinking pattern, frequency <strong>of</strong> alcohol intake, duration <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
misuse, and beverage type. The rate <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis mortality in men and women was, respectively,<br />
27- and 35-fold <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Danish general population. They also reported that “alcohol has a threshold<br />
effect ra<strong>the</strong>r than a dose-response effect on mortality from alcoholic cirrhosis.”
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
26 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 27<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
This is not surprising since <strong>the</strong>ir lowest tier <strong>of</strong> drinking comprised an average <strong>of</strong> 5-9 drinks per day, which<br />
is already in <strong>the</strong> heavy drinking category. Analysis <strong>of</strong> quantity consumed and drinking patterns <strong>of</strong> an<br />
Italian population showed that consuming 30 g/day is <strong>the</strong> minimum quantity to induce measurable risk <strong>of</strong><br />
developing cirrhosis in men and women (Bellentani et al., 1997). Drinking without food, independent <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> quantity, was associated with an increased prevalence <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease. A meta-analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol consumption and risk <strong>of</strong> various diseases, including cirrhosis and cancer, reported an increased<br />
risk as alcohol consumption increased from 25 g/day (2 drinks) to 100 g/day (8 drinks) (Corrao et al., 2004).<br />
Alcohol Metabolism and <strong>Liver</strong> Damage:<br />
Although alcohol metabolism is <strong>of</strong>ten considered <strong>the</strong> predominant factor in causing alcohol-associated liver<br />
damage, o<strong>the</strong>r factors such as inflammatory cytokines, immunologic and metabolic pathways derangements,<br />
effects on signal transduction, proteasome inhibition, increased gut leakiness, etc contribute to ALD.<br />
Ingested ethanol is readily absorbed from <strong>the</strong> gastrointestinal tract. Only about 2-10% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> absorbed<br />
alcohol is eliminated via <strong>the</strong> lungs and kidneys; <strong>the</strong> remaining 90% is metabolized mainly by oxidative<br />
pathways in <strong>the</strong> liver and by non-oxidative pathways in extrahepatic tissues. Oxidative metabolism in<br />
<strong>the</strong> liver results in extensive displacement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver’s normal metabolic substrates, <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong><br />
acetaldehyde and ROS, and an increase in <strong>the</strong> NADH/NAD + ratio (Figure 1).<br />
The major pathway <strong>of</strong> oxidative metabolism <strong>of</strong> ethanol in <strong>the</strong> liver involves multiple iso<strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> cytosolic<br />
alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), which results in <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong> acetaldehyde. Accumulation <strong>of</strong> this highly<br />
reactive and toxic molecule contributes to liver damage. The oxidation <strong>of</strong> ethanol is accompanied by <strong>the</strong><br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> NAD + to NADH and, <strong>the</strong>reby, generates a highly reduced cytosolic environment in hepatocytes.<br />
The cytochrome P450 isozymes, including CYP2E1, 1A2 and 3A4, which are predominantly localized to<br />
<strong>the</strong> ER, also contribute to ethanol’s oxidation to acetaldehyde in <strong>the</strong> liver, particularly after chronic ethanol<br />
intake. CYP2E1 is induced by chronic ethanol consumption and assumes an important role in metabolizing<br />
ethanol to acetaldehyde at elevated alcohol concentration. It also produces highly reactive oxygen species<br />
(ROS), including hydroxyethyl, superoxide anion, and hydroxyl radicals. Ano<strong>the</strong>r enzyme, catalase, located<br />
in peroxisomes, is capable <strong>of</strong> oxidizing ethanol in vitro in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> a hydrogen peroxide (H 2<br />
O 2<br />
)-<br />
generating system, such as NADPH oxidase or xanthine oxidase, or during peroxysomal oxidation <strong>of</strong> very<br />
long-chain fatty acids. Quantitatively, however, this is considered a minor pathway <strong>of</strong> ethanol oxidation.<br />
Acetaldehyde, produced by ethanol oxidation through any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se mechanisms, is rapidly metabolized<br />
mainly by mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) to <strong>for</strong>m acetate and NADH. Mitochondrial<br />
NADH is re-oxidized by <strong>the</strong> electron transport chain. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> acetate resulting from ethanol metabolism<br />
escapes <strong>the</strong> liver to <strong>the</strong> blood and is eventually metabolized to CO 2<br />
by way <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tricarboxylic acid (TCA)<br />
cycle in cells with mitochondria capable <strong>of</strong> converting acetate to <strong>the</strong> metabolically active intermediate<br />
acetyl-CoA. This occurs primarily in tissues such as heart, skeletal muscle and brain.<br />
Consequences <strong>of</strong> Alcohol Metabolism by Oxidative Pathways<br />
The following effects (Figure 1, refer to symbols 1-2-3-4) result from alcohol metabolism in <strong>the</strong> liver, which<br />
may contribute to various degrees to liver damage:<br />
a) Acetaldehyde generation/adduct <strong>for</strong>mation: If acetaldehyde, produced by <strong>the</strong> oxidation <strong>of</strong> alcohol,<br />
accumulates to high concentrations, it can <strong>for</strong>m adducts with DNA and RNA, and decrease DNA<br />
repair. Acetaldehyde also has <strong>the</strong> capacity to react with lysine residues on proteins including enzymes,<br />
microsomal proteins, microtubules, and affect <strong>the</strong>ir function. Formation <strong>of</strong> protein adducts in hepatocytes<br />
may contribute to impaired protein secretion, resulting in hepatomegaly. In addition, <strong>the</strong>re is evidence that<br />
acetaldehyde and malondialdehyde (a by-product <strong>of</strong> lipid peroxidation) can combine and react with lysine<br />
residues on proteins, giving rise to stable malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde (MAA)-protein adducts that can<br />
be immunogenic and, thus, can contribute to immune-mediated liver damage. Also, MAA adducts have<br />
proinflammatory and pr<strong>of</strong>ibrogenic properties.<br />
b) Change in Hepatocyte Redox State (Increase in NADH/NAD + Ratio):<br />
It has been demonstrated more than 50 years ago that both acute and chronic alcohol consumption shift<br />
<strong>the</strong> redox state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver to a more reduced level (e.g., Smith and Newman, 1959; Rawat, 1968), similar<br />
to but more pronounced than <strong>the</strong> shift observed in diabetes and during starvation. Alcohol metabolism<br />
produces a significant increase in <strong>the</strong> hepatic NADH/NAD + ratio in both <strong>the</strong> cytosol and <strong>the</strong> mitochondria, as<br />
evidenced by an increase in <strong>the</strong> lactate/pyruvate and β-hydroxybutyrate/acetoacetate ratios, respectively<br />
(Cunningham and Bailey, 2001). Thus, ethanol oxidation vastly increases <strong>the</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> oxidizable<br />
NADH to <strong>the</strong> electron transport chain in <strong>the</strong> mitochondria. The liver responds to ethanol exposure in part by<br />
increasing <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> oxygen uptake, which may lead to periods <strong>of</strong> hypoxia, particularly in <strong>the</strong> downstream<br />
(pericentral) parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver lobule.<br />
c) Formation <strong>of</strong> reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and oxidative<br />
stress: Hepatic mitochondria produce ROS through <strong>the</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> electron transport chain (ETC) as<br />
a by-product <strong>of</strong> oxidative phosphorylation. Normally, a small fraction <strong>of</strong> electrons entering <strong>the</strong> ETC can<br />
prematurely escape from complexes I and III and directly react with 1-3 % <strong>of</strong> respiratory oxygen molecules<br />
to generate <strong>the</strong> superoxide anion radical, which is <strong>the</strong>n dismutated by <strong>the</strong> mitochondrial manganese<br />
superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) into hydrogen peroxide (H 2<br />
O 2<br />
). Mitochondrial glutathione peroxidase<br />
(GPx) <strong>the</strong>n converts H 2<br />
O 2<br />
into water by using reduced glutathione (GSH) as a c<strong>of</strong>actor. Thus, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
ROS generated by <strong>the</strong> ETC in <strong>the</strong> normal state are detoxified by <strong>the</strong> mitochondrial antioxidant defenses.<br />
The non-detoxified portion <strong>of</strong> ROS diffuses out <strong>of</strong> mitochondria, and affects signal transduction pathways<br />
and gene expression, triggering cytokines, hormones, and growth factors, which if excessive may lead to<br />
hepatic inflammation, necrosis, and/or apoptosis. In addition, metals (e.g., iron and copper) can fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
react with H 2<br />
O 2<br />
to produce hydroxyl radicals via <strong>the</strong> Fenton reaction<br />
Nitric oxide (NO), a reactive nitrogen species critical <strong>for</strong> hepatocyte biology, can interact with peroxides to<br />
generate peroxynitrite (ONOO - ), which, depending on <strong>the</strong> amount and duration, could be detrimental to<br />
<strong>the</strong> liver. NO is produced by iNOS from L-arginine and oxygen in combination with electrons from NADPH<br />
and c<strong>of</strong>actors such as FAD and FMN. iNOS is expressed in all liver cells (i.e., hepatocytes, Stellate cells,<br />
Kupffer cells, and vascular endo<strong>the</strong>lial cells) and its expression is induced by IL-1β alone or in combination<br />
with TNF-α, IFNγ, and/or LPS.<br />
Ethanol-induced oxidative stress has been attributed to a decrease in <strong>the</strong> NAD + :NADH ratio, acetaldehyde<br />
<strong>for</strong>mation, CYP2E1 induction, hypoxia, cytokine signaling, mitochondrial damage, LPS activation <strong>of</strong> Kupffer<br />
cells, reduction in antioxidants particularly mitochondrial and cytosolic glutathione, one electron oxidation<br />
<strong>of</strong> ethanol to 1-hydroxy ethyl radical, and <strong>the</strong> conversion <strong>of</strong> xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase.<br />
d) Formation <strong>of</strong> acetate<br />
The increase in mitochondrial NADH in hepatocytes due to acetaldehyde metabolism contributes to <strong>the</strong><br />
saturation <strong>of</strong> NADH dehydrogenase, thus hampering <strong>the</strong> function <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> mitochondria have a limited capacity to oxidize acetate to CO 2<br />
in <strong>the</strong> TCA cycle because acetyl<br />
CoA synthase 2, a mitochondrial enzyme involved in <strong>the</strong> oxidation <strong>of</strong> acetate is absent from <strong>the</strong> liver, but<br />
abundant in heart and skeletal muscles (Fujino et al., 2001). Thus, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> acetate resulting from<br />
ethanol metabolism escapes <strong>the</strong> liver into <strong>the</strong> blood circulation and is eventually metabolized to CO 2<br />
by way<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> TCA cycle in cells with mitochondria that contain enzymes to convert acetate to acetyl CoA, such as<br />
heart, skeletal muscle and brain. During ethanol metabolism, when circulating ethanol is in <strong>the</strong> mM range,<br />
acetaldehyde is in <strong>the</strong> :M range, and acetate is in <strong>the</strong> mM range.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
28 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 29<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 1<br />
Ethanol indirectly increases oxygen use by hepatocytes through lipopolysaccharide-induced activation <strong>of</strong><br />
Kupffer cells, resulting in <strong>the</strong> release <strong>of</strong> prostaglandin E2 and stimulation <strong>of</strong> hepatocyte metabolic activity,<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r contributing to <strong>the</strong> onset <strong>of</strong> hypoxia. Binge drinkers have could have severe hypoxia and hepatic<br />
reperfusion injury (French, 2004).<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE (ALD)<br />
The disease pr<strong>of</strong>iles associated with chronic alcohol consumption show a great deal <strong>of</strong> individual variability<br />
in severity and progression <strong>for</strong> comparable levels <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption. It has traditionally been assumed<br />
that this variability may reflect individual genetic factors, such as <strong>the</strong> expression and activity <strong>of</strong> individual<br />
iso<strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alcohol-metabolizing enzymes ADH and ALDH, but is also influenced by variations in<br />
temporal intake patterns (binge vs chronic drinking), nutritional status, gender, exposure to o<strong>the</strong>r damaging<br />
factors such as smoking, or use <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r drugs <strong>of</strong> abuse. In addition, <strong>the</strong> onset and severity <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver<br />
disease is strongly influenced by o<strong>the</strong>r comorbid conditions such as obesity or HCV infection. The origin<br />
<strong>of</strong> this increase in susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease is not due solely to intrahepatic factors, but may<br />
also involve alcohol-induced changes in o<strong>the</strong>r tissues, ranging from adipose tissue to <strong>the</strong> CNS, <strong>the</strong> gut, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> immune system. Thus, although <strong>the</strong> factors contributing to alcohol-induced liver disease remain poorly<br />
understood, <strong>the</strong>y are complex and systemic.<br />
Figure 2<br />
Figure 1. ADH = Alcohol d ehydrogenase; ALDH = Aldehyde dehydrogenase; NAD = Nicotinamide adenine<br />
dinucleotide; NADH = reduced NAD; NADP = Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; H 2<br />
O 2<br />
=<br />
Hydrogen peroxide.<br />
CONSEQUENCES OF INCREASED NADH/NAD + RATIO:<br />
Increased NADH/NAD + ratios in both <strong>the</strong> cytosol and mitochondria <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes influence <strong>the</strong> direction<br />
<strong>of</strong> several reversible reactions leading to alterations in hepatic lipid, carbohydrate, protein, lactate, and uric<br />
acid metabolism. These changes happen after binge drinking, and seem to be attenuated with chronic<br />
ethanol ingestion.<br />
1. Alcoholic hypoglycemia. The increase in NADH due to alcohol metabolism prevents pyruvate<br />
conversion to glucose by lowering <strong>the</strong> concentration <strong>of</strong> pyruvate, which in turn decreases <strong>the</strong> pyruvate<br />
carboxylase reaction, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rate limiting steps <strong>of</strong> gluconeogenesis (Krebs et al., 1969). Collectively, this<br />
could result in clinically significant hypoglycemia.<br />
2. Alcoholic acidosis. Ketoacidosis is common in chronically malnourished alcoholics, and is due to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>of</strong> ketone bodies, primarily β-hydroxybutyrate (Gauthier et al., 2002). In addition, <strong>the</strong> increase in<br />
NADH favors <strong>the</strong> conversion <strong>of</strong> pyruvate to lactate, resulting in lactic acidosis. Binge drinkers may present<br />
with severe acidosis with relatively low ketone bodies and hypoglycemia. The increase in NADH/NAD + ratio<br />
diminishes pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity in <strong>the</strong> mitochondria, resulting in diminished conversion<br />
<strong>of</strong> pyruvate to acetyl CoA. PDH activity is fur<strong>the</strong>r diminished in chronic alcoholics due to hypomagnesemia<br />
and thiamine deficiency, resulting in <strong>the</strong> inhibition <strong>of</strong> pyruvate utilization in <strong>the</strong> TCA cycle.<br />
3. Hyperuricemia. Patients who drink too much frequently may develop hyperuricemia because lactate and<br />
ketone bodies <strong>for</strong>med after alcohol metabolism compete with urate <strong>for</strong> excretion in <strong>the</strong> distal tubules <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
kidney (Yamanaka, 1996). Alcohol metabolism also releases <strong>the</strong> ATP degradation products, hypoxanthine and<br />
adenosine which enter <strong>the</strong> purine nucleotide degradation pathway, resulting in increased <strong>for</strong>mation <strong>of</strong> urate.<br />
4. Hypertriglyceridemia. Heavy alcohol consumption increases <strong>the</strong> syn<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> triglycerides, resulting<br />
in fatty liver and hypertriglyceridemia, and may exacerbate diabetic hypertriglyceridemia. The increase<br />
in NADH/NAD + ratio results in an increase in v-glycerophosphate, which favors hepatic triglyceride<br />
accumulation, and also inhibits mitochondrial β-oxidation <strong>of</strong> fatty acids (Lieber, 1984).<br />
5. Hypoxia. Metabolism <strong>of</strong> ethanol by hepatocytes tends to increase oxygen uptake, resulting in significant<br />
hypoxia in <strong>the</strong> perivenous hepatocytes, <strong>the</strong> site <strong>of</strong> early liver damage due to chronic alcohol consumption.<br />
As shown in Figure 2, ALD includes a broad range <strong>of</strong> defects that vary considerably in severity, including:<br />
a) Fatty liver (hepatic steatosis) histologically characterized by <strong>the</strong> occurrence <strong>of</strong> lipid droplets in<br />
hepatocytes. This condition is long thought to be a relatively innocuous side effect <strong>of</strong> heavy drinking,<br />
because it is usually readily reversible upon cessation <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption.<br />
b) Alcoholic hepatitis, an inflammatory condition characterized by significantly increased serum levels <strong>of</strong><br />
liver enzymes (ALT and AST) and moderate to severe tissue damage, including necrotic foci with neutrophil<br />
infiltration.<br />
c) <strong>Liver</strong> fibrosis/cirrhosis, a modest (10-15%) fraction <strong>of</strong> chronic heavy drinkers proceeds to develop<br />
fibrosis and cirrhosis.<br />
d) Hepatocellular carcinomas occur in about 2% <strong>of</strong> cirrhotic patients.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
30 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 31<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
The factors that facilitate <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> hepatitis and cirrhosis are not well characterized. However,<br />
impairment in <strong>the</strong> cellular stress defense mechanisms, (e.g. oxidative stress) (Fernandez-Checa and<br />
Kaplowitz, 2005), or derailment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> balance <strong>of</strong> autocrine or paracrine mediators that are critical in<br />
maintaining normal homeostatic conditions are documented. In addition, chronic alcohol consumption<br />
is known to interfere with liver regeneration, which under normal conditions is a highly effective repair<br />
mechanism unique to <strong>the</strong> liver that avoids scar tissue <strong>for</strong>mation.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Adachi M, Ishii H (2009) Hyperadiponectinemia in alcoholic liver disease: friend or foe J<br />
Gastroenterol Hepatol 24:507-8.<br />
Arteel GE (2008) New role <strong>of</strong> plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in alcohol-induced liver injury. J<br />
Gastroenterol Hepatol 23(Suppl 1):S54-9.<br />
Basra G, Basra S, Parupudi S. Symptoms and signs <strong>of</strong> acute alcoholic hepatitis. World J<br />
Hepatol. 2011; 3:118-20.<br />
Bellentani S, Saccoccio G, Costa G, Tiribelli C, Manenti F, Sodde M, et al. Drinking habits as<br />
c<strong>of</strong>actors <strong>of</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> alcohol induced liver damage. Gut 1997;41:845-850.<br />
Caroli J, Mainguet P, Ricordeau P, Foures A. L’importance de la laparoscopie dans la classification<br />
anatomo-clinique des cirrhoses du foie. Cirrhose alcoolique et nutritionnelle XXXIIe congres<br />
français.<br />
Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La Vecchia C. A meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption and <strong>the</strong><br />
risk <strong>of</strong> 15 diseases. Prev Med 2004;38:613-619.<br />
Cunningham CC, Bailey SM (2001) Ethanol consumption and liver mitochondria function. Biol<br />
Signals Recept 10:271-82.<br />
Fernandez-Checa JC, Kaplowitz N (2005) Hepatic mitochondrial glutathione: transport and role in<br />
disease and toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 204:263-73.<br />
French SW. The role <strong>of</strong> hypoxia in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease. Hepathol Res<br />
2004;29:69-74.<br />
Fujino T, Kondo J, Ishikawa M, Morikawa K, Yamamoto TT. Acetyl-CoA synthase 2, a mitochondrial<br />
matrix enzyme envolved in <strong>the</strong> oxidation <strong>of</strong> acetate. JBC, 2001, 276:11420-11426<br />
Gauthier PM, Szerlip HM. Metabolic acidosis in <strong>the</strong> intensive care unit. Crit. Care Clin. 18:289-308,<br />
2002.<br />
Hoek JB, Cahill A, Pastorino JG (2002) Alcohol and mitochondria: a dysfunctional relationship.<br />
Gastroenterology 122:2049-63.<br />
Holmuhamedov E, Lemasters JJ (2009) Ethanol exposure decreases mitochondrial outer<br />
membrane permeability in cultured rat hepatocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 481:226-33.<br />
Kamper-Jorgensen M, Gronbaek M, Tolstrup J, Becker U. Alcohol and cirrhosis: dose--response or<br />
threshold effect J Hepatol 2004;41:25-30.<br />
Kaplowitz N, Than TA, Shinohara M, Ji C (2007) Endoplasmic reticulum stress and liver injury.<br />
Semin <strong>Liver</strong> Dis 27:367-77.<br />
Krebs HA, Freedland RA, Hems R, Stubbs M. Inhibition <strong>of</strong> hepatic gluconeogenesis by ethanol.<br />
Biochem J 1969;112:117-124.<br />
Lelbach WK. Cirrhosis in <strong>the</strong> alcoholic and its relation to <strong>the</strong> volume <strong>of</strong> alcohol abuse. Ann N Y Acad<br />
Sci 1975;252:85-105.<br />
Lieber CS. Alcohol and <strong>the</strong> liver: 1984 update. Hepatology, 4:1243-1260, 1984.<br />
Rawat AK (1968) Effects <strong>of</strong> ethanol infusion on <strong>the</strong> redox state and metabolite levels in rat liver in<br />
vivo. Eur J Biochem 6:585-92.<br />
Nieto N, Rojkind M. Repeated whiskey binges promote liver injury in rats fed a cholinedeficient<br />
diet. J Hepatol. 2007; 46:330-9.<br />
O’Shea RS, Dasarathy S. McCullough AJ. Alcoholic <strong>Liver</strong> Disease. Hepatology.<br />
2010; 51:307-28.<br />
Smith ME, Newman HW (1959) The rate <strong>of</strong> ethanol metabolism in fed and fasting animals. J Biol<br />
Chem 234:1544-9.<br />
Yamanaka H. Alcohol ingestion and hyperuricemia. Nippon Rinsho, 54:3369-73, 1996.<br />
You M, Considine RV, Leone TC, Kelly DP, Crabb DW (2005) Role <strong>of</strong> adiponectin in <strong>the</strong> protective<br />
action <strong>of</strong> dietary saturated fat against alcoholic fatty liver in mice. Hepatology 42:568-77.<br />
You M, Liang X, Ajmo JM, Ness GC (2008) Involvement <strong>of</strong> mammalian sirtuin 1 in <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong><br />
ethanol in <strong>the</strong> liver. Am J Physiol Gastrointest <strong>Liver</strong> Physiol 294:G892-8.<br />
Zakhari S. Overview: how is alcohol metabolized by <strong>the</strong> body Alcohol Res Health. 2006; 29:<br />
245-54. Review.<br />
Zakhari S, Li TK. Determinants <strong>of</strong> alcohol use and abuse: Impact <strong>of</strong> quantity and frequency<br />
patterns on liver disease. Hepatology. 2007,46:2032-9. Review.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
32 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 33<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NATURAL HISTORY OF ALD: ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL<br />
AND GENETIC FACTORS<br />
Felix Stickel<br />
Bern, Switzerland<br />
E-mail: Felix.stickel@ikp.unibe.ch<br />
Studies in humans estimate that liver steatosis evolves in literally all excessive drinkers, complicated by<br />
significant necroinflammation and fibrosis in only approximately one third, while 10% progress to cirrhosis<br />
(1). Among <strong>the</strong> latter, 1-2% <strong>of</strong> patients per year develop hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) as a severe<br />
complication (2). This variable natural course is believed to derive from a complex interplay between<br />
environmental and host risk factors (Figure 2).<br />
Figure 2<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcoholic liver disease is a complex disease in which environmental and host factors modulate<br />
evolution and progression <strong>of</strong> liver damage.<br />
• Confirmed risk environmental factors <strong>for</strong> progressive ALD include quantities <strong>of</strong> alcohol, obesity,<br />
and chronic coinfection with hepatitis viruses (B and C).<br />
• Strong evidence supporting genetic background as an important modulator <strong>of</strong> susceptibility<br />
<strong>for</strong> ALD.<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> evidence <strong>for</strong> a role <strong>of</strong> HFE mutations in progression <strong>of</strong> ALD.<br />
• Heterozygous and homozygous carriage <strong>of</strong> PNPLA3 rs738409 (G) allele is <strong>the</strong> first confirmed<br />
genetic risk factor <strong>for</strong> ALD.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a complex disease and accounts <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> chronic liver diseases in<br />
Western countries. Development <strong>of</strong> ALD depends on long-term excessive drinking and o<strong>the</strong>r environmental,<br />
individually acquired, and inherent modifying factors which interact over time to allow <strong>for</strong> or prevent ALD<br />
development and progression (Figure 1). While many environmental factors are now well-characterized by<br />
population-based and epidemiology studies, recent advances in our understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> genetic<br />
variation in <strong>the</strong> phenotypic expression <strong>of</strong> diseases in man precipitated research activities <strong>for</strong> host genetic<br />
factors that influence <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> many complex diseases, including ALD.<br />
Figure 1<br />
Non-genetic vs. genetic determinants <strong>of</strong> ALD progression<br />
Risk factors <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> progressive alcoholic fibrosis are commonly stratified into host (including<br />
genetics) or environmental (non-genetic) modifiers. Crucial environmental factors that modulate <strong>the</strong><br />
development <strong>of</strong> ALD are <strong>the</strong> quantity <strong>of</strong> alcohol over time, <strong>the</strong> continuity <strong>of</strong> its abuse, and drinking patterns,<br />
while gender, ethnic descent, co-existing metabolic syndrome or chronic viral hepatitis, and iron overload<br />
are important host factors.<br />
Obviously, <strong>the</strong> most crucial environmental factor is alcohol per se, displaying a clear dose-relationship<br />
between <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> alcohol and <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong> developing alcoholic cirrhosis (Figure 3). Crosssectional<br />
studies have shown that alcoholic steatosis is encountered in approximately 60% <strong>of</strong> subjects who<br />
drink >60g/day, and <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> developing cirrhosis highest among those with a consumption <strong>of</strong> >120g/day<br />
(1). In a meta-analysis, <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> developing cirrhosis increased exponentially with a daily consumption<br />
from 25g to 100g (3).<br />
Figure 3<br />
Unlike many o<strong>the</strong>r chronic liver diseases, ALD is a potentially avoidable disease since ALD does not develop<br />
unless alcohol is consumed excessively. Thus, ALD only evolves if interventions against harmful drinking<br />
do not take place, or fail. However, scientific and common cognition show that alcohol consumption per se<br />
is not necessarily sufficient to elicit significant ALD since only a minority <strong>of</strong> heavy drinkers progresses to<br />
severe ALD.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
34 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 35<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong> alcoholic drink consumed, e.g. wine as opposed to beer or hard liquor, impacts <strong>the</strong> risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> ALD is still controversial, however, consensus among scientists exists that it is <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol<br />
that likely outweighs all o<strong>the</strong>r constituents in different drinks that may potentially modulate <strong>the</strong> biological<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol. Patterns <strong>of</strong> drinking vary substantially among patients with ALD and may influence <strong>the</strong><br />
risk <strong>of</strong> ALD. There are conflicting data on this issue, but several recent studies comparing daily vs. binge<br />
drinkers showed that <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mer had a higher risk <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis (4). However, it is worrisome that countries<br />
with a high prevalence <strong>of</strong> binge-drinking, such as <strong>the</strong> UK, reveal a marked increase <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis mortality per<br />
year <strong>of</strong> 3.4 in 1957-61 to 14.1/100.000 in 1997-2001 which may ra<strong>the</strong>r reflect a rising incidence <strong>of</strong> harmful<br />
drinking predicting long-term alcohol abuse (5).<br />
GENETIC VARIANTS ASSOCIATED WITH ALD<br />
In <strong>the</strong> search <strong>for</strong> genetic risk factors <strong>for</strong> ALD tremendous work has been af<strong>for</strong>ded, however, most investigated<br />
genetic variants were not confirmed in independent case control studies. If commonly accepted quality<br />
criteria <strong>for</strong> candidate gene case control studies are applied, only few studies bear a certain degree <strong>of</strong><br />
scrutiny, as many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m are hampered by one or several limitations as outlined in table 1.<br />
An unequivocal risk factor <strong>for</strong> fibrosis progression in ALD is obesity, with numerous studies demonstrating<br />
that overweight is <strong>the</strong> most important single risk factor <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis and necroinflammation in heavy drinkers<br />
(6). The synergy between obesity and heavy alcohol intake presumably reflects similar mechanisms <strong>of</strong><br />
disease <strong>for</strong> both ALD and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, such as increased oxidative stress via induction<br />
<strong>of</strong> CYP450 2E1, upregulated secretion <strong>of</strong> proinflammatory cytokines from adipose tissue, and an expanded<br />
mass <strong>of</strong> adipose tissue secreting pr<strong>of</strong>ibrogenic factors such as noradrenaline, angiotensin II and leptin in<br />
combination with low levels <strong>of</strong> adiponectin.<br />
Numerous case-control, cross-sectional, and cohort studies have unequivocally shown that co-existence <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol misuse and chronic hepatitis C virus infection significantly increases <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> developing cirrhosis<br />
(7). Toge<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>se data show that individuals with chronic hepatitis C who drink more than 40g per day<br />
increase <strong>the</strong>ir risk <strong>of</strong> developing cirrhosis approximately 4-fold.<br />
HOST GENETICS AND RISK OF ALD<br />
Three lines <strong>of</strong> evidence suggest an at least partial genetic background <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ALD phenotype: 1. Women<br />
are more susceptible <strong>for</strong> ALD when exposed to similar amounts <strong>of</strong> alcohol; 2. Hispanics are more prone to<br />
developing ALD than Blacks and Whites; 3. Twin studies demonstrate that monozygotic twins have a higher<br />
prevalence <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis than dizygotic twins.<br />
Gender-specific susceptibility towards alcohol has been recognized <strong>for</strong> long. Studies in humans have<br />
demonstrated that women are more susceptible towards <strong>the</strong> hepatotoxic effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol, and develop<br />
ALD more quickly with equal amounts <strong>of</strong> daily alcohol consumption than men (8). The pathophysiology<br />
behind this increased sensitivity to alcohol is not yet fully understood but could be – among o<strong>the</strong>r factors<br />
– related to hormonal differences such as estrogens and <strong>the</strong>ir synergistic impact on oxidative stress and<br />
inflammation. Gender-related metabolic differences also exist, and women drinking equal amounts <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol reveal higher blood ethanol levels than men due to higher gastric alcohol dehydrogenase levels<br />
resulting in a faster first-pass metabolism <strong>of</strong> alcohol in men, or to a lower volume <strong>of</strong> distribution <strong>for</strong> alcohol<br />
in women compared to men.<br />
Different ethnic groups reveal notable differences in <strong>the</strong> prevalence <strong>of</strong> ALD and associated mortality.<br />
However, such seemingly ethnic differences in rates <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis and ALD could also be related to<br />
<strong>the</strong> amount and type <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumed, dietary traditions, differences in socioeconomic status, access<br />
to medical care, and/or differences in attitudes towards a healthy life style.<br />
The identification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> genetic background <strong>of</strong> iron overload by detection <strong>of</strong> mutations within <strong>the</strong><br />
hemochromatosis (HFE) gene gave rise to <strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>sis whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>ir presence may also affect iron<br />
storage in alcohol abusers. However, genetic case control studies with adequate matching <strong>of</strong> cases and<br />
controls <strong>for</strong> age, sex, and alcohol consumption detected no increased prevalence <strong>of</strong> HFE mutations in<br />
alcoholics with liver disease including cirrhosis (9).<br />
While genetic variation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ADH, ALDH and GABA system have been consistently found associated with<br />
alcohol dependence, this risk is not fur<strong>the</strong>r conveyed to developing ALD. In fact, only two candidate gene<br />
polymorphisms reveal sufficient data to consider <strong>the</strong>m highly suspicious as genetic risk factors <strong>for</strong> ALD.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
36 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 37<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
These are TNFα -238A (10) and PNPLA3 rs738409, <strong>of</strong> which only <strong>the</strong> latter is supported by robust and<br />
unequivocal data (Table 2). Toge<strong>the</strong>r, data on PNPLA3 allow <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> conclusion that PNPLA3 rs738409 GG<br />
carriers represent a genetically defined subpopulation <strong>of</strong> high risk subjects susceptible to progression <strong>of</strong><br />
clinically inapparent to overt ALD. Whe<strong>the</strong>r PNPLA3 genotype represents a marker that will assist decisionmaking<br />
in clinical practice remains to be shown, as well as whe<strong>the</strong>r it could serve as a <strong>the</strong>rapeutic target.<br />
Table 2<br />
<strong>Study</strong> Design Patients Results<br />
Tian et al. *<br />
Seth et al. *<br />
Trépo et al. *<br />
Stickel et al. *<br />
Genetic case control<br />
482 cases (alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis) (Mestizo<br />
subjects with strong<br />
ethnic heterogeneity)<br />
Genetic case control<br />
(British<br />
Caucasians)<br />
Genetic case control<br />
(Belgium Caucasians)<br />
Genetic case control<br />
(German Caucasians)<br />
482 cases (alcoholic cirrhosis)<br />
434 non-cirrhotic ALD<br />
305 alcoholics w/o liver<br />
enzyme elevations<br />
266 cases (alcoholic cirrhosis)<br />
182 controls (heavy drinkers<br />
w/o clinical ALD)<br />
330 cases (97% biopsyproven<br />
ALD; 263 cirrhotics)<br />
328 controls (healthy<br />
individuals without ALD)<br />
Multicenter sample with 1,043<br />
alcoholics (210 cirrhosis,<br />
394 non-cirrhotic ALD, 439<br />
alcoholic controls<br />
Population-based sample<br />
with 376 alcoholics (269 noncirrhotic<br />
ALD, 107 alcoholic<br />
controls)<br />
Non-alcoholic healthy<br />
subjects (n=162)<br />
rs738409 GG associated with cirrhosis<br />
when compared to controls (OR 2.25, 1.74-<br />
2.9; 1.7 x 10 -10 ) and to non-cirrhotic ALD<br />
(OR 1.43, 1.15-1.78, 1.0 x 10 -3 )<br />
<strong>Association</strong> robust after ancestry correction<br />
(OR 1.81, 1.36-2.41; 4.7 x 10 -5 )<br />
rs738409 G homozygosity associated with<br />
alcoholic cirrhosis (OR 7.34, 2.19-24.52,<br />
p=0.0012)<br />
Carriage <strong>of</strong> rs738409 G allele associated<br />
with alcoholic cirrhosis (OR 1.95, 1.34-<br />
2.84, p=0.00002)<br />
rs738409 G associated with ALD (OR 1.54;<br />
1.12-2.11, p=0.008) and alcoholic cirrhosis<br />
(OR 2.08; 1.15-3.77, p=0.02)<br />
PNPLA mRNA expression inversely<br />
correlated with cirrhosis and portal<br />
pressure<br />
Genotype rs738409 GG associated with<br />
alcoholic cirrhosis (OR 2.79, 1.55-5.04,<br />
p=1.18 x 10 -5 , cirrhosis vs. controls)<br />
Genotype rs738409 GG associated with<br />
alanine aminotransferase elevation (OR<br />
2.33, 1.27-4.26, p=0.0085)<br />
Confirmation <strong>of</strong> association in separate<br />
replication sample (OR 4.75, 1.08-20.9,<br />
p=0.04, ALD vs alcoholic controls)<br />
Population-attributable risk <strong>of</strong> rs738409 to<br />
cirrhosis 26.6%<br />
However, still lacking are data from genome-wide analyses in ALD patients similar to what has been carried<br />
out in o<strong>the</strong>r chronic liver diseases. Conducting this kind <strong>of</strong> global scan would not only help to confirm PNPLA3<br />
rs738409 as an important susceptibility marker <strong>of</strong> ALD, but also potentially identify novel, yet unkown genetic<br />
variants <strong>for</strong> better screening <strong>of</strong> patients, and subsequent clinical and experimental research. Despite <strong>the</strong><br />
noted limitations, functional pathway in<strong>for</strong>mation and <strong>the</strong> genetic risk factors <strong>of</strong> ALD start to converge into a<br />
common etiopathogenetic concept allowing <strong>for</strong> a better understanding <strong>of</strong> this serious disorder in <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Bellentani S, Saccoccio G, Costa G, et al. Drinking habits as c<strong>of</strong>actors <strong>of</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> alcohol<br />
induced liver damage. Gut 1997;41:845-850.<br />
Fattovich G, Str<strong>of</strong>folini T, Zagni I, Donato F. Hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: incidence and<br />
risk factors. Gastroenterology 2004;127(5 Suppl 1):S35-50.<br />
Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La Vecchia C. A meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption and <strong>the</strong><br />
risk <strong>of</strong> 15 diseases. Prev Med 2004;38:613-619.<br />
Stokkeland K, Hilm G, Spak F, et al. Different drinking patterns <strong>for</strong> women and men with alcohol<br />
dependence with and without alcoholic cirrhosis. Alcohol Alcohol 2008;43:39-45.<br />
Mathurin P, Deltenre P. Effect <strong>of</strong> binge drinking on <strong>the</strong> liver: an alarming public health issue Gut<br />
2009;58:613-17.<br />
Raynard B, Balian A, Fallik D, et al. Risk factors <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in alcohol-induced liver disease.<br />
Hepatology 2002;35:635-8.<br />
Monto A, Patel K, Bostrom A, et al. Risks <strong>of</strong> a range <strong>of</strong> alcohol intake on hepatitis C-related<br />
fibrosis. Hepatology 2004;39:826-34.<br />
Sato N, Lindros KO, Baraona E, et al. Sex difference in alcohol-related organ injury. Alcohol Clin<br />
Exp Res 2001;25:40S-45S.<br />
Gleeson D, Evans S, Bradley M, et al. HFE genotypes in decompensated alcoholic liver disease:<br />
phenotypic expression and comparison with heavy drinking and with normal controls. Am<br />
J Gastroenterol 2006;101:304-10.<br />
Marcos M, Gómez-Munuera M, Pastor I, et al. Tumor necrosis factor polymorphisms<br />
and alcoholic liver disease: a HuGE review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2009;<br />
170:948-56. Stickel F, Hampe J. Genetic determinants <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease.<br />
Gut 2012;61:150-9.<br />
* For full reference, please see ref. 11.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
38 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 39<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOVEL MECHANISMS OF ALCOHOLIC STEATOHEPATITIS<br />
Sophie Lotersztajn<br />
Créteil, France<br />
E-mail: sophie.lotersztajn@inserm.fr<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• The clinical spectrum <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease includes steatosis, alcoholic hepatitis, fibrosis,<br />
cirrhosis and increased risk <strong>of</strong> hepatocellular carcinoma.<br />
• Steatosis results from alterations <strong>of</strong> lipid metabolism driven by alcohol, including: (i) increased<br />
delivery <strong>of</strong> free fatty acids in <strong>the</strong> liver originating from <strong>the</strong> adipose tissue (ii) enhanced de novo<br />
hepatic syn<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> fatty acids and reduced fatty acid β-oxidation and (iii) reduced fat export<br />
from <strong>the</strong> liver.<br />
• Ethanol, ethanol metabolites and oxidative stress play a major role in alcohol-induced<br />
hepatocellular injury. In addition, alcohol increases endotoxin levels that activate Kupffer<br />
cells, initiating an inflammatory process that leads to massive inflammatory cell recruitment,<br />
contributing to hepatocellular injury and fat accumulation.<br />
• Newly identified promising strategies mainly focus on modulation <strong>of</strong> gut microbiota and reduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> inflammatory response (CXC chemokines, interleukin 17, <strong>the</strong> complement system), while<br />
sparing liver regeneration. Promising targets include <strong>the</strong> receptors <strong>for</strong> endocannabinoids (CB1<br />
and CB2), sirtuin activators, and adenosine receptors.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Alcoholic liver disease is characterized by a broad histological spectrum that encompasses isolated fatty<br />
liver (steatosis), steatohepatitis, fibrosis and ultimately cirrhosis (1). Fatty liver is <strong>the</strong> prevalent lesion foun in<br />
90 % <strong>of</strong> excessive drinkers, and has long been considered innocuous. However, fat generates inflammatory<br />
signals and reactive oxygen species that initiate progression to more severe <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease. Alcoholic<br />
steatosis is defined by <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> fat droplets in hepatocytes and is <strong>the</strong> earliest response <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
liver to chronic alcohol abuse. Environmental and genetic factors, and comorbid conditions (viral hepatitis,<br />
obesity, HIV…) accelerate progression to steatohepatitis, that occurs in about 20-40% <strong>of</strong> heavy drinkers.<br />
Steatohepatitis is characterized by fatty liver toge<strong>the</strong>r with inflammatory cell infiltration into <strong>the</strong> liver and<br />
hepatocyte injury. Steatohepatitis is associated with inhibition <strong>of</strong> liver regeneration and triggers activation<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver fibrogenesis that leads to cirrhosis in 15-20% <strong>of</strong> patients (1). Patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis<br />
display a prolonged and intense inflammatory reaction and have a high risk <strong>of</strong> short-term mortality. Few<br />
advances have been made in <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> patients with alcoholic liver disease and <strong>the</strong>re is an<br />
urgent need to identify novel <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets (1).<br />
Considerable progress has been made within <strong>the</strong> last decade towards better understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> molecular<br />
mechanisms underlying alcoholic liver disease progression, with <strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong> complex interactions<br />
between non parenchymal cells, immune cells and hepatocytes (2).<br />
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF ALCOHOL-INDUCED STEATOSIS<br />
Steatosis results from several alterations <strong>of</strong> lipid metabolism driven by alcohol, i.e: i) increased lipolysis <strong>of</strong><br />
peripheral fat stored in adipose tissue, that flows to <strong>the</strong> liver as nonesterified fatty acids; ii) combination <strong>of</strong><br />
altered metabolic pathways within hepatocytes, including enhanced de novo syn<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> fatty acids within<br />
<strong>the</strong> liver (lipogenesis) and reduced fatty acid mitochondrial β-oxidation; iii) reduced hepatic fat export (3)<br />
(Figure 1).<br />
Alcohol-induced decrease in fatty acid oxidation. Alcohol is metabolized to acetaldehyde in hepatocytes<br />
by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and cytochrome P4502E1, and acetaldehyde accounts <strong>for</strong> most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
toxic effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol. Acetaldehyde is subsequently converted to acetate by mitochondrial aldehyde<br />
dehydrogenase (ALDH). Both ALD and ALDH use NAD+ as c<strong>of</strong>actor, producing an excess <strong>of</strong> reducing<br />
equivalent NADH. The resulting decrease in <strong>the</strong> NAD+/NADH ratio leads to reduction <strong>of</strong> mitochondrial fatty<br />
acid oxidation (3).<br />
Acetaldehyde also decreases fatty acid oxidation via inhibition <strong>of</strong> PPARα, a nuclear receptor that control <strong>the</strong><br />
transcription <strong>of</strong> genes involved in fatty acid transport and oxidation. In addition, decrease in PPARα reduces<br />
fat export by counteracting alcohol-induced decrease in microsomal triglyceride transfer protein, a protein<br />
required <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> assembly <strong>of</strong> VLDL prior to export (3).<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r mechanism by which acetaldehyde decreases fatty acid oxidation is via inhibition <strong>of</strong> AMP<br />
protein kinase, an enzyme that enhances fatty acid oxidation by phosphorylating/inactivating acetyl CoA<br />
carboxylase, leading to inhibition <strong>of</strong> carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1, a rate limiting enzyme <strong>for</strong> fatty acid<br />
oxidation. Interestingly, AMP protein kinase is also a negative regulator <strong>of</strong> fatty acid syn<strong>the</strong>sis, because<br />
Acetyl CoA carboxylase is a rate limiting enzyme <strong>for</strong> fatty acid syn<strong>the</strong>sis (also see below) (3).<br />
Alcohol-induced fatty acid syn<strong>the</strong>sis. Acetaldehyde increases lipogenesis via transcriptional/posttranscriptional<br />
regulation <strong>of</strong> sterol regulatory element binding protein 1-c (SREBP-1c), a transcription factor<br />
that regulate <strong>the</strong> expression key lipogenic enzymes. SREBP-1c is directly induced by acetaldehyde, or<br />
indirectly via alcohol-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and hyperhomocysteinemia. SREBP-1c is<br />
also negatively controlled by AMPK, so that inhibition <strong>of</strong> AMPK by alcohol also contributes to enhanced<br />
lipogenesis (3).<br />
Alcohol-induced down regulation <strong>of</strong> factors that limit fat accumulation. In addition to inhibiting PPAR<br />
alpha and AMPK, alcohol also down regulates activators <strong>of</strong> AMPK, such as <strong>the</strong> adipokine adiponectin and<br />
<strong>the</strong> NAD+-dependent deacetylase sirtuin1.<br />
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF ALCOHOL-INDUCED STEATOHEPATITIS<br />
Clinical evidence point out <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> endotoxin, toll-like receptors, cytokines and chemokines and oxidative<br />
stress in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic fatty liver disease; molecular mechanisms have mainly been<br />
delineated in experimental studies with rodents.<br />
The innate immune system (Figure 2)<br />
Kupffer cells. Compelling evidence indicate that Kupffer cells play a key role in <strong>the</strong> initiation and progression<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol induced liver injury (4). Chronic alcohol exposure triggers gut dysbiosis and enhances gut<br />
permeability, <strong>the</strong>reby increasing <strong>the</strong> serum level <strong>of</strong> gut-derived endotoxin (LPS) that correlates with disease<br />
severity. LPS activates Kupffer cells following binding to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Alcohol also sensitizes<br />
Kupffer cells to LPS by increasing oxidative stress, and primes Kupffer cells to respond to LPS by upregulating<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> proinflammatory mediators, including cytokines (TNF, IL1) and chemokines (MCP-1,<br />
CXC chemokines, IL8), that contribute to various steps <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease progression, i.e hepatocyte<br />
steatosis, inflammatory cell recruitement, hepatocyte injury and activation <strong>of</strong> fibrogenesis (Figure 2) (4, 5).<br />
In addition, acetate may enhance cytokine release from Kupffer cells, via a mechanism involving acetylation<br />
<strong>of</strong> histones (6). Finally, recent data also demonstrate that <strong>the</strong> complement system may also contribute to<br />
alcohol-induced Kupffer cell activation and release <strong>of</strong> TNF-alpha, independently <strong>of</strong> LPS activation <strong>of</strong> TLR4<br />
(7) .<br />
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is considered as a major mediator <strong>of</strong> alcohol-induced liver injury, as<br />
shown in a number <strong>of</strong> clinical studies, and on <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> experimental data demonstrating <strong>the</strong> substantial<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> hepatic steatosis, liver inflammation and hepatocyte apoptosis in TNF-R1 deficient mice and<br />
in rodents treated with TNF-α antibodies. However, anti TNF-α <strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>of</strong> patients with alcoholic hepatitis<br />
showed increased mortality, owing to a high rate <strong>of</strong> infectious events in <strong>the</strong>se patients (1, 2, 4, 5).<br />
Alcohol may also impair <strong>the</strong> antiinflammatory response and resolution <strong>of</strong> inflammation. Indeed, activated<br />
Kupffer cells release antiinflammatory mediators with hepatoprotective properties, such as interleukin 10
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
40 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 41<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
(IL10). Defective secretion <strong>of</strong> IL10 by blood monocytes is associated with TNF-α overproduction in patients<br />
with severe alcoholic hepatitis, that is likely to worsen inflammation and promote ALD progression. Moreover,<br />
alcohol down regulates adiponectin and <strong>the</strong> AMPK/sirtuin1 pathway, which display potent antiinflammatory<br />
properties <strong>for</strong> Kupffer cells.<br />
T Helper lymphocyte 17 (Th17). Th17 lymphocytes are a recently described class <strong>of</strong> CD4+ lymphocytes<br />
that produce interleukin 17 (IL17) and interleukin 22 (IL22). Differenciation <strong>of</strong> naïve CD4+ lymphocytes into<br />
Th17 cells is promoted by IL6 and IL1, that are overproduced by Kupffer cells during ALD. Plasma levels<br />
<strong>of</strong> IL17 and <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> infiltrating IL17 secreting cells in <strong>the</strong> liver are increased in patients with ALD.<br />
IL17 promotes neutrophil recruitment by enhancing <strong>the</strong> production <strong>of</strong> chemoattractants (IL8 and GRO-α)<br />
by hepatic stellate cells (8).<br />
Neutrophil recruitment. Migration <strong>of</strong> neutrophils into <strong>the</strong> liver is a major inflammatory event in patients<br />
with alcoholic steatohepatitis. In addition to IL17, accumulation <strong>of</strong> neutrophils is promoted by Kupffer cellderived<br />
cytokines and chemokines that are markedly up-regulated in patients with ALD such as TNF, IL1<br />
and CXC chemokines (1, 4, 5).<br />
Oxidative stress (Figure 3). Increased oxidative stress and reduced antioxidant defense mechanisms<br />
are key features <strong>of</strong> alcoholic steatohepatitis in humans, and play a key role in hepatocellular injury (9).<br />
Hepatocytes and Kupffer cells are major sources <strong>of</strong> reactive oxygen species in response to chronic alcohol<br />
exposure, produced by cytochrome P450 2E1, NADP(H)oxidase, and inducible nitric oxide synthase.<br />
Increase in oxidative stress causes mitochondrial damage and lipid peroxidation and decrease proteasome<br />
activity, resulting in increased hepatocellular apoptosis. Hepatocellular injury is fur<strong>the</strong>r amplified by a<br />
decrease in antioxidant defense mechanisms, since alcohol depletes mitochondrial glutathione. Depletion<br />
<strong>of</strong> S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) by alcohol contributes to reduction <strong>of</strong> glutathion levels, because SAM is<br />
a precursor <strong>for</strong> glutathione, and increase in endoplasmic reticlum stress, both pathways contributing to<br />
hepatocellular injury. In addition, reactive oxygen species produced by Kupffer cells via NADPH oxidase<br />
and inducible nitric oxide synthase contribute to inflammatory mediator production, via enhanced ROSsensitive<br />
signaling pathways (NF-kB, MAPK, AP-1, Egr1) (Figure 2).<br />
Alcohol-induced autophagy. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation pathway by which lysosomes<br />
degrade proteins and lipids, remove misfolding protein and damaged organelles including mitochondria.<br />
Experimental findings obtained in a model <strong>of</strong> bindge drinking indicate that alcohol activates autophagy<br />
in hepatocytes, leading to reduction <strong>of</strong> hepatocyte apoptosis and reduction <strong>of</strong> fat accumulation (10). The<br />
relevance <strong>of</strong> this protective effect <strong>of</strong> autophagy in patients with alcoholic liver disease remains to be clarified.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
Despite recent advances in <strong>the</strong> understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> molecular mechanisms governing alcoholic liver<br />
disease progression, <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> new <strong>the</strong>rapies is clearly awaited. Novel pathways have been<br />
identified, owing to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> animal models that only recapitulate <strong>the</strong> first steps <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease, i.e fatty<br />
liver, Kupffer cell activation with mild hepatocellular injury. There<strong>for</strong>e, <strong>the</strong>re is an urgent need to develop<br />
new animal models with more severe <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> ALD, to fur<strong>the</strong>r validate <strong>the</strong> relevance <strong>of</strong> pathways and<br />
identified targets in more advanced steps <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Lucey, M.R., Mathurin, P., and Morgan, T.R. 2009. Alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med<br />
360:2758-2769.<br />
Gao, B., and Bataller, R. 2011. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets.<br />
Gastroenterology 141:1572-1585.<br />
Sozio, M., and Crabb, D.W. 2008. Alcohol and lipid metabolism. Am J Physiol<br />
Endocrinol Metab 295:E10-16.<br />
Gao, B., Seki, E., Brenner, D.A., Friedman, S., Cohen, J.I., Nagy, L., Szabo, G., and<br />
Zakhari, S. 2011. Innate immunity in alcoholic liver disease. Am J Physiol<br />
Gastrointest <strong>Liver</strong> Physiol 300:G516-525.<br />
Voican, C.S., Perlemuter, G., and Naveau, S. Mechanisms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> inflammatory<br />
reaction implicated in alcoholic hepatitis: 2011 update. Clin Res Hepatol<br />
Gastroenterol 35:465-474.<br />
Kendrick, S.F., O’Boyle, G., Mann, J., Zeybel, M., Palmer, J., Jones, D.E., and Day,<br />
C.P. 2010. Acetate, <strong>the</strong> key modulator <strong>of</strong> inflammatory responses in acute alcoholic<br />
hepatitis. Hepatology 51:1988-1997.<br />
Cohen, J.I., Roychowdhury, S., McMullen, M.R., Stavitsky, A.B., and Nagy, L.E.<br />
Complement and alcoholic liver disease: role <strong>of</strong> C1q in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ethanolinduced<br />
liver injury in mice. Gastroenterology 139:664-674, 674 e661.<br />
Lemmers, A., Moreno, C., Gustot, T., Marechal, R., Degre, D., Demetter, P., de<br />
Nadai, P., Geerts, A., Quertinmont, E., Vercruysse, V., et al. 2009. The interleukin-17<br />
pathway is involved in human alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 49:646-657.<br />
Arteel, G.E. 2003. Oxidants and antioxidants in alcohol-induced liver disease.<br />
Gastroenterology 124:778-790.<br />
Ding, W.X., Li, M., Chen, X., Ni, H.M., Lin, C.W., Gao, W., Lu, B., Stolz, D.B.,<br />
Clemens, D.L., and Yin, X.M. Autophagy reduces acute ethanol-induced<br />
hepatotoxicity and steatosis in mice. Gastroenterology 139:1740-1752.<br />
Mallat, A., Teixeira-Clerc, F., Deveaux, V., Manin, S., and Lotersztajn, S. The<br />
endocannabinoid system as a key mediator during liver diseases: new insights and<br />
<strong>the</strong>rapeutic openings. Br J Pharmacol 163:1432-1440.<br />
Louvet, A., Teixeira-Clerc, F., Chobert, M.N., Deveaux, V., Pavoine, C., Zimmer, A.,<br />
Pecker, F., Mallat, A., and Lotersztajn, S. Cannabinoid CB2 receptors protect against<br />
alcoholic liver disease by regulating Kupffer cell polarization in mice. Hepatology<br />
-54:1217-1226.<br />
Treatment <strong>of</strong> alcohol-induced liver disease should ideally reduce steatogenesis, oxidative stress,<br />
inflammation and fibrogenesis, while sparing liver regeneration. In this respect, novel potential <strong>the</strong>rapeutic<br />
targets have been identified, that include i) molecules that will modify gut microbiota (probiotics), neutralize<br />
LPS or antagonize TLR4 (4); ii) compounds targeting CXC chemokines, IL17 or <strong>the</strong>ir receptors, because <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir major role in inflammatory cell (neutrophil) infiltration (2, 4, 7); iii) sirtuin activators and iv) molecules<br />
targeting cannabinoid receptors, i.e CB2 agonists and CB1 antagonists, because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir expected<br />
antiinflammatory, antisteatogenic, hepatoprotective and antifibrogenic effects (11, 12). Fur<strong>the</strong>r translational<br />
research is clearly awaited to evaluate <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic relevance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se newly identified targets.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
42 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 43<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 1<br />
MECHANISMS OF ALCOHOL-INDUCED LIVER FIBROSIS<br />
Fabio Marra<br />
Florence, Italy<br />
E-mail: f.marra@dmi.unifi.it<br />
Figure 2<br />
Figure 3<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcoholic liver disease has a broad spectrum <strong>of</strong> clinical-histological pictures, and fibrosis<br />
occurs only in a proportion <strong>of</strong> patients with alcohol abuse unless <strong>the</strong> patient presents with<br />
overt signs <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis it is not easy to predict <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> fibrosis based on clinical and<br />
laboratory findings.<br />
• The pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in ALD is regulated by mechanisms unique to <strong>the</strong>se conditions<br />
and by o<strong>the</strong>rs common to <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in o<strong>the</strong>r chronic liver diseases.<br />
• Direct effects <strong>of</strong> chronic alcohol abuse that promote fibrogenesis include generation <strong>of</strong><br />
acetaldehyde, induction <strong>of</strong> oxidative stress, alterations <strong>of</strong> innate immunity and increased gut<br />
permeability.<br />
• The fibrogenic process in ALD is an example <strong>of</strong> extensive cross-talk among liver resident and<br />
infiltrating cells, with paracrine and autocrine effects leading to injury, apoptosis, inflammation.<br />
CLINICAL ASPECTS OF FIBROSIS IN ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE (ALD)<br />
ALD ranges between simple steatosis, alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH), progressive fibrosis, cirrhosis and<br />
hepatocellular carcinoma. Moreover, patients with underlying ALD may experience episodes <strong>of</strong> alcoholic<br />
hepatitis (AH) that are associated with high mortality rate in its severe <strong>for</strong>ms. Patients with mild ALD are<br />
usually asymptomatic or show unspecific symptoms such as fatigue or mild abdominal pain. Because<br />
alcohol abuse can lead to severe organ damage in <strong>the</strong> brain, peripheral nervous system, skin, heart, kidney<br />
and pancreas, patients may develop a variety <strong>of</strong> liver-unrelated symptoms. Patients with advanced fibrosis<br />
and cirrhosis may show typical exploratory findings, yet physical examination can be normal in patients<br />
with early cirrhosis. Decompensated cirrhotic patients may show signs <strong>of</strong> jaundice, ascites, asterixis, and<br />
variceal bleeding. In alcoholic patients, Dupuytren’s contractures, parotid gland enlargement and peripheral<br />
neuropathy can also be noted. The presence <strong>of</strong> an AH, which is usually associated with impairment <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
function and clinical decompensation, can be suspected based on clinical and biochemical data, yet a<br />
definitive diagnosis needs histological confirmation.<br />
The diagnosis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> existence and degree <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis in patients with alcohol abuse is based in<br />
both noninvasive and invasive methods. Patients with mild to moderate fibrosis show mild increase <strong>of</strong><br />
aminotransferases, especially AST, and elevated GGT. Advanced fibrosis with portal hypertension leads to<br />
decreased platelet count and eventually liver failure develops with elevated bilirubin levels and decrease<br />
albumin serum levels and prothrombin time. The use <strong>of</strong> serum markers <strong>of</strong> fibrosis (Fibrotest, ELF panel)<br />
has been shown to estimate <strong>the</strong> presence and degree <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis. Imaging techniques such as<br />
ultrasonography detect steatosis and advanced fibrosis, but <strong>the</strong>y fail to distinguish between steatosis and<br />
ASH and are not reliable to diagnosis mild fibrosis. The measurement <strong>of</strong> liver stiffness by elastography is<br />
also useful to evaluate <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> fibrosis, yet its results can be influenced by <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> steatosis<br />
and inflammation.<br />
The indications <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy in patients with ALD are under debate. It is particularly indicated in patients<br />
with unclear diagnosis or in those with aggressive disease. In addition to confirming <strong>the</strong> diagnosis, liver<br />
biopsy is also useful <strong>for</strong> ruling out o<strong>the</strong>r unsuspected causes <strong>of</strong> liver disease, better characterizing <strong>the</strong><br />
extent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> damage, providing prognosis, confirm active alcohol intake and guiding <strong>the</strong>rapeutic decisionmaking.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r indication is <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> superimposed AH, since <strong>the</strong>re are no reliable noninvasive
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
44 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 45<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
methods to diagnose this severe condition. The pattern <strong>of</strong> fibrosis is not homogeneous in all patients. It can<br />
be pericellular, perisinusoidal, and ‘chickenwire’. Eventually, bridging fibrosis develops and <strong>the</strong> subsequent<br />
<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>of</strong> regenerative nodules defines cirrhosis.<br />
FACTORS INFLUENCING FIBROSIS PROGRESSION IN ALD<br />
Although a positive correlation between cumulative alcohol intake and degree <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis has been<br />
reported, extensive individual variability exists. The main environmental factors influencing <strong>the</strong> progression<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis in patients with alcohol abuse include obesity and cigarette consumption. The role <strong>of</strong><br />
metabolic factors such as insulin resistance is unclear, yet recent reports suggest that it may favor fibrosis<br />
progression. Moreover, it is known that genetic factors influence <strong>the</strong> organ-specificity <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related<br />
harmful effects. Family studies, twin concordance studies, and interethnic variations in susceptibility<br />
suggest that genetic factors are important in determining disease risk.<br />
Genes encoding <strong>for</strong> alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and proteins involved in liver toxicity such as<br />
antioxidants and pro-inflammatory cytokines have been <strong>the</strong> main subject <strong>of</strong> investigations in genetic<br />
studies. The main enzymes involved in alcohol metabolism in humans are alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH),<br />
aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), and cytochrome P450IIE1 (CYP2E1). Genetic factors influencing <strong>the</strong><br />
activity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se enzymes and <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> alcohol metabolism have been extensively studied. Because <strong>of</strong><br />
its fibrogenic potential, variations in <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> acetaldehyde may explain individual differences after<br />
abusive alcohol consumption. Polymorphisms in genes encoding pro-inflammatory cytokines known to<br />
participate in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ALD have also been examined, including TNF-α, NFκB, IL-1β and IL-1<br />
receptor antagonist, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10. O<strong>the</strong>r studies have investigated <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> genetic variations <strong>of</strong><br />
factors involved in LPS-induced intracellular pathways including CD14 and TLR4. Patients with genetic<br />
variations <strong>of</strong> superoxide dismutase and gluthatione-S-transferase, powerful antioxidants, are a risk factor<br />
<strong>for</strong> developing severe ALD. Finally, a recent study indicates that variations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patatin-like phospholipase<br />
domain-containing protein 3 (PNPLA3) strongly influence <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> advanced fibrosis among<br />
Caucasians. Despite <strong>the</strong> high number <strong>of</strong> studies assessing <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> gene variations in <strong>the</strong> susceptibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> ALD, a well-designed large study per<strong>for</strong>ming a genome wide association analysis is still lacking, and a<br />
genetic test capable <strong>of</strong> identifying patients <strong>the</strong> susceptibility to develop advanced ALD is lacking.<br />
Factors at diagnosis that predict <strong>the</strong> progression <strong>of</strong> ALD to cirrhosis are not well known. The main determinant<br />
<strong>of</strong> disease progression is <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> alcohol intake and sustained abstinence. Thus, recent data suggest<br />
that higher alcohol intake is associated with a poor short-term prognosis. In addition, most observational<br />
studies indicate that age, female gender and overweight are risk factors <strong>for</strong> cirrhosis. The existence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
florid steatohepatitis at baseline is a major determinant <strong>of</strong> progression to cirrhosis and it also favors <strong>the</strong><br />
development <strong>of</strong> clinical complications.<br />
GENERAL MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF THE FIBROGENIC PROCESS<br />
Hepatic fibrosis is <strong>the</strong> excessive accumulation <strong>of</strong> fibrillar extracellular matrix (ECM) within <strong>the</strong> liver which<br />
occurs in <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> chronic liver diseases and is considered <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> persistent activation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
‘wound healing’ response. In <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> a chronic damage, activation <strong>of</strong> this process, evolved to protect<br />
<strong>the</strong> tissue from damage, results in <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mation <strong>of</strong> a fibrotic scar which eventually alters <strong>the</strong> cellular and<br />
functional balance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> organ. A key role in fibrogenesis is played by my<strong>of</strong>ibroblasts, which produce<br />
extracellular matrix and in general coordinate <strong>the</strong> ‘wound healing’ response (Figure 1). Hepatic stellate cells<br />
(HSC) are classically considered to be a major source <strong>of</strong> hepatic my<strong>of</strong>ibroblasts, but o<strong>the</strong>r cell types inside<br />
or outside <strong>the</strong> liver have been suggested to contribute to <strong>the</strong> expansion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> my<strong>of</strong>ibroblast population<br />
observed during injury, including portal fibroblasts and possibly cells recruited from <strong>the</strong> bone marrow. The<br />
possibility that epi<strong>the</strong>lial cells contribute to <strong>the</strong> my<strong>of</strong>ibroblast pool via a process <strong>of</strong> epi<strong>the</strong>lial-mesenchymal<br />
transition has also been recently hypo<strong>the</strong>sized, but its overall contribution to <strong>the</strong> fibrogenic process is<br />
debated. It is believed that <strong>the</strong> involvement <strong>of</strong> different populations <strong>of</strong> fibrogenic cells is dependent on <strong>the</strong><br />
etiology <strong>of</strong> liver damage and <strong>the</strong> resulting development <strong>of</strong> distinct spatial patterns <strong>of</strong> fibrosis. In alcoholic<br />
liver disease, fibrosis develops primarily in <strong>the</strong> pericentral areas, with a picture referred to as ‘pericellular<br />
fibrosis’. Although chronic liver diseases share most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ibrogenic mechanisms, <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis<br />
<strong>of</strong> fibrosis in ALD and in o<strong>the</strong>r conditions this conditions may have certain specificities. For this reason,<br />
several studies have recently focused on identify specific pathways leading to fibrosis in different etiologies<br />
<strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease.<br />
PATHOGENETIC MECHANISMS OF FIBROSIS SPECIFIC FOR ALD<br />
As discussed earlier, <strong>the</strong> spectrum <strong>of</strong> ALD ranges from liver steatosis to steatohepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis<br />
and hepatocellular carcinoma. The pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> steatosis includes increased fatty acid and triglyceride<br />
syn<strong>the</strong>sis and inhibited mitochondrial ß-oxidation <strong>of</strong> fatty acids and enhanced hepatic influx <strong>of</strong> free fatty<br />
acids from adipose tissue and <strong>of</strong> chylomicrones from <strong>the</strong> intestinal mucosa. Alcoholic fatty livers can<br />
develop inflammatory infiltrate (mainly composed by polymorphonuclear cells) and hepatocellular damage,<br />
a prerequisite to <strong>the</strong> progression to fibrosis and cirrhosis.<br />
Different pathogenic factors are implicating in <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> liver damage and fibrosis (Figure 2). In<br />
this respect, ALD represents a clear example <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> cell-cell interaction and cross-talk within<br />
<strong>the</strong> liver. In fact, hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, HSC, and inflammatory cells recreuited from <strong>the</strong> bloodstream<br />
all contribute to <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> damage and <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> fibrosis.<br />
Products <strong>of</strong> alcohol metabolism may directly damage hepatocytes. Acetaldehyde, <strong>the</strong> major methanol<br />
metabolic product, binds to proteins and DNA resulting in functional alterations and protein adducts, which<br />
activate <strong>the</strong> immune system by <strong>for</strong>ming autoantigens. It also causes mitochondrial damage and impairs<br />
glutathione function, leading to oxidative stress and apoptosis. Acetaldehyde has been also shown to<br />
interfere with TGF-beta signaling via Smad3.<br />
In addition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and <strong>the</strong> resulting lipid peroxidation play a<br />
major role in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ASH and fibrosis. Main sources <strong>of</strong> ROS include CYP2E1-dependent<br />
MEOS, mitochondrial electron transport system <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> respiratory chain, NADH-dependent cytochrome<br />
reductase and xanthine oxidase. Moreover, chronic alcohol intake markedly up-regulates CYP2E1, which<br />
metabolizes ethanol to acetaldehyde and parallels <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> ROS and hydroxyl-ethyl radicals.<br />
Cytokines and inflammation: Several studies have indicated that inflammatory pathways are activated<br />
in <strong>the</strong> liver during ALD, including NF-κB and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). Kupffer cells, activated<br />
lymphocytes, and macrophages infiltrating <strong>the</strong> liver tissue are sources <strong>of</strong> TNFα.<br />
More recently, a possible involvement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chemokine system has been suggested by several experimental<br />
data in humans and in experimental models <strong>of</strong> ALD. In alcoholic hepatitis, hepatic expression <strong>of</strong> several<br />
chemokines has been found to be upregulated, and in particular expression <strong>of</strong> CXC components correlated<br />
with neutrophil infiltration and prognosis. These data identify a group <strong>of</strong> novel targets <strong>for</strong> novel <strong>the</strong>rapeutic<br />
approaches to <strong>the</strong> most severe <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease.<br />
Endotoxin and TLRs: Alcohol abuse results in changes in colonic microbiota and increased intestinal<br />
permeability, leading to endotoxemia. i.e. an increase in plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels, which is<br />
released in <strong>the</strong> circulation due to an increase in intestinal permeability. A pivotal aspect <strong>of</strong> this host-bacteria<br />
interaction is <strong>the</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> TLR4 on Kupffer cells, that induce TNF-α production and contributes to liver<br />
injury. Recent studies have also shown that HSC also express several members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> toll-like receptor<br />
(TLR) subgroups, such as TLR4 and TLR9. TLR4 activation triggers multiple intracellular signaling pathways,<br />
including NF-κB, and induces <strong>the</strong> expression <strong>of</strong> several pr<strong>of</strong>ibrogenic cytokines. The resulting inflammatory<br />
milieu in <strong>the</strong> alcoholic liver leads to PMN infiltration, ROS <strong>for</strong>mation and hepatocellular damage, which drive<br />
fibrogenesis. Finally, impairment in <strong>the</strong> ubiquitin-proteasome pathway leads to hepatocellular injury and<br />
hepatic inclusions <strong>of</strong> aggregated cytokeratins (a.k.a. Mallory-Denk bodies).<br />
Following exposure to a hepatotoxic agent such as alcohol, hepatocytes activate several signaling pathways
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
46 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 47<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
in order to resolve or restrict <strong>the</strong> possible cellular damage. In patients with ALD, cellular stress is severe<br />
and persistent, leading to hepatic cellular death (lipo-apoptosis) and necrosis by induction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> c-Jun<br />
N-terminal Kinase (JNK) signaling pathway. This process <strong>of</strong> persistent ethanol-induced hepatic injury is<br />
not restricted to hepatocytes, as many studies suggest <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> a relevant crosstalk with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
hepatic cell types. Indeed, ethanol-induced oxidative stress is also present in activated Kupffer cells, which<br />
are responsible <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> secretion <strong>of</strong> pro-inflammatory cytokines, linking alcohol abuse to inflammation.<br />
Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) are activated in a paracrine manner by acetaldehyde and ROS produced by<br />
<strong>the</strong> metabolism <strong>of</strong> ethanol in <strong>the</strong> surrounding hepatocytes and Kupffer cells. ROS-dependent activation <strong>of</strong><br />
HSC, upon ethanol-induced hepatocyte damage, leads to deposition <strong>of</strong> collagen and o<strong>the</strong>r extracellular<br />
matrix components. As a consequence, perivenular and periportal fibrosis is established, eventually leading<br />
to bridging fibrosis and cirrhosis. These changes are typical features <strong>of</strong> alcoholic fibrosis and <strong>of</strong>ten coexist<br />
with <strong>the</strong> findings <strong>of</strong> ASH.<br />
Chronic ethanol abuse decreases NK cell activity. NK cells are thought to participate in <strong>the</strong> killing <strong>of</strong> HSC<br />
after <strong>the</strong>ir activation, thus providing a mechanism <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> limitation <strong>of</strong> fibrosis. In contrast, NK T-cells are<br />
activated early in <strong>the</strong> response to ethanol feeding. With respect to fibrosis, activation <strong>of</strong> NKT has been<br />
reported to have pro- or antifibrogenic actions, and <strong>the</strong>ir role in ALD-associated fibrosis needs to be fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
elucidated.<br />
MECHANISMS OF FIBROGENESIS COMMON TO ASH AND OTHER LIVER DISEASES, INCLUDING NASH<br />
Alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) have similar histological features and spectrum <strong>of</strong><br />
disease. There<strong>for</strong>e, it is not surprising that recent research has identified mechanisms that are in common<br />
between <strong>the</strong>se two conditions. In addition, some fibrogenic mechanisms are operating also in <strong>the</strong> progression<br />
<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> chronic liver diseases.<br />
Apoptosis. ASH and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> liver injury are characterized by hepatocyte apoptosis, and generation<br />
<strong>of</strong> apoptotic bodies has been recognized as a potent pr<strong>of</strong>ibrogenic stimulus.<br />
Endogenous cannabinoid system. Cannabinoids are a group <strong>of</strong> molecules with modulatory properties on<br />
liver fibrogenesis. HSCs express both cannabinoid receptors and inactivation <strong>of</strong> CB1 receptors decreases<br />
fibrogenesis by lowering hepatic TGF-β1 and reducing <strong>the</strong> accumulation <strong>of</strong> fibrogenic cells in <strong>the</strong> liver.<br />
The role <strong>of</strong> cannabinoids derived by HSC has also been implicated in <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> alcohol induced<br />
steatosis. While rimonabant, <strong>the</strong> first CB1 antagonist to enter clinical practice, has been recently withdrawn<br />
from <strong>the</strong> market due to psychiatric side effects, a new generation <strong>of</strong> antagonists that do not cross <strong>the</strong> bloodbrain<br />
barrier are promising <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatement <strong>of</strong> fibrogenic disorders. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, CB2 activation<br />
provides antifibrogenic signals.<br />
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES<br />
Fibrosis in ALD has peculiarities that differentiate it from <strong>the</strong> one that is observed in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
disease, both from <strong>the</strong> pathological point <strong>of</strong> view and <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> molecular mechanisms that characterize it.<br />
None<strong>the</strong>less, some mechanisms are in common, particularly with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis but also with<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> fibrogenesis. Application <strong>of</strong> translational research, which combines studies in humans with<br />
mechanistic in<strong>for</strong>mation from preclinical investigation is <strong>the</strong> challenge <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> discovery <strong>of</strong> new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic<br />
targets in <strong>the</strong> near future.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Bataller R, Rombouts K, Altamirano J, Marra F. Fibrosis in alcoholic and nonalcoholic<br />
steatohepatitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2011; 25:231-44<br />
Cohen JI, Nagy LE. Pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease: interactions between<br />
parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells. J Dig Dis 2011;12:3-9.<br />
Cubero FJ, Urtasun R, Nieto N. Alcohol and liver fibrosis. Semin <strong>Liver</strong> Dis 2009;29:211-21.<br />
Gao B, Bataller R. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets.<br />
Gastroenterology 2011;141:1572-85<br />
Gao B, Seki E, Brenner DA, Friedman S, Cohen JI, Nagy L, Szabo G, Zakhari S. Innate<br />
immunity in alcoholic liver disease. Am J Physiol Gastrointest <strong>Liver</strong> Physiol 2011;300:<br />
G516-25<br />
Mencin A, Kluwe J, Schwabe RF. Toll-like receptors as targets in chronic liver diseases. Gut<br />
2009;58:704-20.<br />
Marra F, Bertolani C. Adipokines in liver diseases. Hepatology 2009;50:957-69.<br />
Stickel F, Seitz HK. Alcoholic steatohepatitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2010;24:683-93.<br />
Szabo G, Bala S. Alcoholic liver disease and <strong>the</strong> gut-liver axis. World J Gastroenterol 2010;16:1321-<br />
Tam J, Liu J, Mukhopadhyay B, Cinar R, Godlewski G, Kunos G. Endocannabinoids in liver<br />
disease. Hepatology 2011;53:346-55<br />
Figure 1<br />
Basic features <strong>of</strong> activated stellate cells. Activation <strong>of</strong> stellate cells to my<strong>of</strong>ibroblasts is associated with<br />
acquisition <strong>of</strong> phenotypic changes that make <strong>the</strong>m more suitable to coordinate <strong>the</strong> wound healing response<br />
and fibrogenesis. Mediators implicated are indicated on <strong>the</strong> right.<br />
Imbalanced adipokine expression: Recent studies have highlighted a relation between adipokines and<br />
several aspects <strong>of</strong> ALD, including fibrosis. Data have been obtained particularly <strong>for</strong> leptin and adiponectin.<br />
Leptin has been shown to mediate pr<strong>of</strong>ibrogenic effects on <strong>the</strong> liver. Hepatic stellate cells express functional<br />
leptin receptors and are directly responsive to leptin with a number <strong>of</strong> biological actions that collectively<br />
promote fibrogenesis. Besides an action on HSC, leptin also targets Kupffer cells and sinusoidal endo<strong>the</strong>lial<br />
cells stimulating TGF-β expression.<br />
Adiponectin increases insulin sensitivity and provides anti-inflammatory signals. A direct antifibrogenic<br />
action <strong>of</strong> adiponectin has been demonstrated in animals undergoing toxic liver damage and adiponectin<br />
ameliorates liver damage in different models <strong>of</strong> steatohepatitis. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> anti-fibrogenic effects <strong>of</strong><br />
adiponectin are dependent on activation <strong>of</strong> AMP-activated protein kinase, that is activated in hepatic<br />
stellate cells upon interaction <strong>of</strong> adiponectin with its cognate ligands. Along <strong>the</strong>se lines, adiponectin has<br />
been shown to reduce hepatic damage and fibrogenesis in models <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease, providing a<br />
molecular counterpart <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> observed detrimental effect <strong>of</strong> obesity on <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> ALD.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
48 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 49<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
Figure 2<br />
Overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pathogenetic pathways leading to fibrosis in alcoholic liver disease. The top part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> figure summarizes <strong>the</strong> mechanisms that are more specific to <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic fibrosis. The<br />
contribution <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r pathways, such as obesity and <strong>the</strong> cannabinoid system, operating also in o<strong>the</strong>r chronic<br />
liver diseases is indicated in <strong>the</strong> bottom part.<br />
CLINICAL CASE : A PATIENT WITH CHRONIC ALD<br />
Alexandre Louvet, Florent Artru, Philippe Mathurin<br />
Lille, France<br />
E-mail: p-mathurin@chru-lille.fr<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Despite <strong>the</strong> fact that liver biopsy is still <strong>the</strong> gold standard <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver<br />
disease, serum biomarkers and transient elastography are relevant to establish liver fibrosis.<br />
• Tobacco consumption has a moderate negative impact on fibrosis progression in ALD, in<br />
contrary to c<strong>of</strong>fee consumption. Overweight and drinking outside <strong>the</strong> meals also accelerate<br />
fibrosis progression. Few clinical data are available regarding binge drinking but it may be<br />
speculated that this pattern <strong>of</strong> consumption worsens <strong>the</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis.<br />
• Raised GGT and MCV are not good predictors <strong>of</strong> persistent alcohol consumption, especially in<br />
cirrhotic patients.<br />
• Disulfiram, naltrexone, acamprosate and bacl<strong>of</strong>en are efficient in <strong>the</strong> prevention <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
relapse but only bacl<strong>of</strong>en has been tested in cirrhotic patients.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
A 56-year old man is referred <strong>for</strong> abnormal liver tests. He has no past medical history. He is married and<br />
lives with his wife and his two children. He is not working but is a <strong>for</strong>mer employee in a bank. He recognizes<br />
a daily alcohol consumption <strong>of</strong> around 50-70 g/day (beer and spirits) that he mentions to have stopped 1<br />
month ago. He stopped his alcohol consumption after his family doctor raises <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis. He does not report any sobriety period be<strong>for</strong>e. He began to drink alcohol beverages at <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong><br />
18 and was binge drinking during 10 years (from <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 20 to 30), mainly with friends and colleagues<br />
but almost never during <strong>the</strong> meals. He does not report any hidden alcohol consumption and was never<br />
drinking alone. His motivation <strong>for</strong> long-term abstinence seems good, although he mentions to have still<br />
some craving episodes. He has no current symptoms and feels to be in good condition. Clinical examination<br />
does not reveal any spider naevi, swollen legs, hepatomegaly or jaundice. Body mass index is 31 kg/m 2<br />
and he reports to have become overweight at <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 35. He does not report any marijuana or o<strong>the</strong>r drug<br />
consumption but has smoked a lot, from <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 20 to 50 years (between 20 and 30 cigarettes a day).<br />
His biological tests are as follows:<br />
White cell count 9,200/mm 3 , hemoglobin 14.5 g/dL, MCV (mean corpuscular volume) 101 fl, platelet count<br />
135,000/mm 3 , INR 1.12, serum creatinine 0.8 mg/dL, AST (aspartate aminotransferase) 89 IU/L (upper limit<br />
<strong>of</strong> normal value: 40 IU/L), ALT (alanine aminotransferase) 56 (upper limit <strong>of</strong> normal value: 40 IU/L), gammaglutamyltransferase<br />
185 IU/L (upper limit <strong>of</strong> normal value: 55 IU/L), alkaline phosphatase 157 IU/L (upper<br />
limit <strong>of</strong> normal value: 240 IU/L), serum bilirubin 0.9 mg/dL, serum albumin 3.4 g/dL. Alpha-fetoprotein,<br />
ferritin and serum iron are within <strong>the</strong> normal ranges and screening is negative <strong>for</strong> HIV, HCV and HBV.<br />
Ultrasonography has already been per<strong>for</strong>med and has shown liver brightness related to probable steatosis,<br />
however <strong>the</strong> examination was hampered by abdominal obesity.<br />
Question 1: If <strong>the</strong> General Practitioner is correct, give <strong>the</strong> patient characteristics that are present in this<br />
observation that may have led to <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis.<br />
Answer:<br />
Despite differences related to gender (females are more prone than males to develop hepatic damages at<br />
<strong>the</strong> same daily alcohol intake), a recent meta-analysis has shown that individuals drinking more than 25 g/<br />
day are at higher risk <strong>of</strong> morbidity related to cirrhosis than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs (1), even if <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis was<br />
far higher in patients drinking more than 120 g/day. Between <strong>the</strong>se two cut-<strong>of</strong>fs, many individuals develop
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
50 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 51<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
liver cirrhosis whereas o<strong>the</strong>rs do not, even after several decades <strong>of</strong> exposure to ethanol, suggesting <strong>the</strong><br />
major impact <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>actors <strong>for</strong> fibrosis progression. Overweight and obesity are well-documented risk factors<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis (2). Alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease share similar pathways<br />
<strong>of</strong> hepatocyte injury (e.g. activation <strong>of</strong> type 1 liver macrophages, resistance to adiponectin) and obesity is<br />
associated with a more rapid progression <strong>of</strong> hepatic fibrosis in experimental models (3). As example, in<br />
a series <strong>of</strong> more than 1,600 patients with an alcohol intake greater than 50g/day, liver biopsy found liver<br />
cirrhosis in 60% <strong>of</strong> overweight patients, as compared to 35% in non overweight (2). The risk <strong>of</strong> alcoholic<br />
liver disease is higher when alcohol is consumed outside mealtimes, leading to a risk <strong>of</strong> hepatic injury,<br />
cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (4). This is probably related to a more rapid absorption <strong>of</strong> ethanol<br />
and to changes in gut permeability, as may be observed in binge drinking. The deleterious impact <strong>of</strong> drinking<br />
outside mealtimes also seems to be related to changes in gastric alcohol dehydrogenase and hepatic<br />
glutathione (4).<br />
Regarding binge drinking, its definition is not consensual but <strong>the</strong> National Institute on Alcohol Abuse<br />
and Alcoholism has proposed <strong>the</strong> threshold <strong>of</strong> 5 drinks in <strong>the</strong> space <strong>of</strong> 2 hours (4 drinks <strong>for</strong> women). To<br />
date, we have no robust data that prove <strong>the</strong> negative impact <strong>of</strong> binge drinking on fibrosis progression (5).<br />
However, some experimental studies have suggested that binge drinking is associated with increased gut<br />
permeability that leads to <strong>the</strong> release <strong>of</strong> endotoxin and cytokines, <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e enhancing liver inflammation<br />
and fibrosis. Ano<strong>the</strong>r key effect <strong>of</strong> binge drinking on <strong>the</strong> liver is mitochondrial dysfunction, caused ei<strong>the</strong>r by<br />
lipid peroxidation and selective depletion <strong>of</strong> mitochondrial (5).<br />
Several studies indicate that cigarette smoking worsens fibrosis in liver diseases, especially in hepatitis<br />
C, hepatitis B and primary biliary cirrhosis (6). It must be acknowledged that no data are available in<br />
<strong>the</strong> specific setting <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease. Tobacco is also a well-documented risk factor <strong>of</strong> HCC with<br />
risk-ratio ranging from 1.49 to 9.6, regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cause (6). Thus, more attention must be paid to<br />
obtain tobacco withdrawal in patients suffering from chronic liver diseases, especially in alcoholic liver<br />
disease when considering <strong>the</strong> synergic risk <strong>of</strong> tobacco on oral, pharyngeal and esophageal cancers in<br />
heavy drinkers.<br />
In this patient, episodes <strong>of</strong> binge drinking, alcohol consumption outside meals, cigarette smoking and<br />
obesity may have promoted <strong>the</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> fibrosis to cirrhosis.<br />
Question 2: What is your feeling about sobriety when considering <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> GGT, MCV and AST<br />
Answer:<br />
Elevation in γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) are currently considered as<br />
indicators <strong>for</strong> chronic alcohol abuse, but no single laboratory marker can be considered as diagnostic in this<br />
setting (7). The sensitivity and specificity <strong>of</strong> GGT <strong>for</strong> chronic alcohol consumption above 50 g/day are 73%<br />
and 75% respectively, and it is important to point out that <strong>the</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> γ-glutamyltransferase is far lower<br />
in patients with advanced fibrosis. However, <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> GGT is usually higher in patients with alcoholic liver<br />
cirrhosis, as compared with patients with o<strong>the</strong>r liver diseases. Lastly, elevated GGT is frequently observed<br />
in obese patients, especially in men (8). Elevation in mean corpuscular volume is related to a direct toxicity<br />
<strong>of</strong> ethanol on <strong>the</strong> erythrocyte membrane. The diagnostic accuracy <strong>of</strong> an elevated MCV is not very different<br />
from that <strong>of</strong> GGT, with respective sensitivity and specificity at 52% and 85% (7). However, <strong>the</strong> relatively good<br />
specificity must be tempered by <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r causes <strong>for</strong> macrocytosis in cirrhotics, in particular<br />
low folate concentration in serum (due to a certain degree <strong>of</strong> malnutrition) and/or acquired injuries <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
erythrocyte membrane (such as spur cells or burr cells), which may cause hemolysis and disturbed MCV.<br />
Elevation in transaminases, especially aspartate amino transferase (AST) is commonly seen in alcoholic<br />
liver disease and its sensitivity is around 50% with specificity at 80%. The AST/ALT ratio is usually greater<br />
than 1 but this is commonly seen in patients with advanced liver disease, especially cirrhosis, regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cause (9).<br />
In this patient, measurement <strong>of</strong> carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) can be proposed but its good<br />
specificity (92%) is hampered by a sensitivity that is not better than that <strong>of</strong> GGT (69%). Thus, this parameter<br />
is mainly interesting when elevated.<br />
Question 3: You recommend liver biopsy to establish <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis but <strong>the</strong> patient refuses to<br />
undergo <strong>the</strong> procedure. Which alternative tools can be used to assess liver fibrosis<br />
Answer:<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> biopsy is still <strong>the</strong> gold standard <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease. However, when considering<br />
<strong>the</strong> morbidity <strong>of</strong> this invasive procedure and <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> patients with abnormal liver tests related to<br />
chronic alcohol consumption, it is unrealistic to propose liver biopsy to all patients. It seems reasonable<br />
to screen heavy drinkers <strong>for</strong> fibrosis using non-invasive tools. Fibrotest ® , FibrometerA ® and Hepascore ®<br />
are <strong>the</strong> three combinations <strong>of</strong> biomarkers that have proven <strong>the</strong>ir relevance in compensated alcoholic<br />
liver disease (10). The diagnostic accuracy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se three markers was comparable in terms <strong>of</strong> fibrosis<br />
extent in a recent prospective study <strong>of</strong> more than 200 patients who had undergone liver biopsy (10). The<br />
respective areas under <strong>the</strong> ROC curve were 0.83 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> three scores <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> fibrosis greater<br />
or equal than F2 and were <strong>the</strong> following <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis: 0.94 (Fibrotest ® ), 0.94 (FibrometerA ® )<br />
and 0.92 (Hepascore ® ). These per<strong>for</strong>mances were superior to that <strong>of</strong> APRI, Forns and FIB4 scores but<br />
were not improved by <strong>the</strong>ir combination <strong>of</strong> one to ano<strong>the</strong>r. Transient elastography (Fibroscan ® ) has also<br />
demonstrated to be a valid and reproducible non-invasive tool <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in alcoholic liver<br />
disease. However, it must be kept in mind that it is not only influenced by fibrosis, but also by inflammation,<br />
cholestasis and abstinence or alcohol relapse. Never<strong>the</strong>less, two large studies have shown good AUROC<br />
curves: 0.92 (11) and 0.87 (12) <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis. However, cut-<strong>of</strong>fs <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis<br />
are far higher than those used <strong>for</strong> hepatitis C and <strong>the</strong> optimal value which predicts a METAVIR score F4 is<br />
still to be determined (19.5 kPa in (11) and 22.6 in (12)). In this patient, it seems reasonable to evaluate liver<br />
fibrosis using Fibrotest ® , FibrometerA ® or Hepascore ® and to take measurements <strong>of</strong> liver stiffness using<br />
Fibroscan ® .<br />
Question 4: Which pharmacological strategy do you recommend <strong>for</strong> sobriety maintenance<br />
Answer:<br />
Persistence <strong>of</strong> craving episodes in this patient argues <strong>for</strong> a pharmacological support to reach long-term<br />
abstinence. Disulfiram inhibits <strong>the</strong> liver enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase, leading to <strong>the</strong> accumulation <strong>of</strong><br />
acetaldehyde and to a flushing reaction characterized by tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, and hypotension.<br />
Despite some heterogeneity between studies, a meta-analysis on more than 1,500 patients has shown that<br />
disulfiram used in a supervised manner was more efficient than placebo to reach abstinence Disulfiram has<br />
not been evaluated in patients with liver cirrhosis and systemic effects related to <strong>the</strong> pharmacological effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> disulfiram must lead to be very cautious in its use in <strong>the</strong>se patients. A systematic review published in 2010<br />
(13) has compelled 24 randomized controlled trials and has demonstrated that acamprosate, a glutamate<br />
antagonist, is effective in promoting abstinence in increasing abstinence duration by 11% as compared to<br />
placebo. Acamprosate was not associated with any hepatotoxicity but none <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studies included in this<br />
meta-analysis had included patients with liver cirrhosis. Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist that has been<br />
proved to maintain abstinence in several studies, especially when its long-acting injectable <strong>for</strong>m is used<br />
(14). In <strong>the</strong> most recent series on more than 600 patients (14), <strong>the</strong> 380 mg monthly dose <strong>of</strong> naltrexone was<br />
more likely to maintain abstinence than <strong>the</strong> 190 mg dose or than <strong>the</strong> placebo (<strong>the</strong> 380 mg dose reducing<br />
heavy drinking by 25% as compared to placebo). There was no evidence <strong>for</strong> hepatotoxicity in this series<br />
but patients with transaminases greater than 3 times <strong>the</strong> upper limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> normal value were excluded from<br />
<strong>the</strong> study. Lastly, naltrexone in combination with behavioural intervention seems to be more efficient than<br />
acamprosate in a large study in patients without alcoholic liver disease (15).<br />
Thus, naltrexone and acamprosate are promising drugs but <strong>the</strong>y have not been tested in cirrhotic patients<br />
with alcoholic liver disease and are potentially responsible <strong>for</strong> hepatotoxicity in <strong>the</strong>se patients, as well as
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
52 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 53<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
disulfiram. The most promising drug <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong> abstinence in alcoholic cirrhotic patients is<br />
bacl<strong>of</strong>en. Bacl<strong>of</strong>en is an agonist <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> GABA B<br />
receptor which has demonstrated to be more effective than<br />
placebo in promoting alcohol abstinence in a study on 84 cirrhotic patients treated with bacl<strong>of</strong>en or placebo<br />
<strong>for</strong> 12 weeks (16). Mean cumulative abstinence duration was 62.8 days in bacl<strong>of</strong>en-treated patients as<br />
compared to 30.8 days in <strong>the</strong> placebo group. The safety pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en was good and no case <strong>of</strong><br />
hepatotoxicity has been reported. Moreover, it is important to underline that patients with decompensated<br />
cirrhosis were included (38 and 43% <strong>of</strong> patients were Child-Pugh C in each group respectively). Ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
key-point <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence is brief interventions that must incorporate <strong>the</strong> features<br />
defined in <strong>the</strong> five As’ model: Ask about use, Advice to quit or reduce, Assess willingness, Assist to quit or<br />
reduce and Arrange follow up. These brief interventions have shown to reduce <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> alcohol <strong>of</strong><br />
more than 50 g per week in men in a recent meta-analysis (17).<br />
Anton RF, O’Malley SS, Ciraulo DA, Cisler RA, Couper D, Donovan DM, Gastfriend DR, et al.<br />
Combined pharmaco<strong>the</strong>rapies and behavioral interventions <strong>for</strong> alcohol dependence: <strong>the</strong> COMBINE<br />
study: a randomized controlled trial. Jama 2006;295:2003-2017.<br />
Addolorato G, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Cardone S, Vonghia L, Mirijello A, Abenavoli L, et al.<br />
Effectiveness and safety <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en <strong>for</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong> alcohol abstinence in alcohol-dependent<br />
patients with liver cirrhosis: randomised, double-blind controlled study. Lancet 2007;370:1915-1922.<br />
Kaner EF, Dickinson HO, Beyer F, Pienaar E, Schlesinger C, Campbell F, Saunders JB, et al. The<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> brief alcohol interventions in primary care settings: a systematic review. Drug<br />
Alcohol Rev 2009;28:301-323.<br />
In this patient, alcohol dependence must be evaluated using <strong>the</strong> AUDIT score and brief interventions are to<br />
be encouraged. If a pharmacological support is needed, bacl<strong>of</strong>en is <strong>the</strong> drug <strong>of</strong> choice, when considering<br />
<strong>the</strong> probable underlying cirrhosis.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Rehm J, Taylor B, Mohapatra S, Irving H, Baliunas D, Patra J, Roerecke M. Alcohol as a risk factor<br />
<strong>for</strong> liver cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Rev 2010;29:437-445.<br />
Naveau S, Giraud V, Borotto E, Aubert A, Capron F, Chaput JC. Excess weight risk factor <strong>for</strong><br />
alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 1997;25:108-111.<br />
Gao B, Bataller R. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets.<br />
Gastroenterology 2011;141:1572-1585.<br />
Bellentani S, Saccoccio G, Costa G, Tiribelli C, Manenti F, Sodde M, Saveria Croce L, et al.<br />
Drinking habits as c<strong>of</strong>actors <strong>of</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> alcohol induced liver damage. The Dionysos <strong>Study</strong> Group.<br />
Gut 1997;41:845-850.<br />
Mathurin P, Deltenre P. Effect <strong>of</strong> binge drinking on <strong>the</strong> liver: an alarming public health issue Gut<br />
2009;58:613-617.<br />
Altamirano J, Bataller R. Cigarette smoking and chronic liver diseases. Gut 2010;59:1159-1162.<br />
Bell H, Tallaksen CM, Try K, Haug E. Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin and o<strong>the</strong>r markers <strong>of</strong> high<br />
alcohol consumption: a study <strong>of</strong> 502 patients admitted consecutively to a medical department.<br />
Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1994;18:1103-1108.<br />
Puukka K, Hietala J, Koivisto H, Anttila P, Bloigu R, Niemela O. Additive effects <strong>of</strong> moderate<br />
drinking and obesity on serum gamma-glutamyl transferase activity. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:1351-<br />
1354; quiz 1448-1359.<br />
Nyblom H, Berggren U, Balldin J, Olsson R. High AST/ALT ratio may indicate advanced alcoholic<br />
liver disease ra<strong>the</strong>r than heavy drinking. Alcohol Alcohol 2004;39:336-339.<br />
Naveau S, Gaude G, Asnacios A, Agostini H, Abella A, Barri-Ova N, Dauvois B, et al. Diagnostic<br />
and prognostic values <strong>of</strong> noninvasive biomarkers <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in patients with alcoholic liver disease.<br />
Hepatology 2009;49:97-105.<br />
Nguyen-Khac E, Chatelain D, Tramier B, Decrombecque C, Robert B, Joly JP, Brevet M, et al.<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> asymptomatic liver fibrosis in alcoholic patients using fibroscan: prospective<br />
comparison with seven non-invasive laboratory tests. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;28:1188-1198.<br />
Nahon P, Kettaneh A, Tengher-Barna I, Ziol M, de Ledinghen V, Douvin C, Marcellin P, et al.<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis using transient elastography in patients with alcoholic liver disease. J<br />
Hepatol 2008;49:1062-1068.<br />
Rosner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Lehert P, Vecchi S, Soyka M. Acamprosate <strong>for</strong> alcohol<br />
dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010:CD004332.<br />
Garbutt JC, Kranzler HR, O’Malley SS, Gastfriend DR, Pettinati HM, Silverman BL, Loewy JW,<br />
et al. Efficacy and tolerability <strong>of</strong> long-acting injectable naltrexone <strong>for</strong> alcohol dependence: a<br />
randomized controlled trial. Jama 2005;293:1617-1625.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
54 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 55<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
HISTOPATHOLOGICAL ASSESMENT OF ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
Tania Roskams<br />
Leuven, Belgium<br />
E-mail: tania.roskams@uz.kuleuven.ac.be<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Know <strong>the</strong> typical features <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease (ALD) and <strong>the</strong> differences with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
common etiologies <strong>of</strong> liver disease.<br />
• Understand <strong>the</strong> histopathological features which are most important in <strong>the</strong> prognostic<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> ALD, in particular to make <strong>the</strong> differential diagnosis <strong>of</strong> so-called acute-onchronic<br />
liver disease and chronic decompensated liver disease.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
In <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH), <strong>the</strong> clinician takes a liver biopsy to know 1) <strong>the</strong> etiology<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease 2) eventual additional factors, 3) <strong>the</strong> stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease, 4) <strong>the</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease, 5)<br />
in case <strong>of</strong> sudden deterioration in <strong>the</strong> end stage <strong>the</strong> clinician wants to know if this is decompensation <strong>of</strong><br />
end-stage cirrhosis or so-called acute-on-chronic liver disease. These different aspects will be discussed<br />
during this talk.<br />
When receiving a needle biopsy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver <strong>the</strong> first feature a pathologist assesses is <strong>the</strong> architecture. A<br />
special fibrous tissue stain is necessary: e.g. sirius red or Masson’s trichrome. In alcoholic or non-alcoholic<br />
steatohepatitis, a fine threadery perisinusoidal, pericellular type <strong>of</strong> fibrosis is seen, resulting in <strong>the</strong><br />
typical chicken wire fibrosis. This type <strong>of</strong> fibrosis is caused by direct activation <strong>of</strong> stellate cells, which are<br />
located in <strong>the</strong> immediate vicinity <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes. Since alcohol is metabolized in <strong>the</strong> centrolobular area, <strong>the</strong><br />
fibrosis starts in this area, followed by periportal fine threadery fibrosis. Centrolobular fibrosis can affect <strong>the</strong><br />
draining centrolobular veins and cause outflow block at microscopical level. Paraportal shunt vessels and<br />
dilated sinusoids are signs <strong>of</strong> portal hypertension.<br />
The fine threadery perisinusoidal and pericellular type <strong>of</strong> fibrosis differs from biliary fibrosis, which is <strong>the</strong><br />
result <strong>of</strong> ductular reaction associated with activation <strong>of</strong> periductular fibroblasts resulting in porto-portal<br />
septa. The fine threadery fibrosis in NASH also differs from <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in viral or auto-immune<br />
hepatitis which is <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> interface hepatitis or confluent necrosis following <strong>the</strong> blood stream from<br />
which inflammatory cells diapede: from portal tracts to central veins: that’s why in hepatitis portal-central<br />
septa are seen, which is not <strong>the</strong> case in biliary type <strong>of</strong> fibrosis.<br />
The next structures to be examined are <strong>the</strong> portal tracts. In ASH little inflammation is seen compared to<br />
viral or auto-immune hepatitis and <strong>the</strong> infiltrate which is present is mainly composed <strong>of</strong> polymorphonuclear<br />
leucocytes. Portal phlebosclerosis is commonly seen, especially in more advanced stages <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
disease. At <strong>the</strong> interface with <strong>the</strong> parenchyma ductular reaction is <strong>of</strong>ten seen as a sign <strong>of</strong> regeneration,<br />
because alcohol inhibits <strong>the</strong> regenerative capacity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hepatocytes, hence activating <strong>the</strong> progenitor<br />
cell compartment (Roskams et al 2003). It can also be <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> secondary sclerosing cholangitis<br />
which is also quite common in <strong>the</strong> more advanced stages <strong>of</strong> disease, ei<strong>the</strong>r secondary to <strong>the</strong> liver<br />
fibrosis or secondary to sclerosing pancreatitis. Features are similar to primary sclerosing cholangitis:<br />
thickened basement membranes, ductular reaction and cholangiolitis, but ductopenia is lacking. A special<br />
histopathological features is ductular bilirubinostasis: ductules at <strong>the</strong> interface <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> portal tracts with<br />
<strong>the</strong> surrounding parenchyma are dilated and contain bilirubin plugs. This is an early sign <strong>of</strong> infection be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
clinical signs are obvious.<br />
The parenchyma in (N)ASH shows steatosis: microvesicular, mediovesicular and finally macrovesicular.<br />
In alcoholic disease, <strong>the</strong> steatosis is localized in <strong>the</strong> centrolobular area since alcohol is metabolized<br />
<strong>the</strong>re, while in (N)ASH steatosis is distributed more randomly and associated with glycogenated nuclei.<br />
Ballooning <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes and <strong>for</strong>mation <strong>of</strong> Mallory-Denk bodies (MDB) are also typical <strong>for</strong> ASH. MDB<br />
surrounded by polymorphs are called satellitosis and are a sign <strong>of</strong> active alcohol use. To objectivate<br />
MDB an immunohistochemical stain <strong>for</strong> ubiquitin can be used. Also <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> satellitosis is better<br />
objectivated using this stain. Megamitochondria are a sign <strong>of</strong> active metabolization <strong>of</strong> alcohol. Hepatocytic<br />
bilirubinostasis is a sign <strong>of</strong> decompensation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hepatocyte function.<br />
Acute on chronic liver failure<br />
In <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> chronic liver insufficiency, <strong>the</strong> term “acute-on-chronic liver failure” (ACLF) was introduced<br />
about a decade ago in an attempt to demarcate a syndrome with a similar clinical context and onset, but<br />
with heterogeneity in etiology <strong>of</strong> underlying liver disease and rapidity <strong>of</strong> clinical presentation (Jalan 2002 and<br />
Laleman 2006). Although ACLF, in its first (only) working definition, was described as an acute deterioration<br />
in liver function in a patient with previously well-compensated liver disease due to <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> a precipitating<br />
event, yet this entity remains poorly defined. Clinically, this syndrome is characterized by jaundice, hepatic<br />
encephalopathy, hemodynamic instability and/or hepatorenal syndrome, and leads to a mortality <strong>of</strong> 50 to<br />
90% because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> combined impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se manifestations The importance <strong>of</strong> this syndrome resides<br />
in <strong>the</strong> conceptual suggestion <strong>of</strong> reversibility or recompensation since if <strong>the</strong> patient can tide over <strong>the</strong> acute<br />
episode <strong>of</strong> liver failure and associated subsequent multi-organ dysfunction; he could re-emerge above <strong>the</strong><br />
critical threshold <strong>of</strong> functional liver cell mass and as such preclude <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> transplantation (Jalan 2002,<br />
Sen 2002 and Laleman 2006). In this way, ACLF has to be distinguished from chronic relentless hepatic<br />
decompensation (CHD), which usually occurs in patients with end-stage cirrhosis as a result <strong>of</strong> progression<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir underlying liver disease. Because this is deemed irreversible due to loss <strong>of</strong> regeneration potential,<br />
liver transplantation is <strong>the</strong> only <strong>the</strong>rapeutic option. Accordingly <strong>the</strong> key elements in ACLF compared to<br />
<strong>the</strong> CHD state are <strong>the</strong> ability to recompensate (reversibility) and <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> a precipitating hit, which<br />
initiates a cascade <strong>of</strong> devastating events. Whe<strong>the</strong>r this reversibility is related to regeneration potential has<br />
not been investigated yet. There<strong>for</strong>e in a previous study (Katoonizadeh et al 2010) we aimed to address<br />
this question. In addition, we investigated <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> early clinical characteristics, <strong>the</strong> identification<br />
and relative role <strong>of</strong> precipitating factors and a wide spectrum <strong>of</strong> histological parameters (Table). Upon<br />
histological pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis and use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clinical working definition, we were able to characterize two<br />
different groups <strong>of</strong> patients in our homogenous population <strong>of</strong> patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. In an<br />
attempt to elucidate <strong>the</strong> different outcome despite relatively similar clinical presentation, we reviewed <strong>the</strong><br />
two essential elements characterizing ACLF, namely regeneration potential and <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> precipitating<br />
events. Regenerative ability was studied in <strong>the</strong> 2 groups by evaluating <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> activation <strong>of</strong> HPCs and<br />
hepatocytes replication. Our results showed that HPCs were equally highly activated in both groups, while<br />
<strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> proliferating hepatocytes was comparably low. Accordingly, difference in regenerative ability<br />
seems – at least histologically – not to explain <strong>the</strong> disparity in survival and challenges <strong>the</strong> quintessence <strong>of</strong><br />
“regenerative potential” in <strong>the</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> ACLF. Although we admit to certain shortcomings related to <strong>the</strong><br />
manner <strong>of</strong> assessment, at present histological assessment, however, remains by far <strong>the</strong> most ‘simple’, most<br />
clinically accessible and direct index <strong>of</strong> regenerative potential.<br />
If we next consider <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> a potential precipitating event, we documented a key role <strong>for</strong> an apparently<br />
triggered and dysregulated inflammatory response. Our investigations revealed that in patients<br />
with ACLF features <strong>of</strong> infection such as SIRS and ductular bilirubinostasis at biopsy were early<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> ACLF.<br />
Increased susceptibility to infections in patients with (alcoholic) cirrhosis has already previously been reported<br />
and is now generally accepted (Wong 2005). In clinical practice, however, <strong>the</strong> problem is <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> a highlysensitive,<br />
cheap, easily and rapidly available detection assays <strong>for</strong> detection <strong>of</strong> infection. In this setting,<br />
positive SIRS criteria, used and validated already earlier in septic shock and multi-organ failure (Muckart<br />
1997), might represent an alternative approach and early additive tool. In our study, we clearly showed that
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
56 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 57<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
SIRS was an independent predictor <strong>of</strong> in-hospital mortality in ACLF. Ano<strong>the</strong>r independent predictor <strong>of</strong> shortterm<br />
mortality was ductular bilirubinostasis on biopsy which is an important marker <strong>of</strong> sepsis and multiorgan<br />
failure (Lefkowitch 1982). Of high importance, ductular bilirubinostasis on histology showed a<br />
clear correlation with development <strong>of</strong> infection during hospitalization. Taken toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> findings <strong>of</strong><br />
this study suggest that SIRS and ductular bilirubinostasis, as early signs <strong>of</strong> infectious complications, might<br />
be helpful to detect ACLF in a stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease when <strong>the</strong>rapeutic interventions might still be effective.<br />
Table 2<br />
A histopathological prognoctic scoring system is currently being validated internationally (Altamirano et al).<br />
Table 1<br />
Multivariate analysis ascertained <strong>the</strong> following parameters to be related to mortality: age (P= 0.0003),<br />
SIRS within <strong>the</strong> first 48 hours <strong>of</strong> admission (P=0.05) and <strong>the</strong> histological presence <strong>of</strong> marked ductular<br />
bilirubinostasis (P=0.04) and Mallory bodies (P=0.01). In <strong>the</strong> CHD group, <strong>the</strong> small number <strong>of</strong> death did<br />
not allow us to establish significant differences <strong>for</strong> in hospital mortality in comparison with <strong>the</strong> ACLF group<br />
Results<br />
Individual parameters:<br />
Clinical parameters predictive <strong>of</strong> in-hospital mortality in ACLF within 48 hours <strong>of</strong> admission and histological<br />
features predictive <strong>for</strong> mortality at <strong>the</strong> moment <strong>of</strong> diagnosis are listed in table 4. Univariate analysis <strong>of</strong> a<br />
wide spectrum <strong>of</strong> clinical parameters showed age, INR and SIRS as predictors <strong>of</strong> in-hospital mortality.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> moment <strong>of</strong> diagnosis (around 1 week after admission) serum creatinine (P=0.008) and bilirubin<br />
(P=0.01) levels also predicted outcome. Among histological features marked ductular bilirubinostasis<br />
(P=0.003) (Figure 3) and Mallory bodies (P=0.002) predicted in-hospital mortality.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
58 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 59<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Lucey, M.R., Mathurin, P., and Morgan, T.R. 2009. Alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med<br />
360:2758-2769.<br />
Gao, B., and Bataller, R. 2011. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets.<br />
Gastroenterology 141:1572-1585.<br />
Sozio, M., and Crabb, D.W. 2008. Alcohol and lipid metabolism. Am J Physiol<br />
Endocrinol Metab 295:E10-16.<br />
Altamirano J, Miquel R, Katoonizadeh A, et al. Development and validation <strong>of</strong> a novel histological<br />
classification with prognostic value <strong>for</strong> alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology 2011;54:968A.<br />
Jalan R, Williams R. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: pathophysiological basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic<br />
options. Blood Purif 2002; 20:252-61<br />
Laleman W, et al. Effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> molecular adsorbent recirculating system and Prome<strong>the</strong>us devices<br />
on sytemic haemodynamics and vasoactive agents in patients with acut-on-chronic alcoholic liver<br />
failure Crit Care 2006; 10: R108<br />
Lefkowitch JH: Bile ductular cholestasis: an ominous histopathologic sign related to sepsis and<br />
‘cholangitis lenta’. Hum Pathol 1982; 13(1): 19-24<br />
Roskams et al Oxidative stress and oval cell accumulation in mice and humans with alcoholic and<br />
nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Am J Pathol 2003; 1301-1311<br />
Sens S, Williams R, Jalan R. The pathophysiological basis <strong>of</strong> acute-on-chronic liver failure. <strong>Liver</strong><br />
2002; 22. 5-13<br />
Wong et al. Sepsis in cirrhosis: report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 7 th meeting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> International Ascites Club.<br />
Gut2005; 54;718-725<br />
NONINVASIVE TOOLS IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF ALD<br />
Sebastian Mueller<br />
Heidelberg, Germany<br />
E-mail: sebastian.mueller@urz.uni-heidelberg.de<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• ALD is underestimated due to limitations in noninvasively screening <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease.<br />
• Measurement <strong>of</strong> liver stiffness (LS) by transient elastography is now <strong>the</strong> method <strong>of</strong> choice<br />
to screen <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver fibrosis/cirrhosis (F3/4 stage). Alternative tools such as acoustic<br />
radiation <strong>for</strong>ce imaging (ARFI) or magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) are under<br />
investigation.<br />
• Normal liver stiffness (
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
60 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 61<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Early non-invasive screening <strong>of</strong> people at high risk to progress to or with advanced ALD will also improve<br />
<strong>the</strong>rapeutic options. First, non-addicted patients at high genetic risk <strong>for</strong> fibrosis progression due to PNPLA3<br />
variant mutation can be identified at early stages. These patients can be easily motivated to completely<br />
abstain from alcohol being aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir increased liver stiffness. Second, newly identified patients with<br />
asymptomatic cirrhosis can be screened <strong>for</strong> complications (varices, HCC) and earlier enrolled in transplant<br />
programs. Third, <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption and its negative effect on o<strong>the</strong>r liver disease namely HCV<br />
or NAFLD can be identified and addressed earlier.<br />
GENERAL CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS OF ALD<br />
Most patients with moderate <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> ALD are asymptomatic and it can be only detected by appropriate<br />
sreening methods. Some patients can show signs suggestive <strong>of</strong> harmful alcohol drinking such as bilateral<br />
parotid gland hypertrophy, muscle wasting, malnutrition, Dupuytren’s sign and signs <strong>of</strong> symmetric<br />
peripheral neuropathy. In patients with cirrhosis, most physical findings are not specific <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> etiology.<br />
However, some signs such gynecomastia and extensive spider angiomas may be more frequently seen<br />
in those with alcohol as <strong>the</strong> main cause <strong>of</strong> liver disease. The diagnosis <strong>of</strong> ALD is frequently suspected<br />
upon documentation <strong>of</strong> excess alcohol consumption > 30 g/d and <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> clinical and/or biological<br />
abnormalities suggestive <strong>of</strong> liver injury. However, screening <strong>of</strong> ALD is difficult as significant proportions<br />
<strong>of</strong> patients with histological features <strong>of</strong> ALD do not show any clinical symptoms. <strong>Liver</strong> disease is shown<br />
by physical examination, laboratory, imaging or elastography findings. In contrast to <strong>the</strong> poorly sensitive<br />
physical examination, initial stages <strong>of</strong> ALD such as AFL or ASH can be diagnosed e.g. by ultrasound or<br />
laboratory tests. Routine blood tests such as MCV, GGT, AST and ALT can indicate early ALD, endstage<br />
ALD is suspected by decreased liver function tests and thrombocytopenia. While elevated transaminases<br />
are indicative <strong>of</strong> ongoing hepatocellular inflammation or destruction, GGT is not related to liver function per<br />
se and requires careful discrimination from cholestatic and biliary liver disease or o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
DIAGNOSIS OF ALD BY BLOOD TESTS<br />
Routine blood tests such as mean corpuscular volume (MCV), GGT, AST and ALT can indicate early ALD<br />
whereas advanced ALD is suspected if <strong>the</strong>re is decreased albumin, prolonged prothombin time, increased<br />
bilirubin level or thrombocytopenia.<br />
Although no single laboratory marker definitely establishes chronic alcohol consumption, carbohydrate<br />
deficient transferrin (CDT) and GGT are <strong>the</strong> most frequently used markers to detect previous alcohol<br />
consumption [2]. Indeed, <strong>the</strong> sensitivity <strong>for</strong> detection <strong>of</strong> daily ethanol consumption >50 g <strong>of</strong> CDT (69%)<br />
and GGT (73%) are higher than those <strong>of</strong> AST (50%), ALT (35%), and MCV (52%) [3]. The specificity <strong>of</strong><br />
CDT was 92%, compared with 75%, 82%, 86%, and 85% <strong>for</strong> GGT, AST, ALT, and MCV, respectively [3].<br />
As <strong>the</strong> measurement <strong>of</strong> GGT is easy and inexpensive, it remains <strong>the</strong> most frequently used marker <strong>for</strong> early<br />
detection <strong>of</strong> chronic alcohol misuse [4]. GGT is typically 4 times higher in ALD patients as compared to<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r liver diseases [5] and can reach up to 4000 U/ml in some individuals. However, GGT looses its alcohol<br />
specificity in more advanced stages. AST is typically elevated to a level <strong>of</strong> 2-6 times <strong>the</strong> upper limits <strong>of</strong><br />
normal in severe alcoholic hepatitis while AST levels <strong>of</strong> more than 300 IU/L are rarely seen. In about 70% <strong>of</strong><br />
patients, <strong>the</strong> AST/ALT ratio is higher than two, which is especially relevant <strong>for</strong> patients without cirrhosis [6].<br />
Combination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se routine blood test fur<strong>the</strong>r increases <strong>the</strong> accuracy to diagnose ALD. A sensitivity and<br />
specificity > 90% has been demonstrated <strong>for</strong> a combination <strong>of</strong> GGT, MCV, IgA, CDT, and AST/ALT ratio [7].<br />
NON INVASIVE TESTS TO ESTIMATE LIVER FIBROSIS (FIG. 2).<br />
Hepatic Imaging techniques<br />
Imaging techniques such as ultrasonography, MRI and CT may allow <strong>the</strong> detection <strong>of</strong> fatty liver, help exclude<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r causes <strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease and contribute to <strong>the</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> advanced liver disease and its<br />
complications independent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> etiology [8]. However, imaging studies do not have a role in establishing<br />
alcohol as <strong>the</strong> specific etiology <strong>of</strong> liver disease. The major role <strong>of</strong> imaging techniques is to exclude o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
causes <strong>of</strong> abnormal liver tests in a patient who abuses alcohol, such as obstructive cholestasis, or infiltrative<br />
and neoplastic diseases <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver. With respect to fibrosis assessment, all imaging techniques have to rely<br />
on so called definite morphological signs <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis such as nodular aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver or recanalization <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> umbilical vein. Despite sometimes high diagnostic accuracy <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> detection <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver cirrhosis<br />
(ALC) under study conditions, imaging techniques are especially limited in <strong>the</strong> daily routine in diagnosing<br />
compensated liver cirrhosis (sensitivity
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
62 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 63<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
elastography, serum markers seem to be limited in patients with ALD to those that are not accessible by TE.<br />
Transient elastography<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> liver stiffness (LS) by transient elastography (TE) has revolutionized <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> fibrosis/<br />
cirrhosis in patients with ALD [13, 23, 24]. Although TE/Fibroscan was <strong>the</strong> first technique widely used<br />
alternative techniques such as ARFI or magnetic resonance elastography are currently under investigation<br />
and seem to be comparable with regard to accuracy (Fig. 6). Major advantage <strong>of</strong> TE is that <strong>the</strong> results are<br />
a) noninvasive b) immediate (results obtained within 10 min) c) can be per<strong>for</strong>med in >90% <strong>of</strong> patients, and<br />
d) has a very small sample error <strong>of</strong> less than 5% [25] (Fig. 7). These characteristics render TE an ideal tool<br />
<strong>for</strong> diagnosis, screening and follow up <strong>of</strong> ALD patients. LS <strong>of</strong> 8 and 12.5 kPa represent generally accepted<br />
cut-<strong>of</strong>f values <strong>for</strong> F3 and F4 fibrosis whereas LS values below 6 kPa are considered as normal and exclude<br />
ongoing liver disease (Fig. 8 and 9). LS highly correlates with portal pressure and esophageal varices and<br />
HCC are likely at values > 20 kPa [26, 27].<br />
The major studies solely focusing on ALD patients demonstrated <strong>the</strong> usefulness <strong>of</strong> TE <strong>for</strong> fibrosis stage F3<br />
and F4 with an AUROC>0.92 [16, 28-30]. However, especially in those studies that did not consider <strong>the</strong><br />
degree <strong>of</strong> steatohepatitis, cut <strong>of</strong>f values <strong>for</strong> F3 and F4 fibrosis were considerably higher as compared to<br />
patients with HCV infection (Fig. 10). Meanwhile, several conditions are known that increase LS irrespective<br />
<strong>of</strong> fibrosis stage which include: hepatic infiltration with tumor cells, all inflammatory conditions (hepatitis)<br />
[31, 32], deposition <strong>of</strong> amyloid [33], liver congestion [34], and mechanic cholestasis [35] (Fig. 11 and<br />
12). Histological subanalysis confirmed that besides fibrosis stage conditions <strong>of</strong> increased pressure and<br />
typical features <strong>of</strong> ALD such as ballooning, Mallory-Denk body deposition and perisinusoidal inflammatory<br />
infiltrates highly correlate with LS but not steatosis [29] <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> demonstrated thatThe knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
conditions has led to more optimized diagnostic algorithms in using and interpreting TE in <strong>the</strong> clinical<br />
context [13]. This is especially required <strong>for</strong> ALD patients since <strong>the</strong>se patients may present with a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
clinical features (steatosis, steatohepatitis, cardiaque insufficiency, cholestasis, HCC) that all may interfere<br />
with TE.<br />
First preliminary studies indicate that 1. TE will also help us to discriminate between relapsers and<br />
abstainers, 2. TE may even directly affect drinking behaviour most likely in non-addicted patients not being<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir individual fibrosis risk and 3. TE will allow us to screen <strong>the</strong> population <strong>for</strong> cirrhosis to obtain<br />
first robust prevalence data on alcoholic liver cirrhosis.<br />
Thus, a small study on 23 heavy drinkers admitted <strong>for</strong> alcohol detoxification over 7 days were followed up<br />
by TE over 60 days [36] (Fig. 16). <strong>Liver</strong> stiffness significantly decreased (-20%) in abstinent patients but<br />
increased (32%) in those who continued to drink. In ano<strong>the</strong>r important study, liver stiffness was measured<br />
by TE in 1190 subjects >45 years old from a general population attending <strong>for</strong> a medical check-up were<br />
consecutively enrolled in <strong>the</strong> study [1] (Fig. 17). All subjects were submitted to medical examination and<br />
laboratory tests in addition to LSM, per<strong>for</strong>med on <strong>the</strong> same day by a single operator. Subjects with LS values<br />
>8 kPa were referred to a liver unit <strong>for</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r investigations. 89 (7.5%) had LSM >8 kPa including nine<br />
patients with LSM >13 kPa. Despite <strong>the</strong> fact that normal liver tests were observed in 43% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m, a specific<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease was found in all cases. ALD was <strong>the</strong> cause in 27 patients ei<strong>the</strong>r alone or in<br />
combination with NAFLD. <strong>Liver</strong> biopsy could be obtained <strong>for</strong> 27 patients, including all nine patients with LS<br />
>13 kPa. <strong>Liver</strong> biopsy confirmed liver cirrhosis in <strong>the</strong>se 9 patients with LS>13 kPA due to ALD (n=5), chronic<br />
hepatitis C (n=3) or chronic hepatitis B (n=1). The 18 remaining biopsies showed liver fibrosis in all cases<br />
except one (isolated steatosis), with ALD and NAFLD being present in six and eight cases, respectively.<br />
Importantly, three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients with confirmed cirrhosis due to ALD stopped drinking immediately until<br />
now. The study indicates that 1. TE is a useful and specific procedure to screen <strong>for</strong> cirrhosis in <strong>the</strong> general<br />
population, 2. advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis is much higher in <strong>the</strong> general population as assumed so far<br />
(up to 7%) and 3. a significant proportion <strong>of</strong> patients with alcoholic cirrhosis have normal lab tests but will<br />
stop drinking immediately upon diagnosis <strong>of</strong> advanced liver disease.<br />
Figure 1: Gommorrhi silberfärbung, sample error, several papers estimated 15-50%<br />
The major confounding condition in ALD patients that increases LS is steatohepatitis.<br />
This problem was addressed in a recent study on 101 biopsy proven patients with ALD [29]. Sequential LS<br />
analysis be<strong>for</strong>e and after normalization <strong>of</strong> serum transaminases was per<strong>for</strong>med in a learning cohort <strong>of</strong> 50<br />
patients with ALD admitted <strong>for</strong> alcohol detoxification (Fig. 13 and 14). LS decreased in almost all patients<br />
within a mean observation interval <strong>of</strong> 5.3 days. The decrease in LS correlated best with <strong>the</strong> decrease in<br />
AST. No significant changes in LS were observed below AST levels <strong>of</strong> 100 U/L. By excluding those patients<br />
with AST > 100 U/L at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> LS assessment in a second validation cohort <strong>of</strong> 101 biopsy proven ALD<br />
patients, AUROC <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> detection <strong>of</strong> F3 and F4 fibrosis could be both increased to 0.94. Meanwhile, <strong>the</strong>se<br />
observations have been confirmed in two independent study populations.<br />
The actual diagnostic algorithm <strong>for</strong> TE to screen ALD patients is as follows (Fig. 15). If TE can be correctly<br />
per<strong>for</strong>med (>70%) with <strong>the</strong> M probe advanced fibrosis can be robustly excluded in typically >40% <strong>of</strong> patients.<br />
Patients with increased LS>8 kPa should undergo simultaneous abdominal ultrasound and laboratory tests<br />
that should include AST levels. If morphological abnormalities, congestion or cholestasis can be excluded<br />
by ultrasound and AST levels are 100 U/l, patients should abstain from alcohol<br />
until transaminases have normalized and LS can be reassessed. Likewise, interventions can be applied<br />
to patients with congestion (diuretics) or mechanic cholestasis (biliary drainage). Only if LS>30 kPa, <strong>the</strong><br />
diagnosis <strong>of</strong> liver cirrhosis can be established with certainty despite <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> severe steatohepatitis.<br />
In cases <strong>of</strong> invalid measurements with <strong>the</strong> M probe, most patients can be successfully measured with <strong>the</strong><br />
XL probe (>95%). The role <strong>of</strong> alternative tools to assess liver stiffness such as ARFI and MRE or serum<br />
markers in <strong>the</strong> remaining patients needs to be addressed in <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> accuracy <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy in assessing fibrosis is limited due to sampling error and interobserver<br />
variability [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. 2 Abdi W, Millan JC, Mezey E. Sampling variability on percutaneous liver biopsy.<br />
Arch Intern Med
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
64 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 65<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
No sampling variability was found <strong>for</strong> fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, nonspecific hepatitis, fulminant hepatitis,<br />
leukemic infiltrate, and venous congestion. Cirrhosis was diagnosed in 80% <strong>of</strong> cases at <strong>the</strong> first biopsy<br />
but in all cases after three biopsies. Chronic aggressive and chronic persistent hepatitis were diagnosed<br />
correctly in two <strong>of</strong> three cases each at <strong>the</strong> first biopsy, and in all cases after three biopsies. Metastatic<br />
carcinoma was detected in 46% <strong>of</strong> cases at <strong>the</strong> first biopsy and in 69% after three biopsies. Granulomas<br />
were missed once on <strong>the</strong> first biopsy, but found on a subsequent biopsy. The amounts <strong>of</strong> fat and fibrosis in<br />
<strong>the</strong> biopsy specimens <strong>of</strong>ten were not representative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> amounts present at autopsy.<br />
3 Bedossa P, Dargere D, Paradis V. Sampling variability <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology<br />
2003;38:1449-57.<br />
Surgical samples <strong>of</strong> livers from patients with chronic hepatitis C were studied. Measurement <strong>of</strong> fibrosis was<br />
per<strong>for</strong>med on <strong>the</strong> whole section by using both image analysis and METAVIR score (reference value). From<br />
<strong>the</strong> digitized image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole section, virtual biopsy specimens <strong>of</strong> increasing length were produced.<br />
Fibrosis was assessed independently on each individual virtual biopsy specimen. Results were compared<br />
with <strong>the</strong> reference value according to <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> biopsy specimen. By using image analysis, <strong>the</strong><br />
coefficient <strong>of</strong> variation <strong>of</strong> fibrosis measurement with 15-mm long biopsy specimens was 55%; and <strong>for</strong><br />
biopsy specimens <strong>of</strong> 25-mm length it was 45%. By using <strong>the</strong> METAVIR scoring system, 65% <strong>of</strong> biopsies<br />
15 mm in length were categorized correctly according to <strong>the</strong> reference value. This increased to 75% <strong>for</strong><br />
a 25-mm liver biopsy specimen without any substantial benefit <strong>for</strong> longer biopsy specimens. Sampling<br />
variability <strong>of</strong> fibrosis is a significant limitation in <strong>the</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> fibrosis with liver biopsy. In conclusion,<br />
this study suggests that a length <strong>of</strong> at least 25 mm is necessary to evaluate fibrosis accurately with a<br />
semiquantitative score. Sampling variability becomes a major limitation when using more accurate methods<br />
such as automated image analysis<br />
The slides were blindly coded and randomly divided among two hepatopathologists. Inflammation and<br />
fibrosis were scored according to <strong>the</strong> standard grading (inflammation) and staging (fibrosis) method based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> modified Scheuer system. Following <strong>the</strong> interpretation, <strong>the</strong> slides were uncoded to compare <strong>the</strong><br />
results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> right and left lobes. Fifty <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples were blindly resubmitted to each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pathologists to<br />
determine <strong>the</strong> intraobserver variation. RESULTS: Thirty <strong>of</strong> 124 patients (24.2%) had a difference <strong>of</strong> at least<br />
one grade, and 41 <strong>of</strong> 124 patients (33.1%) had a difference <strong>of</strong> at least one stage between <strong>the</strong> right and left<br />
lobes. In 18 patients (14.5%), interpretation <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis was given in one lobe, whereas stage 3 fibrosis was<br />
given in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. A difference <strong>of</strong> two stages or two grades was found in only three (2.4%) and two (1.6%)<br />
patients, respectively. Of <strong>the</strong> 50 samples that were examined twice, <strong>the</strong> grading by each pathologist on <strong>the</strong><br />
second examination differed from <strong>the</strong> first examination in 0% and 4%, and <strong>the</strong> staging differed in 6% and<br />
10%, respectively. All observed variations were <strong>of</strong> one grade or one stage. CONCLUSIONS: <strong>Liver</strong> biopsy<br />
samples taken from <strong>the</strong> right and left hepatic lobes differed in histological grading and staging in a large<br />
proportion <strong>of</strong> chronic hepatitis C virus patients; however, differences <strong>of</strong> more than one stage or grade were<br />
uncommon. A sampling error may have led to underdiagnosis <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis in 14.5% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients. These<br />
differences could not be attributed to intraobserver variation, which appeared to be low.<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> accuracy <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy in assessing fibrosis is limited due to sampling error and interobserver<br />
variability [2, 3, 4, 5, 6].<br />
Figure 2<br />
4Cadranel JF, Rufat P, Degos F. Practices <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy in France: results <strong>of</strong> a prospective nationwide<br />
survey. For <strong>the</strong> Group <strong>of</strong> Epidemiology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French <strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> (AFEF).<br />
Hepatology 2000;32:477-81.<br />
5Maharaj B, Maharaj RJ, Leary WP, et al. Sampling variability and its influence on <strong>the</strong> diagnostic yield <strong>of</strong><br />
percutaneous needle biopsy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver. Lancet 1986;1:523-5.<br />
In an investigation to determine <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> sampling variability on <strong>the</strong> diagnostic yield <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy,<br />
3 consecutive samples were obtained from each <strong>of</strong> 75 patients by redirecting <strong>the</strong> biopsy needle through<br />
a single entry site. In 14.7% <strong>of</strong> patients all 3 specimens were normal, and in 36% <strong>the</strong>re were similar<br />
abnormalities in all 3 specimens. In <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r patients, sampling variability between specimens was present.<br />
In those patients with cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, metastatic carcinoma, or hepatic granulomas <strong>the</strong><br />
histological abnormality was present in all 3 biopsy specimens in only 50%, 54.5%, 50%, and 18.8% <strong>of</strong><br />
patients, respectively. No complications were recorded. These findings show that important pathology can<br />
be overlooked if only a single biopsy specimen is taken, and that <strong>the</strong> method <strong>of</strong> obtaining 3 consecutive<br />
specimens improves <strong>the</strong> diagnostic yield <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy without an associated increase in complications.<br />
Regev A, Berho M, Jeffers LJ, et al. Sampling error and intraobserver variation in liver biopsy in patients<br />
with chronic HCV infection. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:2614-8.<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this study was to determine <strong>the</strong> rate and extent <strong>of</strong> sampling error in patients with chronic hepatitis<br />
C virus infection, and to assess <strong>the</strong> intraobserver variation with <strong>the</strong> commonly used scoring system proposed<br />
by Scheuer and modified by Batts and Ludwig. METHODS: A total <strong>of</strong> 124 patients with chronic hepatitis<br />
C virus infection underwent simultaneous laparoscopy-guided biopsies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> right and left hepatic lobes.<br />
Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and with trichrome.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
66 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 67<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 3<br />
The Fibrotest® (Biopredictive, Paris, France) score was determined using <strong>the</strong> following equation:22 4.467<br />
log [A2M (g/L)] - 1.357 log [haptoglobin (g/L)] + 1.017 log [GGT (IU/L)] + 0.0281 x [age (years)] + 1.737 x<br />
log [bilirubin (μmol/L] - 1.184 x [Apo-A1 (g/L)] + 0.301 x gender (female = 0, male = 1) - 5.540.<br />
The Fibrometer® (BioLiveScale, Angers, France) score was calculated as follows:6 -0.169 PT (%) + 0.015<br />
A2M (mg/dL) + 0.032 HA (μg/L) - 0.140 age (years) + 16.541.<br />
The PGA & -PGAA indices were calculated by adding <strong>the</strong> 4 laboratory parameters (PT, GGT, Apo-A1 and<br />
A2M) scored on a 0-4 scale according to published methods.3,13<br />
The APRI was calculated as described elsewhere.16<br />
Blood hyualuronic acid levels were measured with a immunoenzymatic assay.<br />
Lastly, <strong>the</strong> Hepascore logistic regression model was calculated using <strong>the</strong> following equation:18 y = exp<br />
[-4.185818 - (0.0249 x age) + (0.7464 x gender) + (1.0039) x A2M) + (0.0302 x HA) + (0.0691 x bilirubin) -<br />
(0.012 x GGT)]. The Hepascore is defined as y/1+y.<br />
Figure 4<br />
Figure 6<br />
Figure 5
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
68 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 69<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 7<br />
Figure 9<br />
Figure 8<br />
Already first study included ALD<br />
50 studies all liver diseases<br />
F3/F4, cut <strong>of</strong> values<br />
2 von 3 im FS unterschaetzten Pat. scheinen Leberzirrhose zu haben 10 Pat. sind von Histologie<br />
unterschaetzt worden, bei 4 keine ausreichenden In<strong>for</strong>mationen, bei den restlichen 6 in jedem Fall Zeichen<br />
der Leber zirrhose Conclusion: FS entdeckt nichtinvasiv 3x mehr Zirrhosen, sample error<br />
Figure 10
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
70 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 71<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Castera L, Vergniol J, Foucher J, Le Bail B, Chanteloup E, Haaser M, Darriet M, Couzigou P, De Ledinghen<br />
V. Prospective comparison <strong>of</strong> transient elastography, Fibrotest, APRI, and liver biopsy <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 2005 Feb; 128(2): 343-350<br />
Marcellin P, Ziol M, Bedossa P, Douvin C, Poupon R, de Ledinghen V, Beaugrand M. Non-invasive<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis by stiffness measurement in patients with chronic hepatitis B. <strong>Liver</strong> Int 2009<br />
Feb; 29(2): 242-247.<br />
Figure 12<br />
Higher ctu <strong>of</strong>f in ALD, cite studied,<br />
By <strong>the</strong> wa also PBC and PSC higher cut <strong>of</strong>fs, in heart failure not measurable<br />
Nguyen-Khac E, Chatelain D, Tramier B, Decrombecque C, Robert B, Joly JP, Brevet M, Grignon P, Lion<br />
S, Le Page L, Dupas JL. Assessment <strong>of</strong> asymptomatic liver fibrosis in alcoholic patients using fibroscan:<br />
prospective comparison with seven non-invasive laboratory tests. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008 Nov 15;<br />
28(10): 1188-1198.<br />
39. Kim SG, Kim YS, Jung SW, Kim HK, Jang JY, Moon JH, Kim HS, Lee JS, Lee MS, Shim CS, Kim BS.<br />
[The usefulness <strong>of</strong> transient elastography to diagnose cirrhosis in patients with alcoholic liver disease].<br />
Korean J Hepatol 2009 Mar; 15(1): 42-51.<br />
40. Mueller S, Millonig G, Sarovska L, Friedrich S, Reimann FM, Pritsch M, Eisele S, Stickel F, Longerich<br />
T, Schirmacher P, Seitz HK. Increased liver stiffness in alcoholic liver disease: differentiating fibrosis from<br />
steatohepatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2010 Feb 28; 16(8): 966-972.<br />
Figure 11<br />
Figure 13<br />
Various results, parameters that alter with cirrhosis, probablity, statistical approach, should not <strong>for</strong>get that<br />
a single patient is treated<br />
I am aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> manifold literature recently with statistical apporaches, LS is an objective parameters<br />
such as temperature
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
72 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 73<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 14<br />
Figure 16<br />
Figure 15<br />
Figure 17
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
74 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 75<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Roulot D, Costes JL, Buyck JF, Warzocha U, Gambier N, Czernichow S, et al. Transient<br />
elastography as a screening tool <strong>for</strong> liver fibrosis and cirrhosis in a community-based population<br />
aged over 45 years. GUT 2011;60:977-984.<br />
Hock B SM, Domke I, Grunert VP, Wuertemberger M, Schiemann U, Horster S, Limmer<br />
C, Stecker G, Soyka M. Validity <strong>of</strong> carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (%CDT), gammaglutamyltransferase<br />
(gamma-GT) and mean corpuscular erythrocyte volume (MCV) as<br />
biomarkers <strong>for</strong> chronic alcohol abuse: a study in patients with alcohol dependence and liver<br />
disorders <strong>of</strong> non-alcoholic and alcoholic origin. Addiction 2005;100:1477-1486.<br />
Bell H TC, Try K, Haug E. Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin and o<strong>the</strong>r markers <strong>of</strong> high alcohol<br />
consumption: a study <strong>of</strong> 502 patients admitted consecutively to a medical department. Alcohol<br />
Clin Exp Res 1994;18:1103-1108.<br />
Seitz HK. Additive effects <strong>of</strong> moderate drinking and obesity on serum gamma-glutamyl<br />
transferase. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:1252-1253.<br />
Ferenci P, Dragosics B, Pesendorfer FX, Schubert H. [Gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase in<br />
alcoholic liver diseases]. Acta Med Austriaca 1976;3:50-54.<br />
Cohen JA, Kaplan MM. The SGOT/SGPT ratio--an indicator <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease. Dig Dis Sci<br />
1979;24:835-838.<br />
Helander A, Tabak<strong>of</strong>f B. Biochemical markers <strong>of</strong> alcohol use and abuse: experiences from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pilot <strong>Study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> WHO/ISBRA Collaborative Project on state and trait markers <strong>of</strong> alcohol.<br />
International Society <strong>for</strong> Biomedical Research on Alcoholism. Alcohol Alcohol 1997;32:133-144.<br />
Zoli M, Cordiani MR, Marchesini G, Iervese T, Labate AM, Bonazzi C, et al. Prognostic indicators<br />
in compensated cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;86:1508-1513.<br />
Sasso M, Miette V, Sandrin L, Beaugrand M. The controlled attenuation parameter (CAP):<br />
A novel tool <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> non-invasive evaluation <strong>of</strong> steatosis using Fibroscan((R)). Clin Res Hepatol<br />
Gastroenterol 2011.<br />
d’Assignies G RM, Khiat A, Lepanto L, Chagnon M, Kauffmann C, et al. Noninvasive quantitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> human liver steatosis using magnetic resonance and bioassay methods Eur Radiol 2009;19<br />
2033-2040.<br />
Mancini M PA, Annuzzi G, Liuzzi R, Giacco R, Medagli C, Cremone M, Clemente G, Maurea S,<br />
Riccardi G, Rivellese AA, Salvatore M. Sonographic hepatic-renal ratio as indicator <strong>of</strong> hepatic<br />
steatosis: comparison with (1)H magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Metabolism<br />
2009;58:1724-1730.<br />
Ratziu V BS, Cortez-Pinto H, Day C, Marchesini G. A position statement on NAFLD/NASH based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> EASL 2009 special conference. J Hepatol 2010;53:372-384.<br />
Mueller S, Sandrin L. <strong>Liver</strong> stiffness: a novel parameter <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> liver disease Hepatic<br />
Medicine: Evidence and Research 2010;2:49-67.<br />
Castera L. Non-invasive assessment <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatol Int 2011;<br />
5:625-634.<br />
Naveau S GG, Asnacios A, Agostini H, Abella A, Barri-Ova N, Dauvois B, Prevot S, Ngo Y,<br />
Munteanu M, Balian A, Njike-Nakseu M, Perlemuter G, Poynard T. Diagnostic and prognostic<br />
values <strong>of</strong> noninvasive biomarkers <strong>of</strong> fibrosis in patients with alcoholic liver disease.<br />
Hepatology 2009;49:97-105.<br />
Nguyen-Khac E, Chatelain D, Tramier B, Decrombecque C, Robert B, Joly JP, et al. Assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> asymptomatic liver fibrosis in alcoholic patients using fibroscan: prospective comparison with<br />
seven non-invasive laboratory tests. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;28:1188-1198.<br />
Rosenberg WM VM, Thiel R. Becka M, Burt A, Schuppan D, Hubscher S, Roskams<br />
T, Pinzani M, Arthur MJ. Serum markers detect <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis: a cohort study.<br />
Gastroenterology 2004;127:1704-1713.<br />
Lieber CS WD, Morgan TR, Paronetto F. Aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index<br />
in patients with alcoholic liver fibrosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:1500-1508.<br />
Imbert-Bismut F, Ratziu V, Pieroni L, Charlotte F, Benhamou Y, Poynard T. Biochemical markers<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis in patients with hepatitis C virus infection: a prospective study. Lancet 2001;357:<br />
1069-1075.<br />
Naveau S, Raynard B, Ratziu V, Abella A, Imbert-Bismut F, Messous D, et al. Biomarkers <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> prediction <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis in patients with chronic alcoholic liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol<br />
Hepatol 2005;3:167-174.<br />
Cales P OF, Michalak S, Hubert-Fouchard I, Rousselet MC, Konate A, Gallois Y, Ternisien C,<br />
Chevailler A, Lunel F. A novel panel <strong>of</strong> blood markers to assess <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis.<br />
Hepatology 2005;42:1373-1181.<br />
Parkes J RP, Harris S, Day C, Mutimer D, Collier J, Lombard M, Alexander G, Ramage J,<br />
Dusheiko G, Wheatley M, Gough C, Burt A, Rosenberg W. Enhanced liver fibrosis test can<br />
predict clinical outcomes in patients with chronic liver disease. GUT 2010;59:1245-1251.<br />
Sandrin L, Fourquet B, Hasquenoph JM, Yon S, Fournier C, Mal F, et al. Transient elastography:<br />
a new noninvasive method <strong>for</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> hepatic fibrosis. Ultrasound Med Biol<br />
2003;29:1705-1713.<br />
Castera L PM. Biopsy and non-invasive methods <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis: does it take<br />
two to tango GUT 2010;59:861-866.<br />
Boursier J, Konate A, Guilluy M, Gorea G, Sawadogo A, Quemener E, et al. Learning curve and<br />
interobserver reproducibility evaluation <strong>of</strong> liver stiffness measurement by transient elastography.<br />
Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;20:693-701.<br />
Kazemi F, Kettaneh A, N’Kontchou G, Pinto E, Ganne-Carrie N, Trinchet JC, et al. <strong>Liver</strong> stiffness<br />
measurement selects patients with cirrhosis at risk <strong>of</strong> bearing large oesophageal varices. J<br />
Hepatol 2006;45:230-235.<br />
Castera L, Bail BL, Roudot-Thoraval F, Bernard PH, Foucher J, Merrouche W, et al. Early<br />
detection in routine clinical practice <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis and oesophageal varices in chronic hepatitis C:<br />
Comparison <strong>of</strong> transient elastography (FibroScan) with standard laboratory tests and noninvasive<br />
scores. J Hepatol 2009;50:59-68.<br />
Janssens F, de Suray N, Piessevaux H, Horsmans Y, de Timary P, Starkel P. Can Transient<br />
Elastography Replace <strong>Liver</strong> Histology <strong>for</strong> Determination <strong>of</strong> Advanced Fibrosis in Alcoholic<br />
Patients: A Real-life <strong>Study</strong>. J Clin Gastroenterol.<br />
Mueller S, Millonig G, Sarovska L, Friedrich S, Reimann FM, Pritsch M, et al. Increased liver<br />
stiffness in alcoholic liver disease: differentiating fibrosis from steatohepatitis. World J<br />
Gastroenterol 2010;16:966-972.<br />
Nahon P, Kettaneh A, Tengher-Barna I, Ziol M, de Ledinghen V, Douvin C, et al. Assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis using transient elastography in patients with alcoholic liver disease. J Hepatol<br />
2008;49:1062-1068.<br />
Arena U, Vizzutti F, Corti G, Ambu S, Stasi C, Bresci S, et al. Acute viral hepatitis increases liver<br />
stiffness values measured by transient elastography. Hepatology 2008;47:380-384.<br />
Sagir A, Erhardt A, Schmitt M, Haussinger D. Transient elastography is unreliable <strong>for</strong> detection <strong>of</strong><br />
cirrhosis in patients with acute liver damage. Hepatology 2008;47:592-595.<br />
Lanzi A, Gianstefani A, Mirarchi MG, Pini P, Conti F, Bolondi L. <strong>Liver</strong> AL amyloidosis as a possible<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> high liver stiffness values. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009.<br />
Millonig G, Friedrich S, Adolf S, Fonouni H, Golriz M, Mehrabi A, et al. <strong>Liver</strong> stiffness is directly<br />
influenced by central venous pressure. J Hepatol 2010;52:206-210.<br />
Millonig G, Reimann FM, Friedrich S, Fonouni H, Mehrabi A, Buchler MW, et al. Extrahepatic<br />
cholestasis increases liver stiffness (FibroScan) irrespective <strong>of</strong> fibrosis. Hepatology 2008;48:<br />
1718-1723.<br />
Gelsi E, Dainese R, Truchi R, Marine-Barjoan E, Anty R, Autuori M, et al. Effect <strong>of</strong> detoxification<br />
on liver stiffness assessed by fibroscan((R)) in alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp<br />
Res 2011;35:566-570.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
76 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 77<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
ABUSE OR DEPENDENCE ASSESSING THE ALCOHOLIC<br />
PATIENT IN THE CLINIC<br />
Antoni Gual<br />
Barcelona, Spain<br />
E-mail: TGUAL@clinic.ub.es<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcohol is <strong>the</strong> most dangerous drug when self inflicted harm and harm to o<strong>the</strong>rs are considered,<br />
and is <strong>the</strong> second top risk factor <strong>for</strong> health in developed countries.<br />
• Europe is <strong>the</strong> region <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world with <strong>the</strong> highest alcohol consumption.<br />
• Hazardous and harmful drinking are defined taking <strong>the</strong> amounts drunk into account, and people<br />
experiencing alcohol related harm do not need to be alcoholics.<br />
• The new DSM V (to be released May 2013), will probably combine Abuse and Dependence in a<br />
single entity called alcohol use disorders (AUD) <strong>of</strong> graded severity.<br />
• The criteria that define AUD cover four different areas: biological processes, medical harm,<br />
behaviour and social & relational aspects. All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m must be assessed carefully in alcoholic<br />
patients.<br />
• The assessment <strong>of</strong> AUD must be done in an empathic non judgmental attitude, and must include<br />
a careful examination <strong>of</strong> drinking patterns, and an evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bio-medical, behavioural<br />
and social consequences <strong>of</strong> AUD.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
According to recent studies (Nutt, 2010), alcohol is <strong>the</strong> most dangerous drug when self inflicted harm and<br />
harm to o<strong>the</strong>rs are considered. Despite this evidence, Europe continues to be <strong>the</strong> region <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world with<br />
highest alcohol consumption. The World Health Organization (WHO) places alcohol as <strong>the</strong> second top risk<br />
factor <strong>for</strong> health in developed countries. 9 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disability adjusted life years in Europe are attributable<br />
to alcohol.<br />
Figure 1<br />
There is general agreement in <strong>the</strong> scientific community that <strong>the</strong> magnitude <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problems created by<br />
alcoholic beverages to society deserves a public health approach. From <strong>the</strong> medical point <strong>of</strong> view, alcohol<br />
is related to no less than sixty diseases, and it is wll known from ancient times that <strong>the</strong> liver is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
most vulnerable targets.<br />
DEFINING HAZARDOUS & HARMFUL DRINKING<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people who drink alcoholic beverages do it at very low risk levels, but a relevant percentage <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> drinkers may be at risk or experience problems because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir drinking. According to WHO hazardous<br />
drinkers are defined as those whose level <strong>of</strong> consumption or pattern <strong>of</strong> drinking is likely to result in harm<br />
should present drinking habits persist (Babor et al. 1994). There is no standardized agreement <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
level <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption that should be taken <strong>for</strong> hazardous drinking, and <strong>for</strong> many conditions any<br />
level <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption can carry risk. A working definition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> WHO describes it as a regular<br />
average consumption <strong>of</strong> 20g-40g <strong>of</strong> alcohol a day <strong>for</strong> women and 40g 60g a day <strong>for</strong> men (Rehm et al. 2004).<br />
Harmful drinking is defined as .a pattern <strong>of</strong> drinking that causes damage to health, ei<strong>the</strong>r physical (such<br />
as liver cirrhosis) or mental. Based on <strong>the</strong> epidemiological data relating alcohol consumption to harm <strong>the</strong><br />
WHO defines operatively harmful alcohol consumption as a regular average consumption <strong>of</strong> more than 40g<br />
alcohol a day <strong>for</strong> women and more than 60g a day <strong>for</strong> men (Rehm et al 2004). Episodic heavy drinking is<br />
defined as a drinking occasion that includes consumption <strong>of</strong> at least 60g <strong>of</strong> alcohol, and it is considered a<br />
<strong>for</strong>m <strong>of</strong> hazardous drinking that quite <strong>of</strong>ten leads to harm.<br />
Hazardous and harmful drinking are defined taking <strong>the</strong> amounts drunk into account, and people experiencing<br />
alcohol related harm do not need to be alcoholics. The American Psychiatric <strong>Association</strong> (APA) uses <strong>the</strong><br />
term Alcohol Abuse, which is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonimous <strong>of</strong> hazardous and harmful drinking.<br />
DIAGNOSING ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE<br />
The diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcohol abuse is mostly based on <strong>the</strong> amounts drunk and in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> harm. Instead,<br />
alcohol dependence is defined takiing into account <strong>the</strong> drinking patterns <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patient and <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong><br />
relationship <strong>the</strong> patient has stablished with alcohol. The presence <strong>of</strong> tolerance, withdrawal signs and <strong>the</strong><br />
salience <strong>of</strong> drinking behaviour over o<strong>the</strong>r priorities (family, work, health) are key to stablish a diagnosis.<br />
Both <strong>the</strong> APA and <strong>the</strong> WHO have set very similar criteria to diagnose alcohol dependence (Figure 2), and<br />
in both cases <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> 3 or more criteria during <strong>the</strong> last 12 months is taken as cut-<strong>of</strong>f to stablish <strong>the</strong><br />
diagnosis.<br />
As it can be seen in Figure 1 <strong>the</strong> criteria used by WHO and APA are pretty similar, and so it is quite likely<br />
that <strong>the</strong> new versions <strong>of</strong> ICD and DSM will merge in a common definition.<br />
Figure 2
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
78 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 79<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
A NEW CONCEPTUAL UMBRELLA: ALCOHOL USE DISORDERS<br />
Even though it will not be launched until May 2013, <strong>the</strong> new DSM V is at an advanced status and just slight<br />
changes may be expected from now until its release (O’Brien, 2011). The working draft that is available<br />
proposes relevant changes concerning addiction to substances. Abuse and Dependence will now be<br />
combined in a single entity <strong>of</strong> graded severity: <strong>the</strong> Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD). This integrated entity is<br />
defined with 11 criteria, which in fact merge <strong>the</strong> criteria previously used to define dependence and abuse.,<br />
and it is expected that <strong>the</strong> future ICD-11 will also converge to this definition (see Figure 3).<br />
Figure 3<br />
THE ART OF ASSESSING ALCOHOL DEPENDENT PATIENTS: WHAT TO ASSESS AND HOW TO DO IT<br />
Drinking patterns should be assessed carefully in alcohol dependent patients both quantitatively and<br />
qualitatively. Amounts drunk per week and amounts drunk per drinking occasion should be registered using<br />
standard drink units (SDU). SDU vary from country to country. In most EU countries <strong>the</strong>y range between<br />
8-10 grams, while in north America <strong>the</strong>ir range is 13-14 grams <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol per SDU. In alcohol dependent<br />
patients, <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r drugs, including tobacco and benzodiazepines, should also be routinely assessed.<br />
In very defensive patients direct inquiries on <strong>the</strong>ir alcohol consumption may lead to relevant underestimates<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir drinking. In those cases a ‘normal day assessment strategy’ is recommended, which consists <strong>of</strong><br />
asking <strong>for</strong> a detailed descriptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> activities per<strong>for</strong>med during a normal day, where questions on drinking<br />
are imbedded. There are various validated tools that may be used <strong>for</strong> screening. The AUDIT (Alcohol Use<br />
Disorders Identification Test; Babor et al, 2001) is <strong>the</strong> actual golden standard. It has been validated to many<br />
languages and has different cut-<strong>of</strong>f values <strong>for</strong> hazardous drinking and alcohol dependence.<br />
The biomedical assessment <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependent patients is very important not only because medicalisation<br />
increases adherence to treatment, but because those patients usually present with a diversity <strong>of</strong> medical<br />
problems. Alcohol is related to no less than 60 illnesses. a focussed anamnesis is required, and special<br />
attention must be devoted to casualties, since <strong>the</strong>y are very frequent. A blood test including liver enzymes<br />
is also required.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> harm produced by alcohol is in <strong>the</strong> mental health area. Assessment <strong>of</strong> mental health status must<br />
include <strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related psychological distress (ie: guilt feelings, insomnia, irritability,<br />
anxiety, disruptive behaviour, etc) as well as <strong>the</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> psychiatry co morbidity usually found in<br />
alcoholics: depression, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, etc. Special attention must be placed on<br />
suicidal thoughts and suicidal attempts, since <strong>the</strong>re is strong evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> links between alcohol and<br />
suicide.<br />
A second major change is that <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> criteria needed to qualify <strong>for</strong> a ‘moderate’ AUD is 2-3, while<br />
a ‘severe’ AUD will be diagnosed to patients fulfilling 4 or more criteria. A third major change is that <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> physiological dependence (tolerance, withdrawal) wil be identified separately.<br />
This new scenario will raise <strong>the</strong> prevalence <strong>of</strong> AUD (compared to alcohol dependence) and will place<br />
higher requirements on <strong>the</strong> clinicians in order to differentiate severe and moderate AUD, as well as <strong>the</strong><br />
identification <strong>of</strong> physiological dependence, based on <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> tolerance and/or withdrawal signs.<br />
The criteria that define AUD cover four different areas: biological processes, medical harm, behaviour and<br />
social & relational aspects. All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m must be assessed carefully in alcoholic patients (Figure 4).<br />
Figure 4<br />
The assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> social consequences <strong>of</strong> alcohol can <strong>of</strong>ten be done without attributing <strong>the</strong>m to<br />
alcohol. Family problems (including domestic violence), instability at work, financial difficulties and legal<br />
antecedents (driving while intoxicated <strong>of</strong>fences, aggressions, etc) are not uncommon. It is usually helpful<br />
to conduct <strong>the</strong> assessment in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> a close relative. Even though this strategy may preclude <strong>the</strong><br />
patient to give some relevant in<strong>for</strong>mation, in general it will provide more objective data on <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> problems experienced.<br />
Since alcoholics are <strong>of</strong>ten quite defensive, assessment must be conducted in a very empathic and<br />
nonjudgmental attitude. Alcoholics tend to explain in detail ‘why’ things happened, but usually give scarce<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation on ‘what’ actually happened. Clinicians should stick to <strong>the</strong> facts and avoid <strong>the</strong> trap to discuss<br />
<strong>the</strong> reasons why things happened.<br />
SUMMARY<br />
The AUD is now seen as a single entity with graded levels <strong>of</strong> severity, and with a qualitative (taxonic) change<br />
at <strong>the</strong> severe end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spectrum, where tolerance and withdrawal signs are present. The assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol use disorders must be done in an empathic non judgmental attitude, and must include a careful<br />
examination <strong>of</strong> drinking patterns, and an evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bio-medical, behavioural and social consequences<br />
<strong>of</strong> AUD.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
80 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 81<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
REFERENCES<br />
American Psychiatric <strong>Association</strong> (2004) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual <strong>of</strong> Mental Disorders.<br />
Fourth Edition. Text revision. American Psychiatric <strong>Association</strong>. Washington DC.<br />
Babor, T.F., Higgins-Biddle, J.C. (2001) Brief Intervention For Hazardous and Harmful Drinking A<br />
Manual <strong>for</strong> Use in Primary Care Geneva: World Health Organization WHO/MSD/MSB/01.6b.<br />
Babor, T., Campbell, R., Room, R. & Saunders, J., eds. (1994) Lexicon <strong>of</strong> Alcohol and Drug<br />
Terms, World Health Organization, Geneva.<br />
Rehm J, Room R, Monteiro M, Gmel G, Graham K, Rehn T, Sempos CT, Frick U, Jernigan D.<br />
(2004) Alcohol. In: WHO (ed), Comparative quantification <strong>of</strong> health risks: Global and regional<br />
burden <strong>of</strong> disease due to selected major risk factors. Geneva. WHO.<br />
Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD; Independent Sci. Committee on Drugs. (2010) Drug harms in <strong>the</strong><br />
UK: a multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet. Nov 6;376(9752):1558-65.<br />
O’Brien C. (2011) Addiction and dependence in DSM-V. Addiction. May;106(5):866-7.<br />
World Health Organization (1992) The ICD-10 Classification <strong>of</strong> Mental and Behavioural<br />
Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva: World Health<br />
Organization.<br />
World Health Organization (2009) Global health risks: mortality and burden <strong>of</strong> disease attributable<br />
to selected major risks. World Health Organization, Geneva.<br />
MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE IN PATIENTS WITH ALD<br />
Giovanni Addolorato<br />
Rome, Italy<br />
E-mail: g.addolorato@rm.unicatt.it<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• In patients with alcohol liver disease (ALD), persistent alcohol intake is associated with disease<br />
progression, <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> most effective recommendation <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>se individuals is total alcohol<br />
abstinence.<br />
• In alcohol dependent patients, disulfiram, naltrexone and acamprosate, combined with<br />
counseling, represent effective medications in reducing alcohol consumption and preventing<br />
relapse and <strong>the</strong>y are both approved <strong>for</strong> this indication. It should kept in mind that naltrexone<br />
and disulfiram are not recommended in patients with ALD and that <strong>the</strong>re are no data on <strong>the</strong><br />
safety <strong>of</strong> acamprosate in patients with ALD.<br />
• Topiramate and bacl<strong>of</strong>en may represent potential novel alcohol pharmaco<strong>the</strong>rapies, but <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
not approved <strong>for</strong> this indication. To date, bacl<strong>of</strong>en represents <strong>the</strong> only alcohol pharmaco<strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
tested in alcoholics with ALD (i.e. alcohol-dependent patients with cirrhosis).<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Alcohol use disorders (alcohol abuse and dependence) is a chronic, relapsing condition with a multifactorial<br />
etiology that includes genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and environmental components. Protracted<br />
behaviour modification, cognitive behavioural <strong>the</strong>rapy, psychological counseling, and mutual support<br />
groups (eg, Alcoholic Anonymous) have been considered <strong>the</strong> most effective long-term treatments. However,<br />
increasing knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> neurobiological mechanisms underlying <strong>the</strong> development and persistence <strong>of</strong><br />
addiction has led to wider recognition <strong>of</strong> alcohol addiction as a clinical disorder. In particular, specific brain<br />
neurotransmitter systems associated with alcohol craving and addiction have been identified. Accordingly,<br />
treatment has progressed from social and behavioural approaches alone to ‘adjunct’ pharmaco<strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
interventions and since <strong>the</strong> 1980s, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> medications found to be potentially effective in treating<br />
alcohol craving and dependence has increased. In particular be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> discovery <strong>of</strong> anti-craving drugs, <strong>the</strong><br />
administration <strong>of</strong> disulfiram and surveillance by relatives and/or <strong>the</strong>rapeutic groups, waiting <strong>for</strong> spontaneous<br />
craving exhaustion, were <strong>the</strong> only treatment strategies to control craving. In <strong>the</strong> last decades, several<br />
drugs able to interfere with <strong>the</strong> neurotransmitters involved in craving mechanisms have been experimented<br />
(Addolorato et al, Neuropsychobiology), showing <strong>the</strong>ir efficacy to increase abstinence and to prevent<br />
relapse.<br />
MAIN ANTI-CRAVING DRUGS<br />
Naltrexone<br />
Naltrexone is an opioid receptor antagonist. The use <strong>of</strong> naltrexone in alcohol-dependent patients is based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> involvement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> opioid system in <strong>the</strong> compulsive desire <strong>for</strong> alcohol. In animal model, naltrexone<br />
abolishes <strong>the</strong> alcohol deprivation effect demonstrating its anti-relapse properties and, consequently, its<br />
anti-craving action. In humans, naltrexone, at a dose <strong>of</strong> 50 mg/day, has shown its efficacy in decreasing<br />
<strong>the</strong> compulsive component <strong>of</strong> alcohol craving and in increasing <strong>the</strong> compliance to alcohol-detoxification<br />
programs. A double-blind placebo-controlled study by Volpicelli et al.(1992) showed that <strong>the</strong> administration<br />
<strong>of</strong> naltrexone to alcoholic patients decreases relapses by means <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reduction in <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> heavydrinking<br />
days. Most studies found no significant difference in <strong>the</strong> occasional intake <strong>of</strong> alcohol (‘slips’) between<br />
patients treated with naltrexone and with placebo; however, patients treated with naltrexone showed a<br />
significantly lower percentage <strong>of</strong> full relapse compared with patients treated with placebo. Obviously, <strong>the</strong><br />
efficacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drug is increased when <strong>the</strong> treatment is combined with a specific psychological support, in
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
82 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 83<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
particular supportive and coping skills <strong>the</strong>rapy. Naltrexone is also effective in decreasing alcohol desire<br />
caused by images <strong>of</strong> alcoholic beverages. It also decreases alcohol intake in social drinkers, hazardous<br />
drinkers and ‘problematic’ drinkers susceptible to risk situations. The efficacy <strong>of</strong> naltrexone in <strong>the</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence or abuse in patients with complete participation in <strong>the</strong> treatment, including <strong>the</strong><br />
psychosocial management, was also shown in multicenter studies. However, two recent well-per<strong>for</strong>med<br />
placebo-controlled studies have shown low efficacy or no efficacy <strong>of</strong> naltrexone in treating patients with<br />
alcohol problems. More recently, naltrexone was copared and combined with acamprosate. Naltrexone,<br />
acamprosate and <strong>the</strong> combined medication were significantly more effective than placebo. Moreover,<br />
naltrexone-treated patients showed a better outcome regarding time to first drink and time to relapse. The<br />
combined medication was most effective with significantly lower relapse rates than placebo and acamprosate<br />
but not lower than naltrexone. Finally, a recent comparative study between gammahydroxybutyric acid<br />
(GHB) and naltrexone showed that GHB is more effective that naltrexone in treating alcohol addiction once<br />
remission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> withdrawal syndrome has been achieved if <strong>the</strong> main outcome is to maintain abstinence;<br />
on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> study confi rmed that naltrexone is useful in preventing alcohol relapse in heavy<br />
drinking. In conclusion, naltrexone could be effective in treating patients with <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> reward as <strong>the</strong><br />
main component <strong>of</strong> alcohol craving, while GHB (see below) could be effective in treating patients with <strong>the</strong><br />
need <strong>for</strong> relief as <strong>the</strong> main component <strong>of</strong> alcohol craving. Side effects include nausea (10% and self limiting)<br />
and, less frequently, headache, dizziness, insomnia, vomiting, anxiety and sleepiness. The incidence <strong>of</strong><br />
side effects increases if <strong>the</strong> patient does not abstain from alcohol. Naltrexone should not be administered<br />
to patients with acute hepatitis or liver impairment.<br />
Acamprosate<br />
Even if <strong>the</strong> mechanism <strong>of</strong> action is not completely known, it seems that acamprosate affects calcium<br />
channels with a subsequent decrease in <strong>the</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> excitatory system in <strong>the</strong> central nervous system.<br />
Acamprosate administration in alcohol-preferring rats causes a significant decrease in alcohol intake and an<br />
increase in glutamate, taurin and GABA basal concentrations in <strong>the</strong> hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens.<br />
Acamprosate may <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e provide a protective mechanism against neurotoxicity, in particular by reducing<br />
<strong>the</strong> excitatory amino acid glutamate. Animal studies have also shown <strong>the</strong> anti-relapse properties and <strong>the</strong><br />
anti-craving action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> acamprosate. Double-blind clinical trials in alcoholic patients (1.3–3 g/day, orally<br />
administered) have shown <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> acamprosate in decreasing alcohol craving and maintaining<br />
abstinence. Studies per<strong>for</strong>med in a large number <strong>of</strong> alcohol-dependent patients showed that acamprosate<br />
reduces <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> episodes <strong>of</strong> ‘relapse’ and increases <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> alcohol-free days. However, in this<br />
case a recent study showed a low efficacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drug in treating alcoholic patients. From this point <strong>of</strong><br />
view, it is important to consider <strong>the</strong> typology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patient; in particular, recent evidence indicates that<br />
acamprosate is effective in increasing sobriety times, but only in some typology <strong>of</strong> patients (i.e. Lesch<br />
type I and II patients). Finally, a recent meta-analysis study showed that acamprosate has a significant<br />
beneficial effect in enhancing abstinence in newly detoxified, alcohol-dependent patients. Acamprosate<br />
could be effective in treating patients with relief craving.<br />
Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid<br />
GHB is an endogenous compound with neuromodulatory functions. It has an alcohol-mimetic effect on<br />
<strong>the</strong> central nervous system. This substance interferes with some neurotransmitter systems, in particular<br />
with <strong>the</strong> mesolimbic-cortical system, by inducing variations in dopamine, serotonin and GABA cerebral<br />
concentrations. Both preclinical and clinical studies have shown that GHB is effective in <strong>the</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence. Besides its effectiveness in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> alcohol withdrawal syndrome with<br />
efficacy equivalent to diazepam and clomethiazole, GHB (50 mg/kg body weight, divided into three daily<br />
doses) decreases alcohol craving by reproducing rewarding effects and thus also reducing <strong>the</strong> number<br />
<strong>of</strong> episodes <strong>of</strong> ‘relapse’. GHB is well tolerated; transient side effects, including dizziness, hyporeflexia<br />
and somnolence, have been reported. Non <strong>the</strong>rapeutic use <strong>of</strong> GHB can produce an anabolic side effect,<br />
but <strong>the</strong> latter has not been reported in alcoholic patients at <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic dose. Because <strong>of</strong> its alcoholmimicking<br />
effect, cases <strong>of</strong> GHB craving and <strong>the</strong> consequent risk <strong>of</strong> GHB abuse and dependence have<br />
been reported in <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> GHB treatment; however this phenomenon is relatively rare. Up to 30–40%<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol-dependent patients do not respond to GHB treatment, <strong>the</strong> short half-life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drug (about 2 h)<br />
being considered a possible cause. Recent studies have shown that nonresponders to <strong>the</strong> conventional<br />
fractioning into 3 daily doses <strong>of</strong> GHB seem to benefit from <strong>the</strong> subdivision into 6 daily doses at <strong>the</strong> same<br />
total amount (50 mg/kg body weight/day). In <strong>the</strong>se patients, <strong>the</strong> increased dose fractioning seems to be<br />
able to cause a significant reduction in craving, increasing <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic efficacy and decreasing <strong>the</strong> risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> abuse. These results have also been confirmed in animal studies. GHB could be effective in treating<br />
patients with reward and/or relief craving<br />
Bacl<strong>of</strong>en<br />
Bacl<strong>of</strong>en is a selective GABAB receptor agonist. Bacl<strong>of</strong>en is well-absorbed after oral administration<br />
and undergoes little liver metabolism (B15%), being primarily eliminated by renal excretion; about 85%<br />
<strong>of</strong> a single oral dose is excreted unchanged in <strong>the</strong> urine. Preclinical pharmacological and behavioral<br />
data indicate that bacl<strong>of</strong>en effectively suppresses alcohol withdrawal symptoms (AWS), acquisition<br />
and maintenance <strong>of</strong> alcohol drinking behaviour, relapse-like drinking, alcohol’s rein<strong>for</strong>cing, rewarding,<br />
stimulating, and motivational properties in rats and mice. The first human open-label pilot study showed <strong>the</strong><br />
ability <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en (10 mg t.i.d. over 4 weeks) in reducing alcohol craving and intake in alcohol-dependent<br />
individuals. These encouraging results led <strong>the</strong> same researchers to test bacl<strong>of</strong>en in a randomized, doubleblind,<br />
placebo-controlled design in which bacl<strong>of</strong>en (10 mg t.i.d.) or placebo was administered <strong>for</strong> 4 weeks.<br />
Results <strong>of</strong> this study showed bacl<strong>of</strong>en’s efficacy, with respect to placebo, in reducing alcohol intake, craving<br />
scores, and state anxiety, and in increasing cumulative abstinence duration. Subsequent open-label 12-<br />
week pilot studies have fur<strong>the</strong>r confirmed <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en in reducing alcohol intake and craving and<br />
anxiety scores, and promoting alcohol abstinence. In both studies, bacl<strong>of</strong>en was reasonably tolerated and<br />
no serious adverse events were reported. The most common side effects were sleepiness, tiredness, and<br />
vertigo, which tended to resolve within 1–2 weeks <strong>of</strong> drug treatment. Recently, <strong>the</strong>se findings were extended<br />
in a larger double blind placebo-controlled trial involving 84 alcohol-dependent patients affected by liver<br />
cirrhosis (see next paragraph). Consistent with previous observations, this study showed a significant effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en (10 mg t.i.d.), compared with placebo, in reducing alcohol craving and intake and in promoting<br />
total alcohol abstinence.<br />
All studies reported above tested bacl<strong>of</strong>en at a dose <strong>of</strong> 10 mg t.i.d. However, <strong>the</strong> safety and <strong>the</strong> manageability<br />
<strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en led researchers to test bacl<strong>of</strong>en at higher doses. The role <strong>of</strong> different doses <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en (10<br />
mg or 20 mg t.i.d.) in alcohol dependence has been explored in a randomized double-blind placebocontrolled<br />
12-week trial. The effect <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en 20 mg t.i.d. was significantly higher than that <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en<br />
10 mg t.i.d., showing a dose–effect relationship. Both doses <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en were well tolerated. The role <strong>of</strong><br />
bacl<strong>of</strong>en has also been reported in <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> AWS. A randomized study compared bacl<strong>of</strong>en (10<br />
mg t.id. <strong>for</strong> 10 consecutive days) with <strong>the</strong> ‘gold standard’ diazepam (0.5–0.75 mg/kg/day) in <strong>the</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> moderate to severe AWS, showing a comparable efficacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two drugs in reducing AWS symptoms.<br />
Additional preliminary evidence fur<strong>the</strong>r confirms <strong>the</strong>se observations: a chart review showed that bacl<strong>of</strong>en<br />
prevented <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> AWS symptoms, and a placebo-controlled randomized study, where subjects<br />
with AWS received bacl<strong>of</strong>en 10 mg t.i.d. or placebo, showed that <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> benzodiazepines to control<br />
symptoms <strong>of</strong> AWS was significantly lower in <strong>the</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en group. In conclusion, considering its efficacy in<br />
<strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> AWS, in reducing alcohol craving, and in promoting alcohol abstinence, bacl<strong>of</strong>en might<br />
be considered a promising new drug <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence, particularly in alcoholic<br />
patients with alcoholic liver disease. However, larger studies are needed to confirm <strong>the</strong> present findings and<br />
to expand <strong>the</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mation on <strong>the</strong> safety <strong>of</strong> higher doses <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
84 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 85<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Topiramate<br />
Topiramate, a sulfamate-substituted fructose-1,6-diphosphate analog with strong anticonvulsant properties,<br />
increases GABAA-facilitated neuronal activity and also antagonizes AMPA and kainite glutamate with a<br />
consequent reduction <strong>of</strong> dopamine release in <strong>the</strong> nucleus accumbens. Topiramate has an almost complete<br />
oral absorption with high bioavailability (80%). The drug is not widely metabolized and is predominantly<br />
eliminated (70%) unchanged in <strong>the</strong> urine (Shank et al, 2000). Several studies suggest a role <strong>for</strong> topiramate<br />
in treating alcohol use disorders, although fur<strong>the</strong>r studies are needed to confirm <strong>the</strong> present findings. The<br />
first clinical trial with 150 alcohol-dependent patients showed topiramate’s efficacy in reducing alcohol<br />
dependence and promoting abstinence. In this trial, topiramate was significantly more effective than placebo<br />
in reducing drinking variables (drinks per day, drinks per drinking day, percentage <strong>of</strong> heavy drinking days,<br />
plasma g-glutamyl transferase ratio), and in increasing <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> abstinent days. Topiramate was<br />
effective in reducing some craving measurements (i.e. obsessive thoughts about alcohol, automaticity <strong>of</strong><br />
drinking, interference due to drinking). No serious adverse events were reported during <strong>the</strong> trial (Johnson et<br />
al, 2003). These results were confirmed in a larger 14-week clinical trial with 371 alcohol-dependent patients<br />
and per<strong>for</strong>med across 17 US sites. In addition to confirming <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> topiramate on alcohol drinking,<br />
this trial also showed effects <strong>of</strong> topiramate on physical health, alcohol craving, and psychosocial wellbeing.<br />
Outcome measures <strong>of</strong> physical health included liver function tests, hematological, and biochemical<br />
measures (plasma cholesterol and bicarbonate and urine pH level), vital signs (blood pressure, pulse, and<br />
temperature), and BMI. Topiramate was superior to placebo in improving physical health outcomes and<br />
measures <strong>of</strong> psychosocial functioning. Altoge<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>se results suggest that topiramate has greater efficacy<br />
than placebo to improve <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> life, decrease <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence, and reduce <strong>the</strong><br />
detrimental consequences associated with heavy drinking. Future research may include <strong>the</strong> combination <strong>of</strong><br />
topiramate with o<strong>the</strong>r medications, as well as <strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong> endophenotypes with different responses<br />
to topiramate-induced side-effects.<br />
Fluoxetine, O<strong>the</strong>r Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Ondansetron<br />
Fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), seems to act also through GABA-ergic action as<br />
well as with serotoninergic mechanisms; it is administered at a dose <strong>of</strong> 20 mg/day <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst 2 days with<br />
a subsequent dose <strong>of</strong> 60 mg/day, taking care to note <strong>the</strong> possible occurrence <strong>of</strong> manic reactions . Recent<br />
studies have shown <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> fluoxetine in alcoholic patients affected by depression; at a dose <strong>of</strong> 20<br />
mg/day <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> fi rst 2 weeks <strong>the</strong>n 40 mg/day if necessary, fluoxetine has proved to be effective in reducing<br />
depressive symptoms and alcohol consumption in <strong>the</strong>se patients . Its efficacy, however, seems to decrease<br />
in alcoholic patients without significant mood disorders. Fluvoxamine is a monocyclic SSRI, registered<br />
worldwide <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> depression and obsessive compulsive disorders. A double-blind multicenter<br />
study showed no evidence that this drug helps prevent relapse in detoxified, abstinent or alcoholic patients.<br />
There are some contrasting data on <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> sertraline, citalopram (SSRI agents). It seems that SSRIs<br />
might be useful in late-onset alcoholics, while ondansetron at a dose <strong>of</strong> 0.5–4 mg divided into two daily<br />
doses <strong>for</strong> 6 weeks could be effective in early-onset alcoholics. Ondansetron (5HT3 receptor antagonist) is<br />
able to increase dopamine level throughout <strong>the</strong> blocking action on 5HT3 receptor. This drug seems to be<br />
effective to reduce craving and alcohol intake in early-onset alcoholics; moreover recent data showed <strong>the</strong><br />
efficacy <strong>of</strong> ondansetron in some genetic subtype <strong>of</strong> alcoholic patients.<br />
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE IN PATIENTS WITH ALD<br />
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> major medical complications <strong>of</strong> alcohol abuse. In particular,<br />
80% <strong>of</strong> heavy drinkers develop steatosis, 10–35% develop alcoholic hepatitis, and approximately 10% will<br />
develop cirrhosis. Possible factors that affect <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> liver injury include <strong>the</strong> dose, duration,<br />
and type <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption, drinking patterns, gender, ethnicity, and associated risk factors including<br />
obesity, iron overload, concomitant infection with viral hepatitis, and genetic factors.<br />
However, independent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stage <strong>of</strong> ALD, abstinence from alcohol is <strong>the</strong> cornerstone <strong>of</strong> management,<br />
since medical and surgical treatments <strong>for</strong> ALD have limited success when drinking continues. Accordingly,<br />
total alcohol abstinence can improve <strong>the</strong> histology and/or survival <strong>of</strong> individuals with ALD and <strong>the</strong> clinical<br />
outcome <strong>of</strong> all stages <strong>of</strong> ALD. On <strong>the</strong> contrary, persistent alcohol intake induce progression <strong>of</strong> liver damage<br />
and, in those patients with alcoholic cirrhosis, is associated with a significant risk ratio <strong>of</strong> death due to<br />
bleeding esophageal varices, infection, renal failure, and/or hepatic failure.<br />
Psychological approach and counselling are essential components <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapy to promote abstinence in<br />
<strong>the</strong>se patients. However <strong>the</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> group and supportive psycho<strong>the</strong>rapy is relatively low as mono<strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
(15-39%). As reported above, at present <strong>the</strong>re are several medications able to reduce alcohol craving and,<br />
consequently, to increase abstinence and prevent alcohol relapse. However trials investigating anti-craving<br />
medications typically exclude individuals with high levels <strong>of</strong> transaminases and/or advanced liver disease,<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> concern that <strong>the</strong>se medication might worsen liver disease. Infact, naltrexone is contraindicated in<br />
those with liver disease due to its hepatic metabolism and reports <strong>of</strong> medication-related hepatic injury.<br />
Acamprosate may induce hyperammoniemia; topiramate affect liver function and it may also induce<br />
hyperammoniemia.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> last few years, growing evidences suggest a role <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en in <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> ALD patients; at<br />
present bacl<strong>of</strong>en is <strong>the</strong> only drug tested in alcohol dependent patients affected by liver cirrhosis or acute<br />
alcoholic hepatitis. Based on <strong>the</strong> safe pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en, summarized be<strong>for</strong>e, and considering bacl<strong>of</strong>en’s<br />
pharmacological pr<strong>of</strong>ile (renal excretion and a small liver metabolism), a first randomized clinical trial was<br />
conducted with a population <strong>of</strong> alcohol-dependent patients affected by liver cirrhosis. Inclusion criteria<br />
consisted <strong>of</strong> both a current diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependence and a diagnosis <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis. In this trial,<br />
bacl<strong>of</strong>en (10 mg t.i.d.) or placebo was administered <strong>for</strong> a 12-week period. Bacl<strong>of</strong>en showed a significant<br />
effect, compared to placebo, in reducing alcohol intake and craving. In particular, a significantly higher<br />
number <strong>of</strong> patients treated with bacl<strong>of</strong>en achieved and maintained abstinence (71.4%) compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
placebo group (28.6%; p=0.0002). The number <strong>of</strong> drop-outs was not statistically significantly different<br />
between bacl<strong>of</strong>en group (14.3%) and placebo group (31%; p=0.12). Cumulative Abstinence Duration<br />
was approximately two-fold higher in bacl<strong>of</strong>en- than placebo treated patients (p=0.001). Survival analysis<br />
revealed a significantly greater chance in <strong>the</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en group <strong>of</strong> remaining free <strong>of</strong> relapse to alcohol<br />
consumption (p=0.006). There was also a significant reduction <strong>of</strong> OCDS craving scores (OCDS total score<br />
and obsessive and compulsive OCDS subscores) in <strong>the</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en group compared to <strong>the</strong> placebo group.<br />
No patients had encephalopathy during <strong>the</strong> study period. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, none showed hyperammonaemia or<br />
significant changes in number connection test per<strong>for</strong>mance. Individuals allocated bacl<strong>of</strong>en had significantly<br />
reduced alanine aminotransferase, bilirubin, international normalised ratio, and γ glutamyltransferase from<br />
baseline and significantly increased albumin. No serious systemic or single-organ event leading to drug<br />
cessation was reported and no patient discontinued treatment because <strong>of</strong> a side-effect. Tolerability was fair<br />
in all individuals. The safety <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en in patients with alcoholic liver disease has been confirmed by a<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r study where bacl<strong>of</strong>en was administered <strong>for</strong> at least 5 months in 14 patients with alcoholic hepatitis<br />
(Avanesyan and Runyon, 2010). In this trial 13/14 patients completely stopped drinking/craving alcohol<br />
since <strong>the</strong> start <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en and one patient reported a reduction in alcohol consumption from 50 to 3 drinks/<br />
day. Those with <strong>the</strong> most severe illness were more willing to comply with medication, thus, showing <strong>the</strong><br />
most improvement. Total bilirubin was notably reduced. About 70% reduction was observed at 5 months<br />
and 90% reduction after 8 months <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en use. Reduction in total bilirubin and AST were statistically<br />
significant. No side effects were reported.<br />
In conclusion bacl<strong>of</strong>en, because <strong>of</strong> its anticraving action and safety, could have an important role <strong>for</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol-dependent patients with advanced liver disease, including those needing liver transplantation<br />
(OLT), since <strong>the</strong> need <strong>of</strong> alcohol abstinence both be<strong>for</strong>e and after OLT.<br />
In addition to dietary supplement <strong>the</strong>rapy, several drugs have been tested to improve survival in patients<br />
with ALD, including corticosteroids, propylthiouracil, S-adenosyl-L-methionine, infliximab and pentoxifylline.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
86 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 87<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Addolorato G, Abenavoli L, Leggio L, Gasbarrini G (2005). How many cravings Pharmacological<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> craving treatment in alcohol addiction: a review. Neuropsychobiology, 51:59-66.<br />
Addolorato G, Leggio L (2010). Safety and efficacy <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> alcoholdependent<br />
patients. Curr Pharm Des, 16:2113-2117.<br />
Addolorato G, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Cardone S, Vonghia L, Mirijello A, Abenavoli L,<br />
D’Angelo C, Caputo F, Zambon A, Haber PS, Gasbarrini G (2007). Effectiveness and safety<br />
<strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en <strong>for</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong> alcohol abstinence in alcohol-dependent patients with liver<br />
cirrhosis: randomised, double-blind controlled study. Lancet 370: 1915–1922.<br />
Addolorato G, Leggio L, Hopf FW, Diana M, Bonci A (2011). Novel <strong>the</strong>rapeutic strategies<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcohol and drug addiction: focus on GABA, Ion channels and transcranial magnetic<br />
stimulation. Neuropsychopharmacology, doi: 10.1038/npp.2011.216. [Epub ahead <strong>of</strong> print]<br />
Altamirano J, Bataller,R. (2011). Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new targets<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapy Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, 8:491-501<br />
Johnson BA, Rosenthal N, Capece JA, Wiegand F, Mao L, Beyers K Ait-Daoud N, Addolorato<br />
G, Anton RF, Ciraulo DA, Kranzler HR, Mann K, O’Malley SS, Swift RM,Topiramate<br />
<strong>for</strong> Alcoholism Advisory Board; Topiramate <strong>for</strong> Alcoholism <strong>Study</strong> Group (2008).<br />
Improvement <strong>of</strong> physical health and quality <strong>of</strong> life <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependent individuals with<br />
topiramate treatment: US multisite randomized controlled trial.<br />
Arch Intern Med, 168: 1188–1199.<br />
Koob GF, Volkow ND (2010). Neurocircuitry <strong>of</strong> addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 35: 217–238<br />
Lucey MR, Mathurin P, Morgan TR (2009). Alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med, 360:2758-2769.<br />
O’Shea RS, Dasarathy S, McCullough AJ, Practice Guideline Committee <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American<br />
<strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Diseases; Practice Parameters Committee <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
American College <strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology (2010). Alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology,<br />
51:307-28<br />
Spanagel R (2009). Alcoholism: a systems approach from molecular physiology to addictive<br />
behavior. Physiol Rev, 89: 649–705.<br />
EXTRAHEPATIC INVOLVEMENT IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC<br />
ALCOHOL LIVER DISEASE<br />
Joaquim Fernández-Solà<br />
Barcelona, Spain<br />
E-mail: jfernand@clinic.ub.es<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• ALD does not involve just <strong>the</strong> liver, but is a real systemic disease. Systemic damage parallels<br />
in degree and timing that <strong>of</strong> ALD.<br />
• Extrahepatic involvement, mainly neurological, cardiovascular and nutritional, should be<br />
regularly assessed in patients with ALD.<br />
• There is a clear relationship between <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> hepatic and systemic toxics effects <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol. The greater <strong>the</strong> liver damage, <strong>the</strong> greater systemic damage expected.<br />
• To improve global health status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subjects with ALD a multidisciplinary management<br />
approach is necessary.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> this presentation is to consider some aspects that make Alcohol <strong>Liver</strong> Diseases (ALD)<br />
as a real systemic disease with a clear extrahepatic involvement, in which a multidisciplinary approach<br />
is necessary. The pathogenic effects that induce liver damage and disease may also generate additional<br />
systemic organ damage through common pathogenic mechanisms. Similarly, liver is frequently involved<br />
in most systemic diseases ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> infectious, toxic, metabolic, inflammatory, autoimmune or neoplastic<br />
origin.<br />
When liver disease develops in <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> alcohol misuse (ALD), <strong>the</strong> noxious pathogenic effects locally<br />
generated in <strong>the</strong> liver also involve o<strong>the</strong>r organs such as heart and vascular system, bone and skeletal<br />
muscle, central and peripheral nervous system, and disrupts <strong>the</strong> nutritional status, endocrine and immune<br />
functions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> individual. There<strong>for</strong>e, ALD usually develops in <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> a multisystemic scenario. In<br />
fact, <strong>the</strong>re is a clear relationship between <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> hepatic and systemic toxic effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol. The<br />
final result <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong>se interactions determinates <strong>the</strong> global health status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject.<br />
Ethanol has a widespread toxic and sensitizing effect on <strong>the</strong> human body with different threshold pathological<br />
range and also with clear organ specificity according to <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> target cells. The WHO report (2006)<br />
recognizes more than 60 diseases related to excessive alcohol consumption. Its hydrophilic and lypophilic<br />
properties confer a global body diffusion potential. Ethanol is a potent enzymatic inductor and its metabolites<br />
(acetaldehyde-acetate, FAEEs) are very active. In addition, ethanol is a pro- inflammatory agent increasing<br />
cytokine production.<br />
Individual susceptibility to EtOH depends on different factors, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m specific (type <strong>of</strong> cell, enzymatic<br />
or metabolic factors) and o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> non-specific nature (genetic, gender and environmental factors). In<br />
addition, ethanol has different synchronic and synergic effects with o<strong>the</strong>r pathogenic factors (toxics,<br />
nutrition, viruses) increasing its final damaging tissue effect.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> is <strong>the</strong> major site <strong>of</strong> EtOH metabolism in <strong>the</strong> body and receive this direct noxious effect. However, o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
organs shared most mechanisms causing ALD. The products generated by <strong>the</strong> liver (oxidative radicals,<br />
acetaldehyde and acetate, protein adducts, cytokines, circulating antibodies) may also induce significant<br />
oxidative and inflammatory damage to o<strong>the</strong>r organs. This damage parallels in degree and timing that <strong>of</strong><br />
ALD. In general, ethanol increases <strong>the</strong> lesion and decreases <strong>the</strong> cell protection mechanisms increasing
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
88 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 89<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
<strong>the</strong> global damage and disturbing cell repair mechanisms. The specific organ damage inflicted by EtOH<br />
depends on <strong>the</strong> final balance between damaging and local defensive host mechanisms.<br />
As it occurs in o<strong>the</strong>r organs, ALD is a dose-dependent disease where total lifetime and duration <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
consumption is highly relevant. But this process is also modulated by genetic and personal predisposing<br />
factors with organ-specific susceptibility. The systemic noxious effect <strong>of</strong> EtOH is modulated according to <strong>the</strong><br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> involved cells. Thus, excitable cells such as neurons and cardiac or skeletal myocytes<br />
mainly suffer <strong>of</strong> disruption in transduction signalling systems at <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cytosolic membrane<br />
(receptors, channels) and organelles (mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum, sarcomere). O<strong>the</strong>rwise, nonexcitable<br />
cells will receive <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> metabolic, oxidative, inflammatory, hormonal and immune damage<br />
generated by ALD.<br />
In general, progression <strong>of</strong> alcohol-mediated tissue<br />
damage starts with non-detectable or transitory effect,<br />
followed by subclinical dysfunction without structural<br />
damage and progressing to subclinical dysfunction with<br />
structural damage. Afterwards, clinical effects appear<br />
with reversible structural damage and, finally progress<br />
to advanced clinical effects with irreversible structural<br />
damage.<br />
Relationship between ALD and systemic damage<br />
has been largely discussed. It was previously said<br />
that <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> ALD spared <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong><br />
cardiomyopathy (CMP). However, a clear relationship<br />
between <strong>the</strong> presence and degree <strong>of</strong> hepatic and cardiac<br />
damage by EtOH has been recently corroborated. Dilated<br />
CMP is also dose-dependent. Diastolic dysfunction<br />
appears at lifetime ethanol consumption > 5 Kg/Kg in<br />
one-third <strong>of</strong> subjects, and systolic dysfunction develops<br />
in 13% <strong>of</strong> subjects with lifetime ethanol consumption ><br />
9 Kg/Kg. If ethanol consumption is maintained, subjects<br />
develop low-output heart failure, arrhythmias and<br />
sudden death. In addition, ethanol increases <strong>the</strong> effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r risk factors in <strong>the</strong> heart such as tobacco and<br />
cocaine.<br />
Similarly, skeletal myopathy is present in more than half <strong>of</strong> patients with liver cirrosis. It starts at subclinical<br />
level in lifetime consumption <strong>of</strong> 10Kg/Kg, and usually is clinically apparent with limb muscle weakness and<br />
atrophy in lifetime ethanol consumption >20Kg/Kg.<br />
Ethanol decreases bone density. In fact, one third <strong>of</strong> alcohol misusers develop osteoporosis in a dosedependent<br />
effect that starts at 20g/day ethanol consumption. There is an additional effect <strong>of</strong> liver disease,<br />
malnutrition and Vitamin D deficiency.<br />
Ethanol increases <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> neurological damage In a dose-dependent manner. Hemorrhagic stroke<br />
appears at daily ethanol consumption > 60g/day (RR 2.18). Alcoholic-induced brain impairment leading to<br />
alcoholic dementia is present in 70% <strong>of</strong> alcohol misusers consuming >4 Kg/Kg. Cerebellum degeneration<br />
may be detected in 30% alcohol misusers. Wernicke’s Korsakow encephalopathy, Marchiafava-Bignami<br />
disease, central pontine myelinolysis and pellagra develops in chronic alcoholics with malnutrition, thyamin<br />
or o<strong>the</strong>r vitamin deficiencies and ionic disturbances. Peripheral and autonomic neuropathies develop in<br />
daily ethanol consumptions higher than 40g in women and 60 g. in men, being 20% clinically apparent and<br />
70% subclinical, only detected by EMG Studies.<br />
Ethanol frequently produces protein and caloric type <strong>of</strong> malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies. In fact ethanol<br />
consumption is <strong>the</strong> most important cause <strong>of</strong> malnutrition in Western Countries. Its effect has a multifactorial<br />
etiology (malabsorption, metabolic disturbances) and mainly involves high-dose ethanol consumers (>20<br />
Kg OH/Kg). This is associated with ALD and o<strong>the</strong>r systemic diseases. Malnutrition clearly increases EtOH<br />
damaging effect. There<strong>for</strong>e, malnutrition should be evaluated and corrected to decrease EtOH –induced<br />
tissue damage.<br />
ALD produces dramatic changes in redox state, episodes <strong>of</strong> oxidative stress and generates damaging<br />
products such as ROS, acetaldehyde, acetate and fatty acid ethyl es<strong>the</strong>rs. These aldehydes can rapidly<br />
<strong>for</strong>m covalent protein adducts that alter lipid and protein structure and play a role in derangements <strong>of</strong><br />
hepatic, cardiac, brain and muscle function. In addition, increased levels <strong>of</strong> circulating endotoxins and proinflammatory<br />
cytokines decrease cellular defensive mechanism and induce infections and auto-inflammation.<br />
Kuppfer cells generate TNF-α and promote signalling pathways such a stress-activated-mitogen-proteinkinase<br />
(MAPK) cascade that mediates in systemic cell injury. Resistin is a intra-hepatic cytokine with proinflammatory<br />
actions in hepatic stellate cells, but also with o<strong>the</strong>r significant systemic effects. Insulin-like<br />
growth factor (IGF) resistance is mainly generated in ALD but producing cardiac and brain damage. Since<br />
EtOH affects immune cell functions though dendritic cell dysfunction, Kupffer cells play a key role in this<br />
process. ALD activates pro-apoptotic mechanisms with systemic noxious effects, increasing cell loss and<br />
inhibiting <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> tissue proliferation or repair. Also, disturbances in transcriptional mechanisms<br />
and DNA damage are frequent cause <strong>of</strong> this systemic effect <strong>of</strong> ALD. Tissue regeneration is affected by<br />
excessive alcohol, with low rate <strong>of</strong> renewal capacity in some tissues.<br />
There are common genetic predisposition conditions in ALD such is ALDH2 deficiency, that also supposes<br />
a major risk to develop CMP. In ALD, <strong>the</strong> RAS system increases fibrogenesis through angiotensin II<br />
production. Similarly, in <strong>the</strong> heart <strong>the</strong> “DD” genotype <strong>of</strong> ACE increases <strong>the</strong> risk to develop alcoholic CMP.<br />
Gender differences make women more susceptible to ALD than men, similarly to that happen <strong>for</strong> heart,<br />
muscle and nervous system damage. The presence <strong>of</strong> caloric and protein malnutrition increases <strong>the</strong> risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> EtOH-induced tissue damage.<br />
To summarize, in presence <strong>of</strong> ALD we should consider <strong>the</strong> possible development <strong>of</strong> alcohol-mediated<br />
systemic organ damage, mainly neurologic, cardiovascular and nutritional. Its development depends on<br />
<strong>the</strong> quantity and duration <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption in each individual, but is modulated by genetic, metabolic<br />
and local tissue factors, with clear organ specificity. Since most pathogenic factors that mediate ALD also<br />
influence in widespread organ damage, ALD should be considered a systemic disease. There is direct<br />
relationship between <strong>the</strong> liver and systemic damage. The greater <strong>the</strong> liver damage <strong>the</strong> greater <strong>the</strong> systemic<br />
damage expected.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e, to improve global health <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject with ALD a multidisciplinary management approach is<br />
necessary to be established.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
ALD does not involve just <strong>the</strong> liver, but is a real systemic disease.<br />
As screening to evaluate systemic organ damage in ALD, we suggest to per<strong>for</strong>m:<br />
• Heart:<br />
• Muscle:<br />
• Peripheral nerve:<br />
• Brain:<br />
• Nutrition:<br />
• Immunity:<br />
• Bone:<br />
Chest X-ray, ECG, Echosonography<br />
Strength, CK, EMG, Muscle biopsy<br />
Reflex, EMG, Muscle / Nerve biopsy<br />
Brain CT or MR, Cognitive tests<br />
Antropometric, analytic protein /vitamin pr<strong>of</strong>ile<br />
Ig, lymphocyte subsets, Immunocomplexes<br />
X-ray, Densitometry
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
90 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 91<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
REFERENCES:<br />
PATHOGENESIS:<br />
Cheng J.Mechanisms <strong>of</strong> Alcohol-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Organ Injuries.<br />
Biochem Res Int 2012; 2012: 216450.<br />
Seth D, D’Souza El-Guindy NB, Apte M, Mari M, Dooley S, Neuman M, Haber PS, Kundu GC et<br />
al. Alcohol, signaling, and ECM turnover. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2010 34(1):4-18.<br />
Wang HJ, Zakhari S, Jung MK. Alcohol, inflammation, and gut-liver-brain interactions in tissue<br />
damage and disease development.World J Gastroenterol 2010; 16(11):1304-1313.<br />
Shimizu Y. <strong>Liver</strong> in systemic disease.World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14(26):4111-4119.<br />
HEART and SKELETAL MUSCLE:<br />
Urbano-Márquez A, Fernández-Solà J. The effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol on skeletal and cardiac muscle. Muscle<br />
Nerve 2004; 30: 689-707.<br />
Estruch R, Fernández-Solà J, Sacanella E, Paré C, Rubin E, Urbano-Márquez A. Relationship<br />
between cardiomyopathy and liver disease in chronic alcoholism. Hepatology 1995; 22: 532-538.<br />
NEUROLOGICAL DAMAGE:<br />
Harper C, Matsumoto I. Ethanol and brain damage. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2005;5:73–78.<br />
Chopra K, Tiwari V. Alcoholic neuropathy: possible mechanisms and future treatment possibilities. Br<br />
J Clin Pharmacol 2011 Oct 11. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.04111.x. [Epub ahead <strong>of</strong> print]<br />
NUTRITION:<br />
Estruch R, Sacanella E, Fernandez-Solà J, Nicolas JM. Nutritional Status in Alcoholics. In: Preedy<br />
VR Ed. The Handbook <strong>of</strong> Alcohol Related Pathology. Elseiver Science Pub, London 2005; 29: 363-<br />
377.<br />
Estruch R. Alcohol and Nutrition. In: Alcohol Misuse: an <strong>European</strong> perspective. MacDonald I (ed).<br />
Harward Acad Press; Ox<strong>for</strong>d (UK) 1996; 41-62.<br />
Sanvisens A, Rivas I, Bolao F, Tor J, Rosón B, Rey-Joly C, Muga R. Gender and liver, nutritional<br />
and metabolic alterations <strong>of</strong> severe alcoholism: a study <strong>of</strong> 480 patients. Med Clin (Barc)<br />
2011;137(2):49-54.<br />
BONE:<br />
Peris P, Parés A, Guañabens N, Pons F, Martínez de Osaba MJ, Caballería J, Rodés J, Muñoz-<br />
Gómez J.Reduced spinal and femoral bone mass and deranged bone mineral metabolism in<br />
chronic alcoholics.Alcohol Alcohol. 1992; 27(6):619-625.<br />
CLINICAL CASE : THE ACUTELY ILL PATIENT<br />
J. Altamirano,<br />
J. Caballería<br />
Barcelona, Spain<br />
E-mail: jtaltami@clinic.ub.es<br />
TOPICS: ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL, DIAGNOSTIC AND MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS,<br />
DECOMPENSATED CIRRHOSIS<br />
A 51-year-old caucasian male with arterial hypertension and no significant family history. He reported<br />
smoking 2 packs per day and drinking 8-12 beers per day <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> past 20 years. One-year be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> current<br />
presentation he started anti-depressive medication due to anxiety disorder. Over <strong>the</strong> previous 6 months,<br />
<strong>the</strong> patient had been unemployed and reported increased alcohol consumption (15-20 beers per day). He<br />
presented to <strong>the</strong> emergency room with malaise, new-on set jaundice, right abdominal pain, increment in <strong>the</strong><br />
abdominal perimeter and legs edema. At admission his vital signs were: BP 100/70 mmHg , HR 105 x`, RR<br />
22 x`, T 37.8˚C .On physical exam, <strong>the</strong> patient was noted to have conjuntival icterus, marked ascites with a<br />
prominent fluid wave and bulging flanks, bilateral pitting edema above <strong>the</strong> knees, and tender hepatomegaly.<br />
Flapping was positive on neurological examination. Significant biochemical and microbiological studies at<br />
admission are resumed in Table 1. Abdominal ultrasound revealed hepatic steatosis and no vascular or<br />
tumoral lesions were detected. Based on clinical, radiological and biochemical data diagnosis <strong>of</strong> severe<br />
alcoholic hepatitis (AH) was suspected and supportive care measures plus enteral nutrition were started.<br />
Clinical scoring systems were: Maddrey`s DF 162, MELD 33, GAHS 11 and ABIC 10.2.<br />
Initial infection screening (ascites and urine fluid analysis) was negative and blood cultures were taken.<br />
In addition, a chest-X-ray showed no pneumonia signs. He began with increased anxiety, insomnia and<br />
irritability, so clometiazol was initiated. For diagnostic confirmation a transjugular liver biopsy was per<strong>for</strong>med<br />
and 24-hrs after, histological analysis revealed: macro and micro vesicular steatosis with presence moderate<br />
PNM infiltration on portal tracts, presence <strong>of</strong> hepatocyte ballooning and Mallory-Denk bodies, occasional<br />
megamitochondria, severe hepato-canallicular and ductular cholestasis and bridging fibrosis. Prednisolone<br />
PO (40mg/day) was initiated and a mild improvement on liver function tests was documented in Day 2<br />
<strong>of</strong> hospitalization (Table 1), but 2 days later, <strong>the</strong> patient present fever (T 39˚C) with progressive dyspnea<br />
and productive cough. Blood and sputum cultures were per<strong>for</strong>med. Chest radiographs revealed left lower<br />
lobe pneumonia and IV antibiotic treatment with ceftazidime (2gr TID) plus cipr<strong>of</strong>loxacin (400mg TID) was<br />
initiated. At day 7 (Table 1) <strong>the</strong> patient’s Lille score was 0.79 and corticosteroids were interrupted.<br />
In addition, a progressive and sustained increment in serum creatinine levels and deterioration in his<br />
sodium serum levels were documented (Figure 1). Patient was expanded with IV albumin <strong>for</strong> 48 hr without<br />
renal improvement and diagnosis <strong>of</strong> hepatorenal syndrome associated with infection was established. At<br />
this time, IV terlipressin (1mg every 6 hr) and albumin treatment was initiated without any improvement<br />
on renal function. At day 10 <strong>of</strong> hospitalization <strong>the</strong> patient initiated with hemodynamic deterioration and<br />
grade 3 hepatic encephalopathy. He was <strong>the</strong>n admitted to ICU in where terlipressin was interrupted and<br />
norepinephrine was initiated. 24-hrs after ICU admission, <strong>the</strong> patient present exitus letalis.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
92 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 93<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
THE ACUTELY ILL PATIENT: ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL<br />
Table 1 At admission Day 2 Day 7<br />
WBC (109/l) 12.2<br />
11.3<br />
Hemoglobin (gr/dl) 11.7 10.8 11<br />
Platelets (109/l)<br />
100<br />
13.1<br />
99 105<br />
Bilirubin (mg/dl) 24 21.4 25.1<br />
AST (UI/l) 289 243 169<br />
ALT (UI/l) 124 101 90<br />
GGT 653<br />
Creatinine (mg/dl) 0.8 1.5 1.8<br />
Albumin (gr/dl) 2.7 3.1<br />
PT /control PT<br />
(seg)<br />
45/15 40/15 38/15<br />
INR 3.7 3.2 3.0<br />
Na (mEq/l) 134 130 128<br />
CRP (mg/L) 46 65<br />
HBsAg<br />
Anti-HCV Abs<br />
Negative<br />
Negative<br />
Blood cultures Negative + (P. Aeruginosa)<br />
Urine cultures Negative Negative<br />
Ewan Forrest<br />
Glasgow, UK<br />
E-mail: Ewan.Forrest@ggc.scot.nhs.uk<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcohol misuse and dependency is common amongst general hospital admissions.<br />
• Patients with Alcoholic <strong>Liver</strong> Disease will <strong>of</strong>ten, but not always, be alcohol dependent.<br />
• At risk patients can be recognized with screening tools such as FAST and CAGE.<br />
• Benzodiazepines are <strong>the</strong> mainstay <strong>of</strong> treatment, but lorazepam is preferred <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
patients with liver disease.<br />
• Symptom Triggered Treatment is effective <strong>for</strong> many patients but patients at high risk <strong>of</strong> severe<br />
withdrawal may require Fixed Dose Treatment.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) arises in alcohol-dependent patients typically within 24-72 hours <strong>of</strong><br />
having <strong>the</strong>ir last alcoholic drink. Features <strong>of</strong> AWS include two or more <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> following: tremor, insomnia,<br />
nausea, anxiety, transient hallucinations, agitation and autonomic hyperactivity (sweating, tachycardia).<br />
In its most severe manifestations it may be complicated by withdrawal seizures or delirium tremens. This<br />
latter condition is characterized by disorientation, impaired consciousness, attention deficit, hallucinations<br />
and marked adrenergic activity. In <strong>the</strong>se severe <strong>for</strong>ms it is described as having a mortality <strong>of</strong> up to 20%,<br />
although with recognition and appropriate treatment this can be reduced to 1%. The management <strong>of</strong> AWS<br />
relies upon <strong>the</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> at risk patients and <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> appropriate treatment in <strong>the</strong> most effective way.<br />
This can be especially problematic in patients who have co-existent liver disease.<br />
IDENTIFICATION OF PATIENTS AT RISK OF AWS<br />
Be<strong>for</strong>e effective treatment <strong>of</strong> AWS can be initiated it is vital to recognize those patients at risk. AWS is a<br />
feature <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependency and so tools designed to look <strong>for</strong> this can be used to identify such patients.<br />
Screening tools include <strong>the</strong> CAGE (cut down, annoyed, guilty and eye-opener), Short Alcohol Dependence<br />
Data (SADD/Q) and <strong>the</strong> Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) questionnaires can be used <strong>for</strong> this<br />
purpose. However recognition <strong>of</strong> hazardous/harmful alcohol consumption is also important as <strong>the</strong>se<br />
patients may benefit from brief intervention and still may experience some symptoms <strong>of</strong> AWS. The Alcohol<br />
Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a screening tool <strong>for</strong> hazardous drinking. Higher AUDIT scores<br />
have been associated with greater risk <strong>of</strong> AWS. However whilst AUDIT is effective, it is a relatively long<br />
test <strong>for</strong> use amongst general hospital admissions comprising ten separate questions. To cope with this <strong>the</strong><br />
Fast Alcohol Screening Test (FAST) was developed. This is derived from AUDIT but is much shorter and<br />
easier to use. We have found that higher FAST values correlate well with positive CAGE questionnaires and<br />
subsequent benzodiazepine requirement. As a result we use <strong>the</strong> FAST to stratify hazardous and dependent<br />
drinking patterns in all patients admitted to general hospitals who are drinking more than <strong>the</strong> recommended<br />
limits. This allows <strong>for</strong> at risk patients to be targeted <strong>for</strong> AWS management.<br />
PREVALENCE OF ALCOHOL MISUSE<br />
The prevalence <strong>of</strong> alcohol dependency in general medical hospital admissions can be as high as 18.6% (up<br />
to 24.8% amongst male admissions). However it is incorrect to assume that all patients with alcoholic liver<br />
disease (ALD) will have alcohol dependency. In one study only 26% <strong>of</strong> patients were severely dependent<br />
drinkers on <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> SADD assessment, with 40% having relatively low scores. In ano<strong>the</strong>r study which<br />
excluded patients admitted primarily <strong>for</strong> complications <strong>of</strong> liver disease, patients with a history <strong>of</strong> heavy<br />
alcohol use had liver biopsies. Those with severe AWS were more likely to be binge drinkers and have<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis on histology. Relatively few patients who had cirrhosis without super-added<br />
hepatitis experienced severe AWS.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
94 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 95<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
MECHANISMS OF AWS<br />
The pathophysiology <strong>of</strong> AWS is related to <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol upon neurotransmitters in <strong>the</strong> central<br />
nervous system. Prolonged alcohol exposure leads to a down-regulation <strong>of</strong> gamma-aminiobutyric acid<br />
type-A (GABAA) receptors and an up-regulation <strong>of</strong> N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), which leads to <strong>the</strong><br />
development <strong>of</strong> tolerance. During withdrawal <strong>the</strong>re is reduced GABAergic transmission, enhanced NMDA,<br />
glutaminergic and adrenergic transmission and dysregulation <strong>of</strong> dopaminergic transmission. Repeated<br />
detoxification may lead to a ‘kindling’ effect with increased neuronal responsivity and increased severity<br />
<strong>of</strong> AWS and risk <strong>of</strong> seizures. The mainstay <strong>of</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> AWS remains benzodiazepine <strong>the</strong>rapy. These<br />
drugs enhance GABA activity and counteract adrenergic hyperactivity. The use <strong>of</strong> benzodiazepines also<br />
seems to reduce <strong>the</strong> kindling effect <strong>of</strong> repeated withdrawal.<br />
DRUG THERAPY FOR AWS<br />
On meta-analysis however <strong>the</strong> evidence suggests that benzodiazepines are only better than placebo in<br />
preventing alcohol withdrawal seizures. However <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> published trials is sub-optimal and<br />
clinical experience indicates that benzodiazepines have a more generalized beneficial effect in AWS.<br />
For most patients with AWS it is recommended that long-acting benzodiazepines such as diazepam or<br />
chlordiazepoxide are used. These agents allow a smoo<strong>the</strong>r course <strong>of</strong> withdrawal. Diazepam is also more<br />
lipophilic allowing rapid central nervous system distribution, however this feature also leads to re-distribution<br />
to peripheral fat in a less predictable fashion. Both diazepam and chlordiazepoxide require oxidation in <strong>the</strong><br />
liver to produce active metabolites which <strong>the</strong>mselves have long half-lives. This complex metabolism is<br />
impaired in liver disease with reduced hepatic oxidative capacity. Unpredictable metabolism and erratic<br />
drug accumulation can lead to enhanced sedation in patients with significant liver dysfunction.<br />
For this reason lorazepam is preferred in liver disease patients. This shorter acting benzodiazepine<br />
undergoes hepatic glucuronidation which is reasonably well preserved in <strong>the</strong> damaged liver. It is metabolized<br />
to an inactive product. In studies lorazepam has been shown to be equally effective to chlordiazepoxide<br />
in <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> AWS and is regarded by some s <strong>the</strong> drug <strong>of</strong> choice <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> alcoholrelated<br />
seizures. In severe cases <strong>of</strong> AWS neuroleptic agents such as haloperidol can be used, ideally in<br />
conjunction with benzodiazepines. Chlorpromazine is best avoided as it lowers <strong>the</strong> seizure threshold. In<br />
patients with severe AWS it is necessary that <strong>the</strong>re is adequate nursing supervision to monitor response to<br />
treatment and to ensure that patients do not become over-sedated and put at risk <strong>of</strong> aspiration pneumonia<br />
amongst o<strong>the</strong>r possible complications. In extreme cases patients may require full general anaes<strong>the</strong>sia in<br />
an intensive care setting to manage <strong>the</strong>ir symptoms.<br />
METHOD OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION<br />
The method <strong>of</strong> administration <strong>of</strong> benzodiazepines in AWS is controversial. Many units adhere to fixed dose<br />
treatment (FDT) regimens with set initial doses <strong>of</strong> treatment and subsequent reductions over a fixed period<br />
<strong>of</strong> time. However symptom-triggered treatment (STT) has been shown to reduce <strong>the</strong> duration and amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> benzodiazepine <strong>the</strong>rapy given <strong>for</strong> AWS. The most commonly used STT instrument is <strong>the</strong> Clinical Institute<br />
<strong>of</strong> Withdrawal Assessment <strong>for</strong> Alcohol (CIWA-Ar). However <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> studies investigating STT and<br />
comparing it with FDT have been set in specific alcohol detoxification units. There are few studies assessing<br />
CIWA-Ar in general hospital settings, and those that have frequently exclude patients with complex medical<br />
co-morbidity such as significant liver disease. Whilst an effective tool when used appropriately, <strong>the</strong> CIWA-Ar<br />
is cumbersome and is difficult to administer at <strong>the</strong> appropriate time intervals in a general ward setting. One<br />
study auditing <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a CIWA-Ar based STT in clinical practice found that it was initiated inappropriately<br />
in 52% <strong>of</strong> cases. On multivariate analysis <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> liver disease was <strong>the</strong> only significant factor<br />
associated with inappropriate treatment.<br />
(Modified) Alcohol Withdrawal Score (GMAWS) which is less time consuming and easier to administer<br />
in a general ward setting (data awaiting publication). However <strong>the</strong>re are exceptions to this approach. In<br />
particular patients with evidence <strong>of</strong> significant liver disease are managed specifically by STT (GMAWS)<br />
with lorazepam.<br />
ALTERNATIVES TO BENZODIAZEPINE THERAPY<br />
Carbemazepine prescribed in a reducing FDT fashion has been shown to be effective in managing AWS in<br />
some studies, however on meta-analysis <strong>the</strong> benefit is questionable and <strong>the</strong>re is no evidence <strong>of</strong> superiority<br />
over benzodiazepines. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) may be more effective than placebo in managing<br />
AWS but again does not appear to <strong>of</strong>fer any advantage over benzodiazepines. Bacl<strong>of</strong>en is ano<strong>the</strong>r drug<br />
with potential in <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> AWS and <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> sedating side-effects make this drug especially<br />
appealing in patients with ALD. A greater evidence base is required be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong>se drugs can be recommended<br />
in <strong>the</strong> routine management <strong>of</strong> AWS.<br />
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS<br />
Confusion, disorientation and agitation have a broad differential diagnosis amongst heavy drinking patients<br />
with liver disease. Care must be taken to differentiate between acute alcohol intoxication, intoxication<br />
from o<strong>the</strong>r substances, hepatic encephalopathy, Wernicke’s encephalopathy as well as AWS. A good<br />
clinical history (if obtainable) plus blood alcohol concentration and urine toxicology assessment will help to<br />
differentiate some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se presentations. Clinical signs such as asterixis or opthalmoplegia/nystagmus will<br />
also point to an alternative diagnosis. Clearly <strong>the</strong> prescription <strong>of</strong> benzodiazepines to patients with hepatic<br />
encephalopathy may be detrimental and so close observation <strong>of</strong> patients with liver disease treated <strong>for</strong><br />
AWS is essential. Treatment <strong>of</strong> Wernicke’s encephalopathy with intravenous thiamine and correction <strong>of</strong><br />
hypomagnesaemia is generally safe and should be considered in all patients presenting in this fashion.<br />
Figure 1: The FAST Screening Tool<br />
1. MEN: How <strong>of</strong>ten do you have EIGHT or more drinks on one occasion<br />
WOMEN: How <strong>of</strong>ten do you have SIX or more drinks on one occasion<br />
Never<br />
0 Less than monthly 1 Monthly 2 Weekly 3 Daily or almost daily 4<br />
2. How <strong>of</strong>ten during <strong>the</strong> last year have you been unable to remember what happened <strong>the</strong> night<br />
Be<strong>for</strong>e because you had been drinking<br />
Never<br />
0 Less than monthly 1 Monthly 2 Weekly 3 Daily or almost daily 4<br />
3. How <strong>of</strong>ten during <strong>the</strong> last year have you failed to what was normally expected <strong>of</strong> you because <strong>of</strong> drinking<br />
Never<br />
0 Less than monthly 1 Monthly 2 Weekly 3 Daily or almost daily 4<br />
4. In <strong>the</strong> last year has a relative or friend, or a doctor or o<strong>the</strong>r health worker been concerned<br />
about your drinking or suggested you cut down<br />
No<br />
0 Yes, on one occasion 2 Yes, on more than one occasion 4<br />
FAST≥3 indicates hazardous drinking behavior.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> light <strong>of</strong> this we stratified <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> AWS patients into those a standard risk <strong>of</strong> severe withdrawal<br />
and those at high risk <strong>of</strong> severe withdrawal. Standard risk patients receive STT, whilst high risk patients<br />
receive FDT plus STT. Risk is assessed by <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> high initial symptom score, high FAST score,<br />
history <strong>of</strong> alcohol related seizures and/or severe AWS in <strong>the</strong> past. Instead <strong>of</strong> CIWA-Ar we use <strong>the</strong> Glasgow
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
96 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 97<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 2: Metabolism <strong>of</strong> Chlordiazepoxide, Diazepam and Lorazepam.<br />
Figure 3: The Glasgow Modified Alcohol Withdrawal Score (GMAWS)<br />
Tremor<br />
0) No tremor<br />
1) On movement<br />
2) At rest<br />
Sweating<br />
0) No sweat visible<br />
1) Moist<br />
2) Drenching sweats<br />
Hallucination<br />
0) Not present<br />
1) Dissuadable<br />
2) Not dissuadable<br />
Orientation<br />
0) Orientated<br />
1) Vague, detatched<br />
2) Disorientated, no<br />
contact<br />
Agitation<br />
0) Calm<br />
1) Anxious<br />
2) Panicky<br />
Score<br />
Treatment<br />
Score: (Do not use scoring tool if patient intoxicated,<br />
must be at least 8 hours since last drink.)<br />
0: Repeat Score in 2 hours (Discontinue<br />
after scoring on 4 consecutive occasions,<br />
except if less than 48hrs after last drink)<br />
1 – 3: Give 10mg Diazepam:<br />
Repeat Score in 2 hours<br />
4 – 8: Give 20mg Diazepam:<br />
Repeat Score in 1 hour<br />
9 - 10: Give 20mg Diazepam:<br />
Repeat Score in 1 hour;<br />
discuss with medical staff<br />
REFERENCES<br />
McKeon A, Frye MA, Delanty N. The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. J Neurology<br />
Neurosurgery Psychiatry 2008; 79:854-62.<br />
Barri E, Tome S, Rodriguez I, Gude F, Sanchez-Leira J, Perez-Bacerra E,<br />
Gonzalez-Quintela A. <strong>Liver</strong> disease in heavy drinkers with and without alcohol withdrawal<br />
syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical Experimental Research 2004; 28: 131-136.<br />
Peppers MP. Benzodiazepines <strong>for</strong> alcohol withdrawal in <strong>the</strong> elderly and in patients<br />
with liver disease. Pharmaco<strong>the</strong>rapy 1996; 16: 49-57.<br />
Hecksel KA, Bostwick JM, Jaeger TM, Cha SS. Inappropriate use <strong>of</strong> symptom-triggered<br />
<strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>for</strong> alcohol withdrawal in <strong>the</strong> general hospital. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2008; 83: 274-279.<br />
Lejoyeux M, Solomon J, Ades J. Benzodiaepine treatment <strong>for</strong> alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol<br />
Alcoholism 1998; 33: 563-575.<br />
Amato L, MMinozzi S, Davoli M. Efficacy and safety <strong>of</strong> pharmacological interventions<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Cochrane Database <strong>of</strong> Systematic<br />
Reviews 2011; 6: CD008537.pub2. DOI:10.1002/14651858<br />
Doleman JM, Hawkes ND. Combining <strong>the</strong> AUDIT questionnaire and biochemical markers<br />
to assess alcohol use and risk <strong>of</strong> alcohol withdrawal in medical patients. Alcohol Alcoholism<br />
2005; 40: 515-519.<br />
Cameron A, Morris JM, Forrest EH. The Prevalence <strong>of</strong> alcohol misuse among acute<br />
admissions: current experience and historical comparisons. Scottish Medical Journal 2006;<br />
51: 21-23.<br />
Rogawski MA. Update on <strong>the</strong> neurobiology <strong>of</strong> alcohol withdrawal seizures.<br />
Epilepsy Currents 2005; 5: 225-230.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
98 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 99<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS OR DECOMPENSATED CIRRHOSIS:<br />
DIAGNOSTIC AND PROGNOSTIC ISSUE<br />
Frederik Nevens<br />
Leuven, Belgium<br />
E-mail: frederik.nevens@uzleuven.be<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• There are different types <strong>of</strong> chronic liver failure: chronic hepatic decompensation and acuteon-chronic<br />
liver failure.<br />
• Multiorgan failure occur be<strong>for</strong>e sepsis in ACLF and <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e scores as <strong>the</strong> SOFA score predict<br />
outcome better than MELD.<br />
• One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most frequent precipitating events <strong>of</strong> ACLF is severe alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
• Prognostic scores used <strong>for</strong> patients with ASH are disease-specific: modified Maldrey’s<br />
discrimination function, <strong>the</strong> Lille score, <strong>the</strong> Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score and <strong>the</strong> ABIC<br />
and <strong>the</strong> non disease-specific score: MELD.<br />
• Early control <strong>of</strong> ASH by corticosteroids prevents evolution to ACLF.<br />
• During corticosteroid treatment a Lille score at day 7 ≤ 0.16 select responders.<br />
Alcohol can provoke different types <strong>of</strong> liver injury. The most critical ill patients are patients suffering<br />
from severe alcoholic hepatitis (ASH) (mostly superimposed on alcoholic cirrhosis) and patients with a<br />
decompensated cirrhosis. Recently a new clinical syndrome has been described : acute-on-chronic liver<br />
failure (ACLF).<br />
GENERAL ASPECTS OF LIVER FAILURE AND PROGNOSIS<br />
There are different types <strong>of</strong> liver failure. It is important to recognize <strong>the</strong>m since <strong>the</strong>y all have a different<br />
prognosis and require a different <strong>the</strong>rapeutic approach. Traditionally liver failure is divided in acute liver<br />
failure (ALF) which occurs suddenly in a patient without a previous liver disease and chronic liver failure<br />
due to chronic hepatic decompensation (CHD) which is found in patients with end-stage cirrhosis as a<br />
result <strong>of</strong> a slowly progression <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir underlying liver disease. Since <strong>the</strong> introduction <strong>of</strong> albumin dialysis<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r subtype <strong>of</strong> chronic liver failure is recognized : ACLF. This is an acute and rapid deterioration within<br />
weeks <strong>of</strong> a patient with a well-compensated chronic liver disease and is clinically characterized by deep<br />
jaundice, renal impairment, hepatic encephalopathy and rapidly evolving multiorgan failure (1). In patients<br />
with alcoholic cirrhosis admitted to <strong>the</strong> hospital <strong>for</strong> a complication, ACLF has a 3 month mortality <strong>of</strong> 60 %<br />
versus 20 % in case <strong>of</strong> end-stage CHD (2) (Fig1). Spontaneous reactivation <strong>of</strong> hepatitis B presenting as<br />
ACLF in <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation has a 3 month mortality <strong>of</strong> 80% illustrating <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> this<br />
syndrome (3).<br />
The most important clinical complication in all <strong>the</strong>se conditions <strong>of</strong> liver failure which directly affects outcome,<br />
is sepsis and multiorgan failure. A low threshold to start antibiotics has significantly improved <strong>the</strong> outcome<br />
<strong>of</strong> patients with ALF (4). In case <strong>of</strong> CHD sepsis occur late in <strong>the</strong> progression <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease at <strong>the</strong> moment <strong>of</strong><br />
severe impairment <strong>of</strong> liver function (5). In this situation prognosis at admission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hospital is especially<br />
related to <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> liver dysfunction and <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e MELD score is accurate to predict <strong>the</strong> mortality in<br />
this condition. In ACLF multiorgan failure occur be<strong>for</strong>e sepsis at an early stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clinical syndrome.<br />
In this regard we found in a recent prospective study that in ACLF <strong>the</strong> SOFA score was <strong>the</strong> best score to<br />
predict outcome at admission in <strong>the</strong> hospital (2).<br />
The exact path<strong>of</strong>ysiology <strong>of</strong> ACLF is still unclear. In most cases <strong>of</strong> ACLF <strong>the</strong>re is a discordance between <strong>the</strong><br />
severity <strong>of</strong> jaundice on <strong>the</strong> one hand and <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r features <strong>of</strong> liver impairment on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand.<br />
This resulted to <strong>the</strong> toxin accumulation hypo<strong>the</strong>sis. Since albumin dialysis removes both water soluble and<br />
non soluble toxins a beneficial effect in ACLF was expected and indeed an improvement in haemodynamic<br />
instability and hepatic encephalopathy was observed. (6, 7, 8) None <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se devices however could<br />
improve yet overall survival. Currently an excessive pro-inflammatory response to bacterial components is<br />
thought to play an important role linking <strong>the</strong> gut, liver and systemic circulation in this syndrome (9).<br />
A crucial role in <strong>the</strong> onset <strong>of</strong> ACLF are <strong>the</strong> precipitating events. This is illustrated by <strong>the</strong> fact that early<br />
and aggressive control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se triggers allow reversal <strong>of</strong> ACLF. A common precipitating event <strong>of</strong> ACLF<br />
is variceal haemorrhage. Prophylactic use <strong>of</strong> antibiotics has significantly improved <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
patients and in this regard it has been recently demonstrated that in high risk patients early control <strong>of</strong><br />
variceal haemorrhage by TIPS prevents ACLF (10). A similar observation came recently from India. Early<br />
suppression <strong>of</strong> HBV viremia with ten<strong>of</strong>ovir prevented <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> multiorgan failure in patients with<br />
spontaneous reactivation <strong>of</strong> Hepatitis B presenting as ACLF (3). The most common trigger in <strong>the</strong> Western<br />
countries <strong>of</strong> ACLF is severe alcoholic hepatitis and this will be discussed more in detail below.<br />
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LIVER FAILURE IN PATIENTS WITH ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
a.Severe ASH as a trigger <strong>for</strong> ACLF<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most important cause <strong>of</strong> chronic liver failure is alcohol. CHD is <strong>the</strong> most frequent subtype and is<br />
characterized in <strong>the</strong> initial stage by <strong>the</strong> complications <strong>of</strong> portal hypertension and mild to moderate jaundice.<br />
The one year mortality in case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> ascites is 29% and if hepatic encephalopathy occurs<br />
this is 64 % (11). The prognosis is predominantly affected by abstinence. ACLF is less frequent but in<br />
tertiary hospitals ACLF can account <strong>for</strong> more than 40 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> emergency hospitalization due to alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis (2). In Western countries <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis included in <strong>the</strong> studies with albumin<br />
dialysis (MARS <strong>of</strong> Prome<strong>the</strong>us) <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> ACLF range from 39 to 92% (8, 12, 13). In patients with<br />
alcoholic cirrhosis ACLF can be induced by several precipitation events but <strong>the</strong> most frequent one is severe<br />
ASH, which occurred in around 25 % <strong>of</strong> our patients with ACLF (2).<br />
b.Prognostic scores used <strong>for</strong> patients with ASH<br />
Severe ASH is characterized by a rapid onset <strong>of</strong> jaundice, elevated AST (< 300 IU/ml), AST/ALT ratio > 2,<br />
bilirubin > 5 mg/dl, elevated INR and neutrophilia (14). As has been demonstrated <strong>for</strong> variceal haemorrhage<br />
and exacerbation <strong>of</strong> HBV, <strong>the</strong> best way to reverse ACLF is a rapid control <strong>of</strong> ASH in patients <strong>of</strong> which<br />
spontaneous recuperation is doubtful. There<strong>for</strong>e prognostic scores are <strong>of</strong> importance.<br />
There are different scores which assess <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> ASH (Table 1). There are <strong>the</strong> disease-specific<br />
prognostic models (modified Maddry’s discrimination function, <strong>the</strong> Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score and<br />
<strong>the</strong> ABIC score) and <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> non disease-specific prognostic model: MELD. In 2 retrospective studies it<br />
was found that a MELD score <strong>of</strong> > 21 was a useful clinical tool to assess mortality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se patients (15,16).<br />
In one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studies also a decrease in MELD by 2 points at day 7 was associated with a good prognosis.<br />
Still one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most commonly used disease-specific score to predict outcome <strong>of</strong> ASH is <strong>the</strong> modified<br />
Maddry’s discriminant function (DF) (17). Patients with a DF < 32 have a spontaneous survival at 28 days<br />
around 90 %; if <strong>the</strong> DF is ≥ 32 <strong>the</strong> spontaneous 2 month survival is only 50 % - 65 %. These patients mostly<br />
progress to <strong>the</strong> systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multisystem organ failure which is also<br />
seen in o<strong>the</strong>r types <strong>of</strong> ACLF.<br />
In patients with severe ASH without contraindication (gastro-intestinal bleeding, hepatorenal syndrome,<br />
sepsis and HBV) corticosteroids seems to improve outcome. A recent meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> individual data from<br />
5 randomized trials demonstrated that 28-day survival was higher in corticosteroid-treated patients (80%<br />
vs 66%) (18). Two disease-specific scores assessed which patients might benefit from corticosteroids: <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Maddrey score <strong>the</strong> cut-<strong>of</strong>f is ≥ 32.and <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lille score this is ≥0.45 (19). Ano<strong>the</strong>r score which allow to<br />
select <strong>the</strong> best candidates <strong>for</strong> treatment is <strong>the</strong> Glasgow score (20). The Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
100 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 101<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
(GAHS) has been validated in <strong>the</strong> UK. Among patients with a DF ≥ 32 and a GAHS ≥ 9 prognosis was<br />
extremely poor if <strong>the</strong>y were not treated with corticosteroids. The ABIC score identifies patients with a 90 day<br />
and 1 year survival rate <strong>of</strong> respectively 100%, 70% and 25% (21). The authors retrospectively evaluated<br />
<strong>the</strong> response to corticosteroids and found that this was 100%, 71% and 33% in <strong>the</strong> patients with low,<br />
intermediate and high risk <strong>of</strong> death respectively. For <strong>the</strong> MELD, <strong>the</strong>re is uncertainly about <strong>the</strong> threshold <strong>for</strong><br />
initiating corticosteroids. Finally one score allow to discriminate <strong>the</strong> respons rate to corticosteroids during<br />
treatment: a Lille score at day 7 <strong>of</strong> ≤ 0.16 discriminated <strong>the</strong> best responders (19).<br />
Table 1: Prognostic scores used <strong>for</strong> patients with alcoholic hepatitis<br />
Infection is commonly seen in patients with severe ASH and is found in around 25% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients. Recent<br />
data demonstrated that after control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> infection corticosteroids are not contraindicated <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> ASH. Infection during steroid treatment however was <strong>the</strong> explanation <strong>of</strong> non-respons to corticosteroids<br />
in agreement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ACLF (22).<br />
c.The value <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy in patients with ASH.<br />
Although liver biopsy is not required to establish <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> ASH and a well validated histological<br />
classification is still lacking, biopsy can be helpful. Indeed as already mentioned not every sudden<br />
exacerbation <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis is due to severe ASH (2). Biopsy will not only allow a correct diagnosis<br />
<strong>of</strong> ASH, it is helpfull to define <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> ASH and <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> liver polymorphonucclear infiltrate<br />
has prognostic value (23). Biopsy can also recognize <strong>the</strong> patients in a pre-cirrotic stage which might have<br />
a better outcome. Finally, biopsy can also help to diagnose sepsis in an early stage which is useful to<br />
recognize ACLF (24).<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Several precipitating events can provoke ACLF in patients with alcoholic liver disease. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> frequent<br />
triggers is severe ASH. Early and aggressive control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se precipitating events can reverse ACLF. In<br />
patients with ASH and bad prognoses corticosteroids prevents ACLF.<br />
Several disease specific prognostic scores are available <strong>for</strong> patients with ASH. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m are helpful<br />
to select <strong>the</strong> best candidates <strong>for</strong> corticosteroid and one score (Lille) can select non-responders early during<br />
treatment.<br />
Figure 1<br />
Different outcome <strong>of</strong> patients with chronic liver failure due to chronic hepatitis decompensation (CHD) or<br />
acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) due to alcohol (Katoonizadeh et al GUT 2010).<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Sarin SK, Kumar A, Almeida JA, Chawla YK, Fan ST, Garg H, de Silva HJ, Hamid SS,<br />
Jalan R, Komolmit P, Lau GK, Liu Q, Madan K, Mohamed R, Ning Q, Rahman S, Rastogi A,<br />
Riordan SM, Sakhuja P, Samuel D, Shah S, Sharma BC, Sharma P, Takikawa Y, Thapa BR,<br />
Wai CT, Yuen MF. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: consensus recommendations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Asian<br />
Pacific <strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver (APASL). Hepatol Int. 2009;3(1):269-82.<br />
Katoonizadeh A, Laleman W, Verslype C, Wilmer A, Maleux G, Roskams T, Nevens F.<br />
Early features <strong>of</strong> acute-on-chronic alcoholic liver failure: a prospective cohort study.<br />
Gut. 2010;59(11):1561-9.<br />
Garg H, Sarin SK, Kumar M, Garg V, Sharma BC, Kumar A. Ten<strong>of</strong>ovir improves<br />
<strong>the</strong> outcome in patients with spontaneous reactivation <strong>of</strong> hepatitis B presenting as acute-onchronic<br />
liver failure. Hepatology. 2011;53(3):774-80.<br />
Rolando N, Philpott-Howard J, Williams R. Bacterial and fungal infection in acute<br />
liver failure. Semin <strong>Liver</strong> Dis. 1996;16(4):389-402.<br />
Gustot T, Durand F, Lebrec D, Vincent JL, Moreau R. Severe sepsis in cirrhosis.<br />
Hepatology. 2009;50(6):2022-33.<br />
Evenepoel P, Laleman W, Wilmer A, Claes K, Kuypers D, Bammens B, Nevens F,<br />
Vanrenterghem Y. Prome<strong>the</strong>us versus molecular adsorbents recirculating system: comparison<br />
<strong>of</strong> efficiency in two different liver detoxification devices. Artif Organs. 2006;30(4):276-84.<br />
Laleman W, Wilmer A, Evenepoel P, Elst IV, Zeegers M, Zaman Z, Verslype C, Fevery J,<br />
Nevens F. Effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> molecular adsorbent recirculating system and Prome<strong>the</strong>us<br />
devices on systemic haemodynamics and vasoactive agents in patients with acute-onchronic<br />
alcoholic liver failure. Crit Care. 2006;10(4):R108.<br />
Hassanein TI, T<strong>of</strong>teng F, Brown RS Jr, McGuire B, Lynch P, Mehta R, Larsen FS, Gornbein J,<br />
Stange J, Blei AT. Randomized controlled study <strong>of</strong> extracorporeal albumin dialysis <strong>for</strong><br />
hepatic encephalopathy in advanced cirrhosis. Hepatology. 2007;46(6):1853-62.<br />
Verbeke L, Nevens F, Laleman W. Bench-to-beside review: Acute-on-chronic liver failure -<br />
linking <strong>the</strong> gut, liver and systemic circulation. Crit Care. 2011 25;15(5):233.<br />
García-Pagán JC, Caca K, Bureau C, Laleman W, Appenrodt B, Luca A, Abraldes JG,<br />
Nevens F, Vinel JP, Mössner J, Bosch J; Early TIPS (Transjugular Intrahepatic<br />
Portosystemic Shunt) Cooperative <strong>Study</strong> Group. Early use <strong>of</strong> TIPS in patients with cirrhosis<br />
and variceal bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(25):2370-9.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
102 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 103<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Jepsen P, Ott P, Andersen PK, Sørensen HT, Vilstrup H. Clinical course <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver<br />
cirrhosis: a Danish population-based cohort study. Hepatology. 2010;51(5):1675-82.<br />
Baňares R, Nevens F, Larsen FS, Jalan R, Albillos A, Dollinger M. Extracorporeal liver support<br />
with <strong>the</strong> molecular adsorbent recirculating system (MARS) in patients with acute-on-chronic<br />
liver failure The RELIEF Trial. J Heptatol. 2010;52 (Suppl 1): S459-60.<br />
Rifai K, Kribben A, Gerken G, hag S, herget-Rosenthal S, Treichel U, Betz C, Sarrazin C,<br />
Van Vlierberghe H, Hoste E, Escorsell A, Ginès P, Hafer C, Schuchmann M, Galle PR,<br />
Bernardi M, Caraceni P, Abeles D, Berr F, Knotek M, Kozik-Jaromin J, <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> HELIOS <strong>Study</strong><br />
Group. Extracorporeal liver support by fractionated plasma separation and adsorption<br />
(prome<strong>the</strong>us) in patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure (HELIOS study) :<br />
a prospective randomized controlled multicenter study. J Hepatol. 2010; 52 (Suppl. 1):S3.<br />
Lucey MR, Mathurin P, Morgan TR. Alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(26):2758-69.<br />
Dunn W, Jamil LH, Brown LS, Wiesner RH Kim WR, Menon KV, Malinchoc M, Kamath P,<br />
Shah V. MELD accuratelypPredicts mortality in patients with alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
Hepatology 2005;41:353-8.<br />
Srikureja W, Kyulo NL, Runyon BA, Hu Ke- Qin. MELD score is a better prognostic<br />
model than Child-Turcotte-Pugh score or discriminant function score in patients with<br />
alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol 2005;42:700-6.<br />
Maddrey WC, Boitnott JK, Bedine MS, Weber FL, Mezey E, White RI. Corticosteroid <strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1978; 75:193-9<br />
Mathurin P, O’Grady J, Cari<strong>the</strong>rs RL, Phillips M, Louvet A, Mendenhall CL, Ramond MJ,<br />
Naveau S, Maddrey WC, Morgan TR. Corticosteroids improve short-term survival in patients<br />
with severe alcoholic hepatitis: meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> individual patient data. Gut. 2011;60(2):255-60.<br />
Louvet A, Naveau S, Abdelnour M, Ramond MJ, Diaz E, Fartoux L, Dharancy S,<br />
Texier F, Hollebecque A, Serfaty L, Boleslawski E, Deltenre P, Canva V, Pruvot FR,<br />
Mathurin P. The Lille model: a new tool <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic strategy in patients with severe<br />
alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids. Hepatology. 2007;45(6):1348-54.<br />
Forrest EH, Morris AJ, Stewart S, Phillips M, Oo YH, Fisher NC, Haydon G, O’Grady J,<br />
Day CP. The Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score identifies patients who may benefit<br />
from corticosteroids. Gut. 2007;56(12):1743-6.<br />
Dominguez M, Rincón D, Abraldes JG, Miquel R, Colmenero J, Bellot P, García-Pagán<br />
JC, Fernández R, Moreno M, Bañares R, Arroyo V, Caballería J, Ginès P, Bataller R.<br />
A new scoring system <strong>for</strong> prognostic stratification <strong>of</strong> patients with alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103(11):2747-56.<br />
Louvet A, Wartel F, Castel H, Dharancy S, Hollebecque A, Canva-Delcambre V, Deltenre P,<br />
Mathurin P. Infection in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids:<br />
early response to <strong>the</strong>rapy is <strong>the</strong> key factor. Gastroenterology. 2009;137(2):541-8.<br />
Mathurin P, Duchatelle V, Ramond MJ, Degott C, Bedossa P, Erlinger S, Benhamou JP,<br />
Chaput JC, Rueff B, Poynard T. Survival and prognostic factors in patients with severe<br />
alcoholic hepatitis treated with prednisolone. Gastroenterology. 1996;110(6):1847-53.<br />
Rajiv Jalan, Rajeshwar Prosad Mookerjee. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: an early<br />
biopsy is essential Gut. 2010; 59(11):1455-6.<br />
ALCOHOLIC STEATOHEPATITIS (ASH)<br />
Antoine Hadengue<br />
Geneva, Switzerland<br />
E-mail: antoine.hadengue@gmail.com<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcoholic hepatitis is <strong>the</strong> clinical syndrome <strong>of</strong> jaundice or abnormal liver function tests in<br />
alcohol abusers. Because decompensation in ALD can result from alcoholic steato-hepatitis<br />
(ASH), infection, or o<strong>the</strong>r causes, ASH should be confirmed by liver biopsy.<br />
• Alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) is defined at liver biopsy by <strong>the</strong> coexistence <strong>of</strong> steatosis,<br />
hepatocyte ballooning and an inflammatory infiltrate with PMNs.<br />
• Alcohol abstinence is <strong>the</strong> chief, vital objective in all <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> ASH, and deserves full<br />
multidisciplinary investment.<br />
• Severe ASH at risk <strong>of</strong> early death should be identified by one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> available scoring systems<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e considering specific <strong>the</strong>rapy.<br />
• First-line <strong>the</strong>rapy in patients with severe ASH includes corticosteroids. Early non-response<br />
to steroids should be identified and stopping rules should be considered when steroids are<br />
contraindicated, <strong>for</strong> example in case <strong>of</strong> ongoing sepsis, pentoxifylline should be used. However,<br />
pentoxifyllin is not useful in combination with- or in non-responders to steroids.<br />
• N-acetylcysteine, combined to corticosteroids in patients with severe ASH, has brought survival<br />
benefit in one study and can be considered, especially in patients with poor nutritionnal status.<br />
• Renal function and infection have a major impact on survival and should be closely monitored<br />
in patients with severe ASH.<br />
• Early liver transplantation may only be considered in highly selected patients with a first episode<br />
<strong>of</strong> severe ASH, a favorable addiction pr<strong>of</strong>ile and not responding to medical <strong>the</strong>rapy.<br />
DEFINITION AND INCIDENCE<br />
The clinical syndrome <strong>of</strong> jaundice or abnormal liver function tests in alcohol abusers is called “alcoholic<br />
hepatitis”. Historically, it has also been referred to as “acute alcoholic hepatitis”. Although <strong>the</strong> clinical<br />
presentation may be abrupt, this is probably a misnomer, since alcoholic hepatitis is usually associated<br />
with extensive fibrosis or cirrhosis and <strong>of</strong>ten follows a protracted course, weeks after alcohol abstinence.<br />
The clinical syndrome <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis, <strong>of</strong>ten with ALD decompensation in non-abstinent patients,<br />
opens a differential diagnosis where alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) is <strong>the</strong> leading, but not <strong>the</strong> only cause.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r causes <strong>of</strong> ALD decompensation besides ASH, including infection, extensive microvesicular steatosis,<br />
or superimposed drug-induced liver injury, will not be covered here. ASH is defined at histology by <strong>the</strong><br />
coexistence <strong>of</strong> steatosis, hepatocyte ballooning and an inflammatory infiltrate with PMNs. Uncertainty about<br />
<strong>the</strong> exact cause <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> syndrome may not be an issue in non-severe <strong>for</strong>ms, when no specific <strong>the</strong>rapy is<br />
required. In severe <strong>for</strong>ms however, where specific <strong>the</strong>rapy with a potential <strong>for</strong> side-effects is considered,<br />
ASH should be confirmed by histology.<br />
Based on clinical diagnosis codes from a Danish registry <strong>the</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis was estimated<br />
to range from 24 to 46 per million in women and men, respectively [1]. In <strong>the</strong> United States, a clinical<br />
diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis accounted <strong>for</strong> 0.7 % <strong>of</strong> all hospital admissions in 2007 [2].<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uncertainties behind a clinical diagnosis <strong>of</strong> “alcoholic hepatitis” and <strong>the</strong> limited number<br />
<strong>of</strong> studies with a liver biopsy to ascertain a diagnosis <strong>of</strong> ASH, <strong>the</strong> true incidence and prevalence <strong>of</strong> ASH<br />
in alcohol abusers is difficult to determine. Relying only on clinical criteria <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic<br />
hepatitis entails a 10-50% risk <strong>of</strong> misclassifying patients with or without ASH. This has been established in<br />
older studies [3, 4] and verified recently [5, 6]. Early liver biopsy (within 7 days) in 68 patients admitted <strong>for</strong>
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
104 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 105<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
an acute deterioration <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis with a systemic inflammatory response (SIRS) suggestive <strong>of</strong><br />
steatohepatitis, showed that ASH was present only in 50% [6]. Among 234 patients with a clinical suspicion<br />
<strong>of</strong> ASH, in whom particular care was taken to exclude infection, liver biopsy showed diagnoses o<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
ASH in 10% [5]. Based on liver biopsy in 1,604 patients admitted with alcohol abuse in France, with or<br />
without symptoms <strong>of</strong> liver disease, ASH was present in 44 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 411 patients with cirrhosis and 12 % <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> 996 patients without cirrhosis [7].<br />
HISTOLOGICAL FEATURES OF ASH<br />
Steatohepatitis is defined by <strong>the</strong> coexistence <strong>of</strong> steatosis, hepatocyte ballooning and an inflammatory<br />
infiltrate with PMNs. These criteria are common to ASH and NASH. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> Mallory’s<br />
bodies, and mega mitochondria, although not specific to alcoholic steatohepatitis, are <strong>of</strong>ten associated with<br />
<strong>the</strong> elementary lesions described above, both in ASH and NASH. At standard histological examination, no<br />
single criteria can differentiate ASH from NASH (which by <strong>the</strong> way was initially called “pseudo-alcoholic<br />
hepatitis”). However, lesions <strong>of</strong> steatohepatitis may appear more pronounced in patients with ASH compared<br />
with NASH. In addition, <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se lesions in a patient with ALD suggests active drinking.<br />
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS AND EVALUATION<br />
When symptomatic, ASH usually presents with progressive jaundice. However, ASH should be suspected<br />
in patients with alcohol abuse presenting with any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> features <strong>of</strong> liver decompensation, such as ascites,<br />
encephalopathy or gastrointestinal bleeding. An enlarged liver is <strong>of</strong>ten present, which may be tender or<br />
even painful in rare cases. ASH is <strong>of</strong>ten be associated with SIRS, exceptionally with high fever, with or<br />
without infection. Weight loss, muscle wasting and malnutrition can be at <strong>the</strong> front scene. Besides palmar<br />
ery<strong>the</strong>ma and finger clubbing, spider angiomas and gynecomasty are believed to be especially prevalent<br />
when alcohol is <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> steatohepatitis. Extrahepatic manifestations <strong>of</strong> alcohol toxicity, such as parotid<br />
gland enlargement, Dupuytren’s contracture, peripheral neuropathy or alcohol-related CNS disorders,<br />
cardiomyopathy, or history <strong>of</strong> pancreatitis may help in <strong>the</strong> diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcohol abuse.<br />
At liver function tests, AST levels, which may be normal in asymptomatic <strong>for</strong>ms, are typically elevated to<br />
1-6 times <strong>the</strong> upper limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> normal range. The AST/ALT ratio is usually greater than 2 which can also<br />
be seen in advanced fibrosis related to o<strong>the</strong>r causes <strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease [8]. Low serum albumin, a<br />
prolonged prothombin time and elevated international normalized ratio (INR) reflect <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
dysfunction. Besides <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> leucopenia as seen in cirrhosis, neutrophilia, sometimes <strong>of</strong> high level,<br />
is a frequent feature <strong>of</strong> ASH.<br />
Imaging studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver, in addition to detecting signs <strong>of</strong> advanced stages <strong>of</strong> ALD such as a dysmorphic<br />
liver, portal-systemic collaterals and splenomegaly, may evidence liver “arterialization”, related to increased<br />
resistance to portal venous blood flow and <strong>the</strong> resulting dilatation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hepatic artery. In some cases, liver<br />
“arterialization” in ASH may translate into hypervascular, although benign, regeneration nodules.<br />
Infection is a permanent concern in patients with ASH. Active infection: In a cohort <strong>of</strong> 246 patients with<br />
severe ASH, a quarter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients were infected at admission, and ano<strong>the</strong>r quarter became infected<br />
while receiving corticosteroids [9]. Even though <strong>the</strong> patient may have normal body temperature, systematic<br />
infection screening should include blood and urine cultures, ascites examination, and chest X-ray. These<br />
should be per<strong>for</strong>med at admission and repeated if <strong>the</strong> clinical condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patient deteriorates or when<br />
an important <strong>the</strong>rapeutic step is considered.<br />
Due to <strong>the</strong> high incidence <strong>of</strong> acute renal failure related to <strong>the</strong> hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) in severe ASH,<br />
repeat checks <strong>of</strong> renal function are also recommended in patients with ASH.<br />
The hepatic venous pressure gradient, measured at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> transvenous liver biopsy, is an accurate<br />
reflection <strong>of</strong> portal pressure in ASH and carries prognostic in<strong>for</strong>mation. Sharp portal pressure increases<br />
have been reported to reflect <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> ASH. Clinically significant portal hypertension may emerge<br />
rapidly during <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> ASH, while <strong>the</strong> healing process can be accompanied by a marked decrease in<br />
portal pressure over a few weeks.<br />
Caution with <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> transient elastography to estimate fibrosis is recommended in patients with a clinical<br />
diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis. In addition to fibrosis, inflammation, cholestasis or liver congestion, and<br />
recent alcohol consumption behavior may interfere with liver stiffness measurements [10, 11].<br />
PROGNOSTIC SCORES<br />
Prognostic scores have been developed mainly to select patients with “severe” ASH, i.e. at high risk <strong>of</strong><br />
early (1, 2, or 3 months) mortality, in order to initiate randomized trials with mortality as an end-point.<br />
The Maddrey Discriminant Function (MDF = bilirubin (mg/dL) + 4.6 x (patient PT - control PT)) was<br />
developed in 1978 and is still used to stratify patients into severe and non-severe <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> ASH. MDF ≥<br />
32 has been used in most randomized controlled trials to define “severe ASH” and demonstrate treatment<br />
efficacy in this category [12, 13]. In <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> treatment, <strong>the</strong> 1-month spontaneous survival <strong>of</strong> patients<br />
with a DF ≥32 has fluctuated between 50 and 65 % [13, 14]. Although <strong>the</strong> most widespread and simple to<br />
interpret, MDF is limited by difficulties in standardizing prothrombin time, presence <strong>of</strong> only two categories<br />
(severe/non-severe) and lack <strong>of</strong> dynamic in<strong>for</strong>mation to assess treatment response.<br />
The Model <strong>for</strong> End-Stage <strong>Liver</strong> Disease (MELD), widely used in liver diseases, has been evaluated<br />
to assess <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> ASH. Although useful as a continuous measure <strong>of</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> ASH, no clearly<br />
validated cut-<strong>of</strong>f point has been established that differentiates severe from non-severe ASH. In one recent<br />
retrospective report <strong>of</strong> largely untreated patients with ASH, a MELD score > 21 was associated with a<br />
3-month mortality <strong>of</strong> 20% [15]. Although relatively easy to calculate and standardize, it has not been<br />
prospectively validated.<br />
The Glasgow Alcoholic Hepatitis Score (GAHS) [16] was also derived to assess severity <strong>of</strong> ASH in<br />
patients with suspected ASH (not all patients had biopsies). It is based on 5 laboratory values and can be<br />
calculated at day 1 or days 6-9 to give dynamic in<strong>for</strong>mation. In patients with a MDF ≥ 32 patients and GAHS<br />
≥ 9, 28-day survival was 52% if untreated and 78% if treated with steroids. In patients with GAHS 0.45 vs 85% in those with a Lille score<br />
< 0.45 [18]. Applying Lille score to individual patients data from 5 recent RCTs in patients with severe<br />
ASH, allowed <strong>the</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> three groups <strong>of</strong> response to corticosteroids and corresponding survival at 28<br />
days. Complete responders, defined as Lille score 0.56, had<br />
50% survival under steroids, which was slightly inferior to <strong>the</strong> 56% survival in patients not receiving steroids
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
106 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 107<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
(NS). Thus, <strong>the</strong> Lille score is particularly useful to establish a stopping rule in non-responders at day 7 <strong>of</strong><br />
steroid <strong>the</strong>rapy (see below).<br />
TREATMENT IN ALL FORMS OF ASH<br />
Alcohol abstinence<br />
Alcohol abstinence improves clinical outcomes at all stages <strong>of</strong> ALD, including ASH. There<strong>for</strong>e, abstinence<br />
should be <strong>the</strong> chief vital goal in ASH. The pursuit <strong>of</strong> abstinence deserves <strong>the</strong> full, multidisciplinary medical<br />
support, as discussed in ano<strong>the</strong>r part <strong>of</strong> this syllabus. It should be pointed out that, except bacl<strong>of</strong>en, no<br />
pharmacological <strong>the</strong>rapy has been tested in <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> ASH or decompensated cirrhosis. Specifically,<br />
disulfiram and naltrexone should be avoided in patients with ASH because <strong>of</strong> possible hepatotoxicity.<br />
Acamprosate and topiramate have not been tested in patients with cirrhosis. Of note, <strong>the</strong> only published<br />
clinical trial testing bacl<strong>of</strong>en in patients with ALD [19] included a majority <strong>of</strong> decompensated, Child C<br />
patients, probably a number <strong>of</strong> whom had superimposed ASH.<br />
Withdrawal syndrome<br />
Because most patients with ASH maintain active drinking until hospital admission, systematic evaluation<br />
and management <strong>of</strong> withdrawal are mandatory in patients with ASH. We encourage <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> clinical<br />
scores, such as <strong>the</strong> revised clinical institute withdrawal assessment <strong>for</strong> alcohol scale [20] at regular intervals<br />
after admission. Specific to decompensated ALD is <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> hepatic encephalopathy. We encourage <strong>the</strong><br />
use <strong>of</strong> repeat doses <strong>of</strong> short-lived benzodiazepines, titrated to <strong>the</strong> alcohol withdrawal score.<br />
Malnutrition<br />
Some degree <strong>of</strong> malnutrition is nearly universal in ASH. Simple bedside methods such as <strong>the</strong> Subjective<br />
Global Assessment (SGA), or anthropometry to assess muscle wasting will identify patients at particular<br />
risk <strong>of</strong> undernutrition [21]. B-complex vitamins should be supplemented and intravenous thiamine should<br />
be administered whenever glucose infusion is used. A daily protein intake <strong>of</strong> 1.5 g/kg <strong>of</strong> body weight should<br />
be ensured, irrespective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> encephalopathy. Liposoluble vitamins deficiency should be<br />
compensated. When <strong>the</strong> recommended protein-caloric intake is difficult to achieve orally, nutrition may be<br />
considered.<br />
No consistent mortality benefit with various nutritional interventions has been shown. One study comparing<br />
enteral feeding to steroids in <strong>the</strong> short-term treatment <strong>of</strong> severe ASH did not show any significant difference<br />
in 28-days mortality [22]. However, early deaths were more frequent in <strong>the</strong> group treated with TEN, while late<br />
mortality was higher in <strong>the</strong> steroid group. Since denutrition can be associated with depletion <strong>of</strong> glutathion<br />
stores, speculations on a possible synergistic effect <strong>of</strong> nutrition and steroids may be seen in light <strong>of</strong> recent<br />
data on N-acetylcysteine and corticosteroids combination [39].<br />
Renal function<br />
Renal dysfunction is frequent during <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> severe ASH and represents an important predictor <strong>of</strong><br />
infection and survival. The most frequent cause <strong>of</strong> acute renal failure is <strong>the</strong> hepatorenal syndrome (HRS).<br />
To best prevent <strong>the</strong> HRS, adequate volume expansion should be ensured, diuretics avoided whenever<br />
serum creatinine is not strictly normal, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and radiocontrast agents<br />
should be proscribed. Use <strong>of</strong> vasoactive drugs should be discussed early in <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> HRS, similar to<br />
HRS in o<strong>the</strong>r settings.<br />
Infections<br />
Bacterial infection is frequent and difficult to diagnose, since SIRS criteria are common at admission due<br />
to <strong>the</strong> inflammatory state associated with ASH. Empirical use <strong>of</strong> antibiotic administration, although widely<br />
used, is not warranted. Instead, infection screening should be systematic at admission (1 in 4 patients<br />
admitted <strong>for</strong> ASH is infected at admission) and repeated at regular intervals.<br />
Long-term management <strong>of</strong> non-alcoholic c<strong>of</strong>actors<br />
Alcohol and obesity are supra-additive factors <strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease [23]. It seems intuitive that in <strong>the</strong><br />
long-term management <strong>of</strong> patients initially presenting with ASH, it may be relevant to pay attention to nonalcoholic<br />
c<strong>of</strong>actors <strong>of</strong> steatohepatitis, such as insulin resistance, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, or<br />
drugs (amiodarone, tamoxifen, NSAIDs, methotrexate..). However, no trial has yet shown <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong><br />
correcting metabolic or o<strong>the</strong>r factors <strong>of</strong> steatohepatitis in <strong>the</strong> long-term outcome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se patients.<br />
SPECIFIC MEASURES IN SEVERE ASH<br />
Corticosteroids<br />
Starting with <strong>the</strong> seminal study by Maddrey in 1978 [12], <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> corticosteroid trials in alcoholic<br />
hepatitis looks like a long winding road. Inconsistencies may have been in part related to heterogeneity<br />
between studies and <strong>the</strong> fact that a number <strong>of</strong> patients with a clinical diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis did not<br />
have a liver biopsy to confirm ASH. The analysis <strong>of</strong> individual data from <strong>the</strong> five most recent randomized<br />
controlled trials [4, 13, 14, 22, 24] showed that patients allocated to corticosteroid treatment had higher<br />
28-day survival than patients allocated to non-corticosteroid treatment [25]. This result should now be<br />
acknowledged, and corticosteroids have become <strong>the</strong> first-line <strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>of</strong> severe ASH. These studies also<br />
contributed to delineate <strong>the</strong> limitations to corticosteroid use in ASH :<br />
1. The efficacy <strong>of</strong> corticosteroids is demonstrated only in patients with biopsy-proven ASH, at a dose <strong>of</strong><br />
40mg/day <strong>for</strong> 28 days. Steroids may be harmful in conditions o<strong>the</strong>r than ASH, which may represent 10-30%<br />
<strong>of</strong> patients with a clinical diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis, dominated by infection-related decompensation <strong>of</strong><br />
ALD. Again, when <strong>the</strong> greatest care has been taken, including systematic cultures, to rule out infection, ASH<br />
will eventually not be confirmed at liver biopsy in 10% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients with a clinical diagnosis <strong>of</strong> alcoholic<br />
hepatitis [5].<br />
2. The effect <strong>of</strong> corticosteroids on survival seems to be restricted to severe ASH, as defined by an MDF<br />
≥ 32 [26-29]. Thus, treatment <strong>of</strong> non-severe ASH, by steroids is not warranted.<br />
3. Only about 60 % <strong>of</strong> patients with severe <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> SAH benefit from corticosteroids. Thus, early identification<br />
<strong>of</strong> non-responders to corticosteroids (i.e. about 40% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients), is important to define stopping rules<br />
and limit <strong>the</strong> exposure to steroids [18]. Based on <strong>the</strong> meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> individual patient data from five RCTs<br />
<strong>of</strong> patients with a DF >32 or encephalopathy, a Lille score ≥ 0.56 at 7 days upon corticosteroids, defines<br />
non-response to steroids [18, 25]. In non-responders, not only survival at 28 days is limited to about 50%,<br />
but steroid <strong>the</strong>rapy is.<br />
4. Infection is a contraindication <strong>for</strong> corticosteroid treatment. However, this is only relevant to active,<br />
uncontrolled infection. In fact, corticosteroids may be started after infection has been controlled [9].<br />
Pentoxifylline<br />
Pentoxifylline is an antioxidant and a weak anti-TNF agent. In patients with severe ASH (DF ≥32) treated<br />
with pentoxifylline, 6-month survival was higher than in those receiving placebo. The survival benefit was<br />
not accompanied by significant changes in liver function but related to a lower incidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HRS [30].<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> pentoxifylline on preventing <strong>the</strong> HRS was confirmed by o<strong>the</strong>r trials [31, Tyagi P, 2011 #1425].
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
108 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 109<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
One study comparing pentoxifylline to corticosteroids, reported a significant prevention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> HRS, resulting<br />
in a better outcome in pentoxifylline-treated patients [32]. In a recent trial in 270 patients with severe ASH<br />
(PTX) <strong>the</strong> combination <strong>of</strong> pentoxifylline to prednisolone did not bring any benefit over corticosteroids alone.<br />
Finally, in patients with severe ASH and a poor response to corticosteroids defined by <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> decrease<br />
in serum bilirubin, an early switch to pentoxifylline does not modify outcome [33].<br />
Thus, in patients with severe ASH and uncontrolled sepsis representing a contraindication to steroids,<br />
pentoxyfilline can be considered as a first line <strong>the</strong>rapy. However, pentoxyfilline does not seem to be useful<br />
as a rescue tool in non-responders to steroids at day 7 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapy, with or without <strong>the</strong> HRS.<br />
Anti- TNFα agents<br />
Because strong evidence supported a central role <strong>for</strong> TNFα in experimental models <strong>of</strong> ALD, a randomized<br />
pilot study in patients with severe ASH tested single dose infliximab in combination with corticosteroids.<br />
It showed a significant improvement <strong>of</strong> liver function [34]. However, <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <strong>of</strong> anti-TNFα was<br />
not confirmed in 2 randomized controlled trials testing multiple doses <strong>of</strong> Infliximab [35] or Etanercept [36].<br />
In fact, anti-TNFα treatment, compared to placebo, was associated with a higher probability <strong>of</strong> severe<br />
infections and deaths [35, 36]. It may be speculated that prolonged or excessive TNF blockade negatively<br />
impacts liver regeneration.<br />
N-acetylcysteine<br />
N-acetylcysteine replenishes glutathione stores in hepatocytes and can be seen as an antioxidant. Adding<br />
N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to enteral nutrition did not bring any benefit in patients with severe ASH, possibly<br />
because glutathion stores may be restored ei<strong>the</strong>r by TEN or by NAC [37]. N-acetylcysteine alone is inferior<br />
to corticosteroids on short-term survival [14]. In a recent trial, however, combining N-acetylcysteine with<br />
corticosteroids resulted in a lower incidence <strong>of</strong> both <strong>the</strong> HRS and infection, and in an improved 1-month<br />
survival compared to corticosteroids alone [38]. This benefit was not maintained at 6-months, raising <strong>the</strong><br />
question <strong>of</strong> optimal duration <strong>of</strong> N-acetylcysteine administration.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> transplantation<br />
ASH is usually considered as a contraindication <strong>for</strong> transplantation (OLT). This is related both to <strong>the</strong> fact<br />
most patients with ASH will improve <strong>for</strong> at least 6 months after abstinence has been reached, and to <strong>the</strong><br />
“6-month abstinence rule” [39]. The 6 months’ abstinence rule, although socially acceptable and associated<br />
with low harmful alcohol relapse after OLT, can be substituted by o<strong>the</strong>r elements predictive <strong>of</strong> abstinence,<br />
such as social / family support and absence <strong>of</strong> psychiatric / addictive disorders [39]. New prognostic models<br />
now allow <strong>the</strong> early identification <strong>of</strong> non- or poor-responders to corticosteroids with a Lille score above<br />
0.45 or 0.56 at day 7 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapy and only a 25% chance <strong>of</strong> being alive at 6 months. Recently a French and<br />
Belgian group initiated an early OLT program in patients with a first episode <strong>of</strong> severe ASH not responding<br />
to medical <strong>the</strong>rapy. Unequivocal improvement <strong>of</strong> survival in patients was observed in patients who received<br />
early transplantation compared both to non-random controls matched <strong>for</strong> age, sex, MDF, and Lille score,<br />
or to randomly sampled controls from a prospective database [40]. Obviously, early OLT in ASH may be<br />
relevant only in a very small minority <strong>of</strong> patients after a highly selective selection process involving patient’s<br />
families and multidisciplinary medical teams.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Sandahl TD, J.P., Thomsen KL, Vilstrup H, Incidence and mortality <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis<br />
in Denmark 1999-2008: a nationwide population based cohort study. J Hepatol, 2011. 54(4):<br />
p. 760-4.<br />
National Hospital Discharge Survey: 2007, C.f.D.C., Atlanta, USA.<br />
Kryger P, S.P., Dietrichson O, Juhl E, The accuracy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clinical diagnosis in acute hepatitis<br />
and alcoholic liver disease. Clinical versus morphological diagnosis. Scand J Gastroenterol,<br />
1983. 18(5): p. 691-6.<br />
Ramond MJ, P.T., Rueff B, Mathurin P, Theodore C, Chaput JC, Benhamou JP, A randomized<br />
trial <strong>of</strong> prednisolone in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med, 1992. 326:<br />
p. 507-512.<br />
Spahr, L., et al., Early liver biopsy, intraparenchymal cholestasis, and prognosis in patients<br />
with alcoholic steatohepatitis. BMC Gastroenterol, 2011. 11: p. 115.<br />
Mookerjee RP, L.C., Stauber R, Stadlbauer V, Deheragoda M, Aigelsreiter A, Jalan R,<br />
The role <strong>of</strong> liver biopsy in <strong>the</strong> diagnosis and prognosis <strong>of</strong> patients with acute deterioration<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis. J Hepatol, 2011. 55(5): p. 1103-11.<br />
Naveau S, G.V., Borotto E, Aubert A, Capron F, Chaput JC, Excess weight risk factor <strong>for</strong><br />
alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology, 1997. 25: p. 108-111.<br />
Nyblom H, B.U., Balldin J, Olsson R, High AST/ALT ratio may indicate advanced alcoholic<br />
liver disease ra<strong>the</strong>r than heavy drinking. Alcohol Alcohol, 2004. 39(4): p. 336-9.<br />
Louvet A, W.F., Castel H,Dharancy S,Hollebecque A, Canva-Delcambre V, Deltenre<br />
P, Mathurin P, Prospective screening <strong>of</strong> infection in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis<br />
treated with steroids: early response to <strong>the</strong>rapy is <strong>the</strong> key factor. Gastroenterology, 2009.<br />
137 p. 541-548.<br />
Gelsi E, D.R., Truchi R, Marine-Barjoan E, Anty R, Autuori M, Burroni S, Vanbiervliet G,<br />
Evesque L, Cherikh F, Tran A, Effect <strong>of</strong> Detoxification on <strong>Liver</strong> Stiffness Assessed by<br />
Fibroscan((R)) in Alcoholic Patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 2011. in press.<br />
Mueller S, M.G., Sarovska L, Friedrich S, Reimann FM, Pritsch M, Eisele S, Stickel F,<br />
Longerich T, Schirmacher P, Seitz HK, Increased liver stiffness in alcoholic liver<br />
disease: differentiating fibrosis from steatohepatitis. World J Gastroenterol, 2010. 16(8):<br />
p. 966-72.<br />
Maddrey WC, B.J., Bedine MS, Weber FL, Mezey E, White RI, Corticosteroid <strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis. Gastroenterology, 1978. 75: p. 193-9.<br />
Cari<strong>the</strong>rs RL Jr, H.H., Diehl AM, Shaw EW, Combes B, Fallon HJ, Maddrey WC,<br />
Methylprednisolone <strong>the</strong>rapy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized<br />
multicenter trial. Ann Intern Med, 1989. 110: p. 685-90.<br />
Phillips M, C.H., Portmann B, Donaldson N, Bom<strong>for</strong>d A, O’Grady J Antioxidants versus<br />
corticosteroids in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis--a randomised clinical trial.<br />
J Hepatol, 2006. 44 p. 784-790.<br />
Dunn W, J.L., Brown LS, Wiesner RH, Kim WR, Menon KVN, Maclinchoc M, Kamath PS,<br />
Shah V, MELD accurately predicts mortality in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology,<br />
2005. 41: p. 353-358.<br />
Forrest E H, E.C., Stewart S, Phillips M, Oo YH, McAvoy N C, Fisher NC, Singhal S,<br />
Brind A, Haydon G, O’Grady J, Day CP, Hayes PC, Murray LS, Morris AJ, Analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> factors predictive <strong>of</strong> mortality in alcoholic hepatitis and derivation and validation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score. Gut, 2005. 54(8): p. 1174-1179.<br />
Dominguez M, R.D., Abraldes JG, Miquel R, Colmenero J, Bellot P, Joan-Carles<br />
Pagan G, Fernandez R, Moreno M,Banares R, Arroyo V, Caballerıa J, Gines P, Bataller R,<br />
A New Scoring System <strong>for</strong> Prognostic Stratification <strong>of</strong> Patients With Alcoholic Hepatitis.<br />
Am J Gastroenterol 2008. 103: p. 2747–2756.<br />
Louvet A, N.S., Abdelnour M, Ramond MJ, Diaz E, Fartoux L, Dharancy S, Texier F,<br />
Hollebecque A, Serfaty L, Boleslawski E, Deltenre P, Canva V, Pruvot FR, Mathurin P,<br />
The Lille model: a new tool <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic strategy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis<br />
treated with steroids. Hepatology, 2007. 45: p. 1348-1354.<br />
Addolorato G, L.L., Ferrulli A, Cardone S, Vonghia L, Mirijello A, Abenavoli L, D’Angelo C,<br />
Caputo F, Zambon A, Haber PS, Gasbarrini G, Effectiveness and safety <strong>of</strong> bacl<strong>of</strong>en <strong>for</strong><br />
maintenance <strong>of</strong> alcohol abstinence in alcohol-dependent patients with liver cirrhosis:<br />
randomised, double-blind controlled study. Lancet, 2007. 370(9603): p. 1915-1922.<br />
Sullivan, J.T., et al., Assessment <strong>of</strong> alcohol withdrawal: <strong>the</strong> revised clinical institute<br />
withdrawal assessment <strong>for</strong> alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict, 1989. 84(11): p. 1353-7.<br />
Plauth, M., et al., ESPEN Guidelines on Enteral Nutrition: <strong>Liver</strong> disease. Clin Nutr, 2006.<br />
25(2): p. 285-94.<br />
Cabre E, R.-I.P., Caballeria J, Quer JC, Sanchez-Lombrana JL, Pares A, Papo M, Planas R,
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
110 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 111<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Gassul MA, Short- and long-term outcome <strong>of</strong> severe alcohol-induced hepatitis treated with<br />
steroids or enteral nutrition: a multicenter randomized trial. Hepatology, 2000. 32: p. 36-42.<br />
Hart, C.L., et al., Effect <strong>of</strong> body mass index and alcohol consumption on liver disease:<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> data from two prospective cohort studies. BMJ, 2010. 340: p. c1240.<br />
Mendenhall CL, A.S., Garcia-Pont P, Goldberg S, Kiernan T, Seef LB, Sorrell M,<br />
Tamburro C, Weesner R, Zetterman R, Chedid A, Chen T, Rabin L, Short-term and<br />
long-term survival in patients with alcoholic hepatitis treated with oxandrolone and prednisolone.<br />
N Engl J Med, 1984. 311: p. 1464-1470.<br />
Mathurin P, O.G.J., Cari<strong>the</strong>rs RL, Phillips M, Louvet A, Mendenhall CL, Ramond MJ,<br />
Naveau S, Maddrey WC, Morgan TR, Corticosteroids improve short-term survival in patients<br />
with severe alcoholic hepatitis: meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> individual patient data. Gut, 2011. 60: p. 255-260.<br />
Daures JP, P.P., Bories P, Blanc P, Youfsi A, Michel H, Gremy F., Place de la corticothérapie<br />
dans le traitement des hépatites alcooliques aiguës. Résultats d’une méta-analyse.<br />
Gastroenterol Clin Biol, 1991. 15: p. 223-8.<br />
Imperiale TF, M.A., Do corticosteroids reduce mortality from alcoholic hepatitis<br />
Ann Intern Med, 1990. 113: p. 299-307.<br />
Reynolds TB, Corticosteroid <strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis: how many studies it will take<br />
Hepatology, 1990. 12: p. 619-621.<br />
Imperiale TF, O.C.J., McCullough AJ, Corticosteroids are effective in patients with severe<br />
alcoholic patients. Am J Gastroenterol, 1999. 94: p. 3066-3067.<br />
Akriviadis E, B.R., Briggs W, Han S, Reynolds T, Shakil O, Pentoxifylline improves<br />
short-term survival in severe acute alcoholic hepatitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled<br />
trial. Gastroenterology, 2000. 119: p. 1637-1648.<br />
Lebrec D, T.D., Oberti F, Perarnau JM, Condat B, Barraud H, Saliba F, Carbonell N,<br />
Renard P, Ramond MJ, Moreau , Poynard T, Pentoxifylline does not decrease short-term<br />
mortality but does reduce complications in patients with advanced cirrhosis. Gastroenterology,<br />
2010. 138(5): p. 1755-1762.<br />
Krishna De B, G.S., Dutta D, Baksi SD, Pani A, Ghosh P, Pentoxifylline versus prednisolone<br />
<strong>for</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized controlled trial. World J Gastroenterol, 2009. 15(13):<br />
p. 1613-1619.<br />
Louvet A, D.E., Dharancy S, Coevoet H, Texier F, Thévenot T, Deltenre P, Canva V,<br />
Plane C, Mathurin P, Early switch to pentoxifylline in patients with severe alcoholic<br />
hepatitis is inefficient in non-responders to corticosteroids J Hepatol 2008. 48: p. 465-470.<br />
Spahr L, R.-B.L., Pugin J, Giostra E, Frossard JL, Borisch B, Hadengue A, Rapid changes<br />
in alcoholic hepatitis histology under steroids: correlation with soluble intercellular<br />
adhesion molecule-1 in hepatic venous blood. J Hepatol, 2001. 35: p. 582-589.<br />
Naveau S, C.-M.S., Dharancy S, Mathurin P, Jouet P, Piquet MA, Davion T, Oberti F, Broët P,<br />
Emilie D, A double blind randomized controlled trial <strong>of</strong> infliximab associated with prednisolone<br />
in acute alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology, 2004. 39: p. 1390-1397.<br />
Boetticher NC, P.C., Kwo P, Abrams GA, Patel T, Aqel B, Boardman L, Gores GJ, Harmsen<br />
WS, McClain CJ, Kamath PS, Shah VH, A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled<br />
multicenter trial <strong>of</strong> etanercept in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis. Gastroenterology,<br />
2008. 135(6): p. 1953-60.<br />
Moreno C, L.P., Hittelet A, Lasser L, Degre D, Evrard S, Colle I, Lemmers A, Deviere J,<br />
Le Moine O, Enteral nutrition with or without N-acetylcysteine in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> severe<br />
acute alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized multicenter controlled trial. J Hepatol, 2010. 53(6):<br />
p. 1117-1122.<br />
Nguyen-Khac E, T.T., Piquet MA, Benferhat S, Goria O, Chatelain D, Tramier B,<br />
Dewaele F, Ghrib S, Rudler M, Carbonell N, Tossou H, Bental A, Bernard-Chabert B,<br />
Dupas JL, Glucocorticoids plus N-acetylcysteine in severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med,<br />
2011. 365(19): p. 1781-1789.<br />
Dew, M.A., et al., Meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> relapse to substance use after transplantation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver or o<strong>the</strong>r solid organs. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl, 2008. 14(2): p. 159-72.<br />
Mathurin P, M.C., Samuel D, Dumortier J, Salleron J, Durand F, Castel H, Duhamel A,<br />
Pageaux GP, Leroy V, Dharancy S, Louvet A, Boleslawski E, Lucidi V, Gustot T,<br />
Francoz C, Letoublon C, Castaing D, Belghiti J, Donckier V, Pruvot FR, Duclos-Vallee JC,<br />
Early liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med, 2011. 365(19): p. 1790-800.<br />
Figure 1<br />
Meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> individual patient data (n=418) from five RCTs comparing corticosteroid treatment with<br />
placebo, enteral nutrition or an antioxidant cocktail. Estimated 28-day survival according to treatment in<br />
(A) complete responders to corticosteroids (Lille score 0.56). From Mathurin P et al. Gut 2011 [25] with permission.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
112 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 113<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
CAN WE OFFER LIVER TRANSPLANTATION TO PATIENTS WITH<br />
ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS ANSWER: YES<br />
Jean-Charles Duclos-Vallée<br />
Villejuif, France<br />
E-mail: jean-charles.duclos-vallee@pbr.aphp.fr<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• The benefits <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation (LT) in severe acute alcoholic hepatitis resistant to medical<br />
treatment have now been demonstrated.<br />
• The weakness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 6-month abstinence rule is evidenced by <strong>the</strong> low relapse rate after LT in<br />
highly selected patients.<br />
• Be<strong>for</strong>e extending <strong>the</strong> indications <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation to patients with severe alcoholic<br />
hepatitis, it is necessary to define new prognostic factors <strong>for</strong> relapse and interventional<br />
<strong>the</strong>rapies under a multidisciplinary approach.<br />
In Europe, alcohol is <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> about 30% cases <strong>of</strong> end-stage liver disease and is <strong>the</strong> leading reason<br />
<strong>for</strong> liver transplantation (LT) (1). The post-LT survival rate is good, and 5-year survival is better than in<br />
patients with o<strong>the</strong>r indications (78% vs. 64%, p= 0.016), with an alcohol relapse rate <strong>of</strong> 15.6% (2). Alcoholic<br />
toxic liver disease (ALD) encompasses a spectrum <strong>of</strong> injuries that range from simple steatosis through<br />
severe steatohepatitis to complete progression to cirrhosis with or without alcoholic hepatitis (AH). Although<br />
patients with mild to moderate AH may respond to conservative management and abstinence, patients with<br />
severe disease (Maddrey score ≥32) have an overall mortality rate <strong>of</strong> 40% within 6 months (3). The most<br />
frequent treatment option available at present is corticosteroid <strong>the</strong>rapy; if <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> response assessed by<br />
a Lille score is greater than 0.45, <strong>the</strong>n 6-month survival is lower than 25% (4). Depending on <strong>the</strong> severity<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir liver disease, <strong>the</strong>se patients are good candidates <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation. In patients with alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis, <strong>the</strong> benefits <strong>of</strong> LT have been demonstrated in patients with Child –Pugh class C, who have<br />
displayed a higher 1- and 5-year survival rates than <strong>the</strong>ir matched controls (5). Here, we shall be discussing<br />
and focusing on <strong>the</strong> major factors that justify a reassessment <strong>of</strong> our policies regarding <strong>the</strong> acceptance <strong>of</strong><br />
liver transplantation in patients with severe acute alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
THE WEAKNESS OF THE 6-MONTH ABSTINENCE RULE – THE STRENGTH OF OTHER FACTORS<br />
Until now, alcoholic hepatitis has been considered as an absolute contraindication to liver transplantation<br />
because most transplant centres require 6 months <strong>of</strong> abstinence prior to transplantation (6). But <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
now strong evidence that this 6 month abstinence rule is not scientifically relevant. The prospective study<br />
per<strong>for</strong>med by DiMartini et al. showed that among patients who had been sober <strong>for</strong> 36 months, only 40%<br />
remained sober after LT (7); 36 months <strong>of</strong> pre-LT sobriety was 80% sensitive but only 40% specific in<br />
predicting post-LT abstinence. Each additional month <strong>of</strong> pre-LT sobriety reduced <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> drinking post-<br />
LT by 33%. However, <strong>the</strong> authors could not identify a specific length <strong>of</strong> pre-LT sobriety that could predict<br />
abstinence (7). They emphasised <strong>the</strong> fact that o<strong>the</strong>r factors such as alcohol dependence, family history,<br />
depressive disorders and social support (i.e. marital status) should be evaluated and taken into account<br />
because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir influence on patient and graft survival (8). Moreover, during a retrospective study on<br />
long-term follow-up, patients who relapsed back into harmful drinking had poorer survival when compared<br />
to abstainers (45% vs. 86%, p< 0.05) (9). Different trajectories <strong>of</strong> depressive symptoms can predict longterm<br />
survival after LT. In a recent prospective study analyzing different trajectories <strong>of</strong> alcohol use, 113<br />
<strong>of</strong> 208 patients (54%) had no reported alcohol use post-LT using any measure (10). Among <strong>the</strong> 95 nonabstainers,<br />
four distinct trajectories <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption could be identified. The majority (n=55) drank<br />
small quantities infrequently, but three o<strong>the</strong>r groups also emerged; early onset moderate use that diminished<br />
over time (n=13), later onset moderate use that increased over time (n=15, group 4) and an early onset,<br />
heavy and increasing pattern <strong>of</strong> use (n=12, group 5). In terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> comparative outcome between <strong>the</strong>se<br />
groups, deaths due to recurrent alcoholic liver disease, steatohepatitis or rejection were more frequent in<br />
groups 3 and 5.<br />
CURRENT EXPERIENCE OF LIVER TRANSPLANTATION FOR SEVERE ACUTE ALCOHOLIC<br />
HEPATITIS<br />
Few data are available concerning retrospective studies which have analysed <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> acute alcoholic<br />
hepatitis on survival following liver transplantation. In <strong>the</strong> study by Tomé et al. on patients transplanted <strong>for</strong><br />
alcoholic cirrhosis, survival was similar in patients with superimposed alcoholic hepatitis and with liver<br />
cirrhosis alone (n=32) (11). Moreover, <strong>the</strong>re was no difference in survival between patients with mild and<br />
severe alcoholic hepatitis. In <strong>the</strong> study by Wells (12), histologically acute alcoholic hepatitis in <strong>the</strong> explanted<br />
recipient liver did not predict a poorer outcome in terms <strong>of</strong> relapse, allograft survival or patient survival<br />
among liver transplant recipients (12).<br />
We recently reported our French experience from seven centres (13) in a study that included 26 patients<br />
with severe alcoholic hepatitis with at a high risk <strong>of</strong> fatality because <strong>of</strong> a Median Lille score <strong>of</strong> 0.88. These<br />
patients were carefully selected: all had good social support, no prior episodes <strong>of</strong> known alcoholic liver<br />
disease and no evidence <strong>of</strong> severe psychological disorders. This selection represented fewer than 2% <strong>of</strong><br />
patients admitted <strong>for</strong> an episode <strong>of</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis. Survival was excellent, with 6-month survival<br />
and 24-month survival rates <strong>of</strong> 77 % and 71%, respectively. The 6-month survival rate was significantly<br />
higher than among matched controls, in whom 6-month survival was 23%. Despite counselling with an<br />
addiction specialist, three patients restarted <strong>the</strong>ir alcohol consumption during <strong>the</strong> post-LT period: one at 720<br />
days, one at 740 days and one at 1140 days post-LT. Two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se patients remained daily consumers (30 g<br />
per day and >50 g per day), whereas one only drank occasionally (approximately 10 g per week). However,<br />
none <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m experienced graft dysfunction. This highlighted <strong>the</strong> somewhat arbitrary nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 6-month<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> abstinence. But we should <strong>of</strong> course bear in mind that <strong>the</strong>se patients were highly selected. Because<br />
<strong>the</strong>re may have been bias in <strong>the</strong> selection <strong>of</strong> candidates, we must now take <strong>the</strong> opportunity to define new<br />
prognostic factors <strong>for</strong> a relapse <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption after LT <strong>for</strong> severe acute alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> same way, it is necessary to define any clear patterns in <strong>the</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption that<br />
might emerge following LT.<br />
A RETHINK OF OUR APPROACH TO TRANSPLANTATION FOR ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE:<br />
OBJECTIVES FOR THE NEAR FUTURE; AN ETHICAL POINT OF VIEW<br />
The approval <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> severe acute alcoholic hepatitis in selected patients is an important<br />
step towards accepting that addiction is a chronic, relapsing disease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> brain (14). Once this situation<br />
has been accepted, and new prognostic markers have been developed, we will be able to define new<br />
protocol strategies <strong>for</strong> severe liver disease in alcoholic patients. In this context, it is crucial to include geneenvironment<br />
interactions in order to unravel <strong>the</strong> aetiological factors underlying alcohol outcomes be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
and after LT (15). In a recent study, it was shown that gene polymorphism <strong>of</strong> Val66Met Brain-Derived
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
114 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 115<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) (a neurotrophin involved in <strong>the</strong> development and survival <strong>of</strong> neurons and in<br />
modulating <strong>the</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> neurotransmitter systems) was associated with a higher risk and earlier occurrence<br />
<strong>of</strong> relapse among patients treated <strong>for</strong> alcohol dependence (16). Future research should <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e involve<br />
multiple assessment points prior to <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> relapse which should help to identify potential mediators by<br />
which genetics can impact vulnerability to relapse.<br />
In conclusion, it is necessary to achieve a precise and uncontroversial definition <strong>of</strong> alcoholic disease,<br />
particularly in <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> acute alcoholic hepatitis. One ethical standpoint might be to promote debate<br />
between neuroscientists, hepatologists, addictologists, philosophers and sociologists in order to establish<br />
rules <strong>for</strong> government policies in a context <strong>of</strong> organ shortages (17). At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong>se findings will help<br />
to develop new targets <strong>for</strong> preventive and interventional treatment resources <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>se particular individuals<br />
at specific risk time points.<br />
Mathurin P, Moreno C, Samuel D, Dumortier J, Salleron J, Durand F, Castel H, et al.<br />
Early liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med;365:1790-1800.<br />
Leshner AI. Addiction is a brain disease, and it matters. Science 1997;278:45-47.<br />
van der Zwaluw CS, Engels RC. Gene-environment interactions and alcohol use and<br />
dependence: current status and future challenges. Addiction 2009;104:907-914.<br />
Wojnar M, Brower KJ, Strobbe S, Ilgen M, Matsumoto H, Nowosad I, Sliwerska E, et al.<br />
<strong>Association</strong> between Val66Met brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene polymorphism<br />
and post-treatment relapse in alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2009;33:693-702.<br />
Perring C. Bridging <strong>the</strong> Gap between Philosophers <strong>of</strong> Mind and Brain Researchers:<br />
The Example <strong>of</strong> Addiction. Mens Sana Monogr;9:193-201.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Burra P, Senzolo M, Adam R, Delvart V, Karam V, Germani G, Neuberger J.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease in Europe: a study from <strong>the</strong> ELTR<br />
(<strong>European</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Transplant Registry). Am J Transplant;10:138-148.<br />
Hartl J, Scherer MN, Loss M, Schnitzbauer A, Farkas S, Baier L, Szecsey A, et al.<br />
Strong predictors <strong>for</strong> alcohol recidivism after liver transplantation: non-acceptance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
alcohol problem and abstinence <strong>of</strong> <3 months. Scand J Gastroenterol;46:1257-1266.<br />
Lucey MR, Mathurin P, Morgan TR. Alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med 2009;360:2758-2769.<br />
Louvet A, Naveau S, Abdelnour M, Ramond MJ, Diaz E, Fartoux L, Dharancy S, et al.<br />
The Lille model: a new tool <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapeutic strategy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatiti<br />
treated with steroids. Hepatology 2007;45:1348-1354.<br />
Poynard T, Naveau S, D<strong>of</strong>foel M, Boudjema K, Vanlemmens C, Mantion G, Messner M,<br />
et al. Evaluation <strong>of</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation in alcoholic cirrhosis using matched and<br />
simulated controls: 5-year survival. Multi-centre group. J Hepatol 1999;30:1130-1137.<br />
Lucey MR, Brown KA, Everson GT, Fung JJ, Gish R, Keeffe EB, Kneteman NM, et al.<br />
Minimal criteria <strong>for</strong> placement <strong>of</strong> adults on <strong>the</strong> liver transplant waiting list: a report <strong>of</strong> a<br />
national conference organized by <strong>the</strong> American Society <strong>of</strong> Transplant Physicians and <strong>the</strong><br />
American <strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Diseases. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl Surg 1997;3:628-637.<br />
DiMartini A, Day N, Dew MA, Javed L, Fitzgerald MG, Jain A, Fung JJ, et al. Alcohol<br />
consumption patterns and predictors <strong>of</strong> use following liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver<br />
disease. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2006;12:813-820.<br />
Pageaux GP, Bismuth M, Perney P, Costes V, Jaber S, Possoz P, Fabre JM, et al. Alcohol<br />
relapse after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease: does it matter<br />
J Hepatol 2003;38:629-634.<br />
Pfitzmann R, Schwenzer J, Rayes N, Seeh<strong>of</strong>er D, Neuhaus R, Nussler NC. Long-term<br />
survival and predictors <strong>of</strong> relapse after orthotopic liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver<br />
disease. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2007;13:197-205.<br />
DiMartini A, Dew MA, Chaiffetz D, Fitzgerald MG, Devera ME, Fontes P. Early trajectories<br />
<strong>of</strong> depressive symptoms after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease predicts<br />
long-term survival. Am J Transplant;11:1287-1295.<br />
Tome S, Martinez-Rey C, Gonzalez-Quintela A, Gude F, Brage A, Otero E, Abdulkader I,<br />
et al. Influence <strong>of</strong> superimposed alcoholic hepatitis on <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation <strong>for</strong><br />
end-stage alcoholic liver disease. J Hepatol 2002;36:793-798.<br />
Wells JT, Said A, Agni R, Tome S, Hughes S, Dureja P, Lucey MR. The impact <strong>of</strong> acute<br />
alcoholic hepatitis in <strong>the</strong> explanted recipient liver on outcome after liver transplantation.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2007;13:1728-1735.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
116 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 117<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
CAN WE OFFER LIVER TRANSPLANTATION TO PATIENTS WITH<br />
ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS<br />
ANSWER: NO<br />
James Neuberger<br />
Bristol, UK<br />
E-mail: j.m.neuberger@bham.ac.uk<br />
The arguments against <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> livers from deceased donors are summarised below. These arguments<br />
do not express <strong>the</strong> opinions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> author, <strong>the</strong> Queen Elizabeth Hospital or NHS Blood and Transplant.<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Access to liver transplantation should be based on <strong>the</strong> transparent criteria <strong>of</strong> need, benefit,<br />
justice and equity. Those with alcoholic hepatitis (AH) have <strong>the</strong> same right to be considered <strong>for</strong><br />
liver transplantation (LT) as all o<strong>the</strong>r patients on <strong>the</strong> same non-judgemental criteria and without<br />
a need <strong>for</strong> a fixed, arbitrary period <strong>of</strong> abstinence.<br />
• While <strong>the</strong> landmark study from Mathurin shows that transplantation can be done successfully<br />
<strong>for</strong> highly selected patients with AH, outcomes after transplantation are less good than <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
indications and a significant proportion <strong>of</strong> those who met <strong>the</strong> criteria <strong>for</strong> transplantation will<br />
survive without surgery. These are spared <strong>the</strong> long-term consequences <strong>of</strong> immunosuppression<br />
and its associated risks <strong>of</strong> cancer, infection and kidney failure.<br />
• These observations suggest that transplantation <strong>for</strong> AH is not an efficient use <strong>of</strong> scarce<br />
resources and will deprive those patients who will have a better outcome.<br />
• Newer <strong>the</strong>rapies <strong>for</strong> AH may prove more effective and safer than LT.<br />
• Because <strong>the</strong>re is a shortage <strong>of</strong> donor livers, clinicians will need to identify those who would<br />
<strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e lose access to transplantation if <strong>the</strong> recipient pool is increased.<br />
• Public opinion is against <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> donated livers <strong>for</strong> those with alcohol-associated liver<br />
disease so widespread use <strong>of</strong> donated livers may result in a decrease in donations.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> people who would benefit from liver transplantation is considerably greater than <strong>the</strong> number<br />
<strong>of</strong> available grafts donated after death. There<strong>for</strong>e this scarce resource needs to be rationed. While livers<br />
can be allocated using a number <strong>of</strong> different approaches (such as need, benefit or utility), it is also essential<br />
that donated livers are allocated according to a process that is objective, transparent and just. Although<br />
allocation models vary between jurisdictions, all models include elements <strong>of</strong> benefit and need.<br />
Allocation <strong>of</strong> donated livers to those with end-stage liver disease from self-induced habits has long attracted<br />
controversy but it is not <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clinician to make value judgements. Allocation <strong>of</strong> organs to those with<br />
self-induced liver damage (whe<strong>the</strong>r from alcohol, drug use or excessive eating) should be based on need<br />
and benefit, as <strong>for</strong> any o<strong>the</strong>r indication.<br />
In those with alcohol-associated liver disease, whe<strong>the</strong>r with cirrhosis or acute alcoholic hepatitis, allocation<br />
should be based on:<br />
• Need: will <strong>the</strong> patient die from liver failure in <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> transplantation<br />
• Benefit: will <strong>the</strong> patient have sufficient benefit from <strong>the</strong> transplant<br />
• Outcome: will <strong>the</strong> patient comply with <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> follow-up and monitoring<br />
and avoid alcohol excess<br />
NEED AND BENEFIT<br />
Does <strong>the</strong> patient need a transplant<br />
In many ways <strong>the</strong> patient with AH should be considered in <strong>the</strong> same way as <strong>the</strong> patient with fulminant<br />
hepatic failure (FHF): if <strong>the</strong> patient survives <strong>the</strong> initial illness, <strong>the</strong>n survival is likely to be very good and<br />
similar to <strong>the</strong> normal healthy population, if abstinence is maintained (Sandahl (a)). This contrasts with <strong>the</strong><br />
patient with cirrhosis where <strong>the</strong>re is a progressive risk <strong>of</strong> decompensation, liver cell cancer and death.<br />
Life after transplantation, while usually very good, is not normal in ei<strong>the</strong>r quality or quantity. Those who<br />
survive <strong>the</strong> first year have an increased risk <strong>of</strong> death compared with <strong>the</strong> age matched population. For<br />
example, UK figures show that a male aged 45 years at transplantation who survives <strong>the</strong> first post operative<br />
year had a survival reduced by 17 years which represents a 15 year loss <strong>of</strong> life expectancy. There is an<br />
increased risk <strong>of</strong> malignancy (at least 2-fold compared with aged and sex matched population), a 2-3 fold<br />
increased risk <strong>of</strong> death from cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disease, as well as infection and renal<br />
failure. Indeed, in <strong>the</strong> long term, <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> renal failure is likely to be even greater in those grafted <strong>for</strong> AH<br />
since renal impairment is common and pre-transplant renal impairment is good prognostic marker <strong>for</strong> late<br />
stage renal failure post LT. The quality <strong>of</strong> life is also reduced with only half returning to work or home-making.<br />
Is a period <strong>of</strong> abstinence necessary<br />
In many patients with alcoholic liver disease, abstinence is associated with improvement. Often a period<br />
<strong>of</strong> abstinence is required, not only to assess whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> patient will improve to such an extent that<br />
transplantation is not required but also to explore why <strong>the</strong> patient has drunk excessively and to put in<br />
place support so <strong>the</strong> patient will be helped to maintain abstinence. There is little place <strong>for</strong> a fixed period <strong>of</strong><br />
abstinence as <strong>the</strong>re are few data to justify any given period (Brown) and in those with severe disease, such<br />
as AH, death may be <strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> proving abstinence. In <strong>the</strong> UK, <strong>the</strong>re is no requirement <strong>for</strong> a fixed period.<br />
Will <strong>the</strong> patient return to alcohol<br />
Despite much public concern, <strong>the</strong> evidence suggests that a return to a damaging pattern <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
consumption is low: indeed, our own data show that, at 5 years, graft loss from alcohol is similar to that from<br />
recurrent PBC (4%) and considerably less than <strong>for</strong> HCV infection (25%). None<strong>the</strong>less, a patient returning to<br />
alcohol does have a major adverse impact on public perception.<br />
Will <strong>the</strong> patient survive without a transplant<br />
While <strong>the</strong>re are several prognostic models that predict survival <strong>of</strong> those with AH, <strong>the</strong>se models are relatively<br />
imprecise when applied to <strong>the</strong> individual (Sandahl (b), Singal). Thus, <strong>the</strong>re is a real risk that transplantation<br />
will be done needlessly and ano<strong>the</strong>r recipient dies.<br />
Are <strong>the</strong>re o<strong>the</strong>r potentially less toxic treatments<br />
There is an increasing number <strong>of</strong> agents being assessed <strong>for</strong> those with AH: <strong>the</strong>se include corticosteroids,<br />
anti-TNF, N-acetyl cysteine, oxypentifylline as well as new potential targets such as CXC chemokines, and<br />
osteopontin (Gao, Altamirano). If effective, <strong>the</strong> patient is more likely to return to a better quality and quantity<br />
<strong>of</strong> life than with a transplant.<br />
BENEFIT<br />
There have been several case reports showing that liver transplant can be done successfully in alcoholic<br />
hepatitis (Singhal) but <strong>the</strong> landmark study by Mathurin and colleagues provides <strong>the</strong> first clear evidence that<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a survival benefit. While this study shows clearly that transplantation can be <strong>of</strong>fered with survival<br />
benefit to a highly selected group <strong>of</strong> patients with AH, it does not mean that this scarce resource should be<br />
allocated to this group.<br />
Survival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transplanted group is less than would be expected in those with cirrhosis or acute liver<br />
failure: current <strong>European</strong> and US data suggest that survival rates <strong>of</strong> over 90% should be anticipated at 1
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
118 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 119<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
year (Dawwas et al) and over 70% at 5 years, whe<strong>the</strong>r done <strong>for</strong> cirrhosis (alcohol-associated and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
etiologies) or acute liver failure.<br />
Survival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> control group is not that poor: Mathurin’s study showed that those who meet <strong>the</strong> criteria <strong>for</strong><br />
transplantation but are not transplanted will have more than 25% probability <strong>of</strong> being alive at 12 months.<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> overall benefit <strong>of</strong> transplantation in those with AH is less than <strong>for</strong> accepted indications (including<br />
alcohol-associated cirrhosis). If transplantation is accepted <strong>for</strong> AH, where <strong>the</strong> absolute and relative benefit<br />
is less than <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r indications, <strong>the</strong>n surely similar considerations must apply to those with primary liver<br />
cell cancers outwith <strong>the</strong> UCSF criteria or those with changiocarcinoma who are excluded from access to<br />
transplantation, not because <strong>the</strong>y would not benefit but because <strong>the</strong>y would not benefit enough.<br />
PUBLIC ATTITUDES<br />
Although allocation should be done on legally and ethically valid grounds, it must be recognised that where<br />
ever public opinion has been sought, <strong>the</strong> public would give very low priority to those who provide not only<br />
<strong>the</strong> funds <strong>for</strong> transplantation but also <strong>the</strong> grafts (ref). For <strong>the</strong> public to lose confidence in <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong><br />
patient selection and organ allocation will jeopardise an already fragile availability. This may be exacerbated<br />
when, in those jurisdictions where donated livers are allocated according to MELD score, those with AH<br />
would have priority.<br />
WHO DOES NOT GET A TRANSPLANT<br />
Finally, <strong>the</strong> organ donor pool is already inadequate <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> need; if <strong>the</strong> recipient pool is to be expanded<br />
by inclusion <strong>of</strong> new indications, <strong>the</strong>n o<strong>the</strong>rs must be denied access. Those who advocate transplanting<br />
carefully selected patients with AH must agree who to exclude, unless <strong>the</strong> donor pool is expanded. The<br />
study from Mathurin suggests that less than 3% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> donor pool would be taken by those with AH: it<br />
is a concern that if transplantation were used <strong>for</strong> those selected patients with AH, <strong>the</strong> strict criteria used<br />
by Mathurin and colleagues would be gradually eroded and more patients would be <strong>of</strong>fered and receive<br />
access to this scarce resource.<br />
CLINICAL CASE: LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF ALD<br />
A. De Gottardi<br />
Bern, Switzerland<br />
N. Goossens<br />
Geneva, Switzerland<br />
E-mail: Nicolas.Goossens@hcuge.ch<br />
A 48 year old man with chronic HCV infection, genotype 1b and cirrhosis (Child-Pugh B 7, MELD 14) comes<br />
<strong>for</strong> a routine visit to your outpatient clinic.<br />
He was treated <strong>for</strong> alcoholic hepatitis 5 years ago and after this episode he continued to drink excessively.<br />
After an inpatient treatment <strong>for</strong> alcoholism, he stopped his alcohol intake 6 months ago. Currently he<br />
drinks 3 alcohol-free beers a day. He injected intravenous drugs when he was a teenager and he currently<br />
consumes intranasal cocaine once a month. He smokes 20 cigarettes per day.<br />
His medication includes losartan, sertralin, propranolol, spironolactone and torasemide.<br />
He works as a barkeeper and has a stable family situation.<br />
An ultrasound examination with intravenous contrast shows a 3 cm lesion in <strong>the</strong> right liver with arterial<br />
enhancement and washout suggesting hepatocellular carcinoma. There is, in addition, a partial thrombosis<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> splenomesenteric confluence. There is no ascites and <strong>the</strong> spleen is 15 cm in diameter.<br />
Laboratory analyses show albumin 31 g/L, bilirubin 32 umol/L (1.87 mg/dL), creatinine 101 umol/L (1.14<br />
mg/dL), INR 1.5, alpha-fetoprotein 20 ug/L.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Altamirano J, Bataller R. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new targets <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapy.<br />
Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;8:491-501.<br />
Brown RS, Transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic hepatitis – time to re-think <strong>the</strong> 6-month rule.<br />
New Engl J Med 2011;365:1836-8.<br />
Dawwas MF, Gimson AE, Lewsey JD, Copley LP, van der Meulen JHP on behalf <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> UK<br />
and Ireland <strong>Liver</strong> Transplant Audit, Survival after liver transplantation in <strong>the</strong> United Kingdom<br />
and Ireland compared with <strong>the</strong> United States. Gut 2007;56:1606-13.<br />
Gao B, Bataller R. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets,<br />
Gastroenterology 2011;141:1572-85.<br />
**Mathurin P, Moreno C, Samuel D et al. Early liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
New England J Med 2011;365:1790-1800.<br />
Sandahl TD, Jepsen P, Thompsen KL, Vilstrup H. Incidence and mortality <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis<br />
in Denmark 199802998: a nationwide population based cohort study. J Hepatol 2011;54:760-4.<br />
Sandahl TD, Jepsen P, Ott P, Vilstrup H. Validation <strong>of</strong> prognostic scores <strong>for</strong> clinical use in patients<br />
with alcoholic hepatitis. Scan J Gastroenterol 2011;46:1127-32. (b)<br />
Singal AK, Duchini A. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation in acute alcoholic hepatitis: current status and future<br />
development. World Journal <strong>of</strong> Hepatology 2011;3:215-8.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
120 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 121<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
CLINICAL CASE: LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF ALD<br />
A. De Gottardi<br />
Bern, Switzerland<br />
N. Goossens<br />
Geneva, Switzerland<br />
E-mail: Nicolas.Goossens@hcuge.ch<br />
A 48 year old man with chronic HCV infection, genotype 1b and cirrhosis (Child-Pugh B 7, MELD 14) comes<br />
<strong>for</strong> a routine visit to your outpatient clinic.<br />
He was treated <strong>for</strong> alcoholic hepatitis 5 years ago and after this episode he continued to drink excessively.<br />
After an inpatient treatment <strong>for</strong> alcoholism, he stopped his alcohol intake 6 months ago. Currently he<br />
drinks 3 alcohol-free beers a day. He injected intravenous drugs when he was a teenager and he currently<br />
consumes intranasal cocaine once a month. He smokes 20 cigarettes per day.<br />
His medication includes losartan, sertralin, propranolol, spironolactone and torasemide.<br />
He works as a barkeeper and has a stable family situation.<br />
An ultrasound examination with intravenous contrast shows a 3 cm lesion in <strong>the</strong> right liver with arterial<br />
enhancement and washout suggesting hepatocellular carcinoma. There is, in addition, a partial thrombosis<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> splenomesenteric confluence. There is no ascites and <strong>the</strong> spleen is 15 cm in diameter.<br />
Laboratory analyses show albumin 31 g/L, bilirubin 32 umol/L (1.87 mg/dL), creatinine 101 umol/L (1.14<br />
mg/dL), INR 1.5, alpha-fetoprotein 20 ug/L.<br />
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AS A CO-FACTOR FOR OTHER LIVER<br />
DISEASES<br />
Helmut K. Seitz<br />
Heidelberg, Germany<br />
E-mail: helmut_karl.seitz@urz.uni-heidelberg.de<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Chronic alcohol consumption is a risk factor <strong>the</strong> deterioration <strong>of</strong> various types <strong>of</strong> liver diseases,<br />
such as hepatitis B and C, NAFLD, hereditary haemochromatosis and drugs induced liver<br />
injuries including vitamin E associated liver fibrosis.<br />
• Depending on <strong>the</strong> underlying liver disease this negative effect <strong>of</strong> alcohol is time and dose<br />
dependent but may occur already at much lower alcohol intake as compared to an alcohol dose<br />
necessary to initiate alcoholic liver disease itself.<br />
• Alcohol intake should be avoided or at least limited and ... not consumed chronically under<br />
<strong>the</strong>se conditions.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Chronic alcohol consumption is a major risk factor <strong>for</strong> chronic liver disease. Beside <strong>the</strong> fact that alcohol by<br />
itself causes chronic liver disease an additional consumption <strong>of</strong> alcohol in <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r types <strong>of</strong><br />
liver diseases may result in a progression <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease. According to <strong>the</strong> data <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Centre <strong>of</strong> Disease<br />
Control and Prevention in 2007 24 % <strong>of</strong> all chronic liver diseases are due to alcohol, 14 % to alcohol and<br />
hepatitis C and 3 % to alcohol and hepatitis B (1). In addition, alcohol may also negatively influence <strong>the</strong><br />
course <strong>of</strong> non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) (2) and <strong>of</strong> hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) (3). Finally,<br />
alcohol interacts with <strong>the</strong> metabolism <strong>of</strong> certain drugs (4) and vitamin A (5) resulting occasionally in an<br />
increased toxicity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se compounds.<br />
ALCOHOL AND HEPATITIS C<br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> alcohol <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> prevalence <strong>of</strong> HCV infection<br />
It has been shown that <strong>the</strong> prevalence <strong>of</strong> hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection increases with <strong>the</strong> progression<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease (ALD) (Fig.1). This increase in hepatitis C infection in alcoholics may be due to<br />
a risky life style <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se patients <strong>of</strong>ten associated with drug abuse as well as to <strong>the</strong> immunosuppressive<br />
action <strong>of</strong> alcohol.<br />
Hepatic interaction <strong>of</strong> alcohol and HCV virus reduplication, fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)<br />
The impact <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption on serum HCV RNA levels shows clearly that with increasing self<br />
reported alcohol consumption serum HCV RNA increases constantly (6) (Fig.2). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand it has<br />
been shown that serum HCV RNA decreases with alcohol reduction (Fig.3). In this study by Cromie and coworkers<br />
(7), serum HCV RNA copies dropped significantly (p = 0.018) 4 months after alcohol consumption<br />
was reduced. Alcohol consumption also resulted in progression <strong>of</strong> hepatitis C (8). A great number <strong>of</strong> studies<br />
have shown that chronic alcohol consumption mostly <strong>of</strong> more than 50 grams alcohol per day significantly<br />
leads to disease progression (Tabl.1, Fig.4). Fibrogenesis was also found to be faster under alcohol<br />
consumption as compared to non drinking (Fig.5) (9). In a study by Poynard et al., patients with more than<br />
50 grams alcohol per day had an increased fibrosis score regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> age at biopsy and regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> infection (10). Also small amounts <strong>of</strong> daily alcohol consumption on <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> hepatitis<br />
C have been investigated. 78 patients with two liver biopsies, 6.3 years from each o<strong>the</strong>r and an alcohol<br />
consumption <strong>of</strong> less than 40 grams per day (median 5 g/day, 1 - 12 g/day) have been studied (11). The<br />
results showed an increasing progressive fibrosis with an increased total alcohol intake (15.4 kg vs. 3.9<br />
kg; p = 0.007) with an increased daily alcohol consumption (5.7 g/day vs. 2.6 g/day; p = 0.03) and a higher<br />
drinking frequency (35 vs. 8 days/year; p = 0.006).
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
122 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 123<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Chronic alcohol consumption in hepatitis C not only stimulates fibrogenesis but also hepatocarcinogenesis<br />
demonstrated by a number <strong>of</strong> studies. In <strong>the</strong> study by Tagger and co-workers from Italy (12) alcohol <strong>of</strong><br />
more than 80 grams per day increased <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> HCC significantly by a factor <strong>of</strong> 7.3 when compared to<br />
less than 40 grams. In hepatitis C patients this risk increased to 126. It also should be noted that hepatitis<br />
C patients with less than 40 grams ethanol per day showed an increased risk <strong>for</strong> HCC with an odds ratio <strong>of</strong><br />
26 as compared to non-alcohol consumers. Additional results were obtained from Hassan and co-workers<br />
from <strong>the</strong> US (13). In this study, it has been shown that those patients with hepatitis C who consume alcohol<br />
had a relative risk <strong>of</strong> 54 as compare to 19 in those who abstained from alcohol.<br />
IN SUMMARY<br />
1. Fibrogenesis is dose independent and starts already at small alcohol doses (below 30 g/day).<br />
There is no safe alcohol dose in patients with HCV infection. It has to be emphasized that<br />
patients with overweight and obesity as well as diabetics are especially on risk.<br />
2. HCV patients with excessive alcohol abuse have a 2 to 3 fold increased risk to develop a<br />
severe liver disease compared with HCV patients without any alcohol history.<br />
3. It is still unclear how long a patient has to be alcohol abstinent until a negative effect <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol disappears.<br />
4. Alcoholics with a HCV infection are easier to motivate <strong>for</strong> abstinence as compared to<br />
alcoholics without HCV infection.<br />
Effect <strong>of</strong> alcohol on <strong>the</strong> response to HCV <strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
Alcoholics have a poorer response rate to interferon <strong>the</strong>rapy. The question appears whe<strong>the</strong>r this is an<br />
inhibitory effect <strong>of</strong> alcohol or non-compliance. It has to be emphasized that <strong>the</strong>re was an increased rate <strong>of</strong><br />
non-compliance in 726 patients with alcohol consumption during <strong>the</strong> last 10 months <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>rapy. When noncompliance<br />
was considered respond rates between patients with and without alcohol consumption where<br />
found to be comparable (14). There<strong>for</strong>e, it has been concluded that compliance in alcoholics is probably <strong>the</strong><br />
major cause <strong>for</strong> a poor response to HCV <strong>the</strong>rapy.<br />
Possible mechanisms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> synergism <strong>of</strong> alcohol and HCV<br />
Various mechanisms <strong>of</strong> alcohol-HCV-interaction have been discussed:<br />
1. Stimulation <strong>of</strong> HCV replication by alcohol<br />
2. Increased occurrence <strong>of</strong> quasispecies<br />
3. Increased apoptosis<br />
4. Immunosuppression by ethanol<br />
5. Additional Oxidative stress due to ethanol (Induction <strong>of</strong> cytochrome P-4502E1)<br />
6. Stimulation <strong>of</strong> hepatic steatosis by ethanol<br />
HEPATITIS B AND ALCOHOL<br />
In contrast to hepatitis C, <strong>the</strong> data <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> interaction <strong>of</strong> ethanol with hepatitis B is limited. Unquestionable<br />
alcohol accelerates carcinogenesis in patients with hepatitis B infection. In a Japanese study it has been<br />
shown that patients with hepatitis B infection develop HCC proximately ten years earlier than those patients<br />
who did not drink at all. This occurred already at an alcohol dose less than 24 grams per day and did fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
increase with advancing alcohol doses (15).<br />
ALCOHOL AND NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE (NAFLD)<br />
Although it has been reported in epidemiologic studies that small amounts <strong>of</strong> alcohol may improve peripheral<br />
insulin resistance which in many cases occurs in NAFLD (16), it also has been shown that additional alcohol<br />
intake deteriorate NAFLD at various states <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease in animals (2) as well as in humans (17-20).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Italy Dionysos-<strong>Study</strong> it has been shown that alcohol consumption <strong>of</strong> more than 60 grams<br />
per day increased fatty liver diagnosed by ultrasound by 46 % as compared to 16 % in control Individuals.<br />
Individuals with a body mass index <strong>of</strong> more than 25 kg per m2 have a fur<strong>the</strong>r increase in steatosis to more<br />
than 70 % and if both overweight and alcohol consumption comes toge<strong>the</strong>r fatty liver occurred in more than<br />
90 % (17).<br />
Hepatic fibrosis also increases with alcohol consumption. A French study showed that daily alcohol intake<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than 100 grams showed almost a double increased risk <strong>for</strong> cirrhosis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver in patients with<br />
a body mass index <strong>of</strong> 29 as compared to those with 21 (Fig.5)(18,19). It has been shown recently by a<br />
retrospective epidemiologic study that even social drinking in patients with NASH resulted in a significant<br />
increased risk <strong>for</strong> HCC (Fig6) (20).<br />
Animal studies have clearly demonstrated that ethanol administration deteriorates fatty liver disease induced<br />
by high fat diets and may also enhance <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> carcinogenic DNA lesions (2,21)<br />
HEREDITARY HAEMOCHROMATOSIS (HH) AND ALCOHOL<br />
According to <strong>the</strong> data from <strong>the</strong> National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 1) iron overload<br />
is a negative prognostic factor <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> liver disease (3). More than two drinks per day had a<br />
hazard ratio <strong>of</strong> 4.1 <strong>for</strong> liver disease, while two drinks per day plus a transferin saturation <strong>of</strong> more than 40 %<br />
had a hazard ratio <strong>of</strong> 6.9. This is not surprising as hepatic iron is toxic. Alcohol increases reactive oxygen<br />
species by producing H 2<br />
O 2<br />
which may lead to increased iron absorption and iron release due to a decrease<br />
in hepcidin. This may also lead to an increased iron accumulation in <strong>the</strong> liver with increased toxicity (Fig.7).<br />
Thus, individuals with HH should avoid alcohol consumption.<br />
ALCOHOL AND DRUG INTERACTION<br />
Toxicity <strong>of</strong> various drugs may be increased by concomitant alcohol consumption. This is especially wellknown<br />
<strong>for</strong> methotrexate. Chronic methotrexate administration in higher dosis may result in stellate cell<br />
activation leading to centrizonal fibrosis which is fur<strong>the</strong>r enhanced by alcohol consumption, since alcohol by<br />
itself leads to an activation <strong>of</strong> stellate cells. As a result central portal fibrosis occurs (Fig.8).<br />
In addition alcohol induces cytochrome P450 2E. Beside <strong>the</strong> fact that CYP2E1 is responsible <strong>for</strong> ethanol<br />
metabolism, it is also responsible <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> metabolism <strong>of</strong> various drugs, procarcinogens and xenobiotics (4)<br />
(Fig.9). In this context two drugs are special importance, namely paracetamol (acetaminophen) (4) and<br />
isoniazide (22). An induction <strong>of</strong> CYP2E1 by alcohol results in an enhanced metabolism <strong>of</strong> paracetamol with<br />
an increased generation <strong>of</strong> highly toxic intermediates which are usually detoxified by glutathione to become<br />
non-toxic. Since alcohol decreases hepatic glutathione levels, this detoxification pathway cannot occur and<br />
highly toxic intermediates bind to hepatocytes and induce severe hepatic injuries (Fig.10).<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r interaction occurs with isoniazide, a tuberculostatic drug (22). This is also <strong>of</strong> importance since<br />
alcoholics have an increased risk <strong>for</strong> tuberculosis. Isoniazide toxicity depends on two factors: 1. The speed<br />
<strong>of</strong> isoniazide acetylation. 2. The speed <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> metabolism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> intermediate acetylhydrazine by CYP2E1<br />
(Fig.11). If isoniazide is acetylated adequately, acetylisoniazide, acetyl hydrazin and finally <strong>the</strong> detoxification<br />
product diacetylhydrazin occurs. However, in a slow metabolizer <strong>the</strong> intermediate acetylhydazine<br />
accumulates and may be fur<strong>the</strong>r metabolized by CYP2E1. CYP2E1 is polymorph coding <strong>for</strong> a rapid or a slow<br />
metabolizing protein. If <strong>the</strong> individual is a rapid CYP2E1 metabolizer and a slow acetylizer, hepatotoxins<br />
may occur and may injure <strong>the</strong> liver (Fig.12). O<strong>the</strong>r drugs, chemicals and carcinogens interactions with<br />
alcohol are shown in table 2.<br />
Finally, it should be pointed out that vitamin A and beta carotene taking in access may lead to hepatic fibrosis<br />
and cirrhosis. Additional alcohol stimulates <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> hepatic cirrhosis by CYP2E1 mediated<br />
increase in <strong>the</strong> metabolism <strong>of</strong> retinol and retinoic acid (5). As retinoic acid decreases 1. an increase in<br />
<strong>the</strong> expression <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AP1 gene occurs leading to hyperproliferation, a procarcinogenic state (23) and 2.<br />
Various apoptotic intermediates are generated damaging <strong>the</strong> liver (24) (Fig.13). Thus, vitamin A and alcohol<br />
should not be taken toge<strong>the</strong>r.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
124 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 125<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
REFERENCES:<br />
Singal AK, Anand BS Mechanisms <strong>of</strong> synergy between alcohol and hepatitis C virus<br />
J Clin Gastroenterol 2007;41:761-72.<br />
Wang Y, Seitz H, Wang X. Moderate alcohol consumption aggravates high-fat<br />
diet induced steatohepatitis in rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 2010;<br />
34:567-73.<br />
Ioannou GN, Weiss NS, Kowdley KV. Relationship between transferrin-iron saturation,<br />
alcohol consumption, and <strong>the</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis and liver cancer. Clin Gastroenterol<br />
Hepatol 2007;5:624-9.<br />
Seitz HK, Mueller S. Alcohol metabolism and its consequences. In in press<br />
Wang XD, Seitz HK. Alcohol and retinois interaction. In: Watson RR, Preedy VR (eds)<br />
Nutrition and Alcohol:Linking nutrient interactions and dietary intake. CRC Press Boca<br />
Raton, London, New York, Washington. Pp 313-21.<br />
Pessione F, Degos F, Marcellin P, Duchatelle V, Njapoum C, Martinot-Peignoux M, Degott C,<br />
Valla D, Erlinger S, Rueff B. Effect <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption on serum hepatitis C virus RNA<br />
and histological lesions in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1998;27:1717–1722.<br />
Cromie SL, Jenkins PJ, Bowden DS, Dudley FJ. Chronic hepatitis C: effect <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
on hepatitic activity and viral titre. J Hepatol. 1996;25:821–826.<br />
Mueller S, Millonig G, Seitz HK. Alcoholic liver disease and hepatitis C: a frequently<br />
underestimated combination. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:3462-71<br />
Wiley TE, McCarthy M, Breidi L, McCarthy M, Layden TJ. Impact <strong>of</strong> alcohol on <strong>the</strong> histological<br />
and clinical progression <strong>of</strong> hepatitis C infection. Hepatology. 1998;28:805–809.<br />
Poynard T, Bedossa P, Opolon P. Natural history <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis progression in patients with<br />
chronic hepatitis C. The OBSVIRC, METAVIR, CLINIVIR, and DOSVIRC groups.<br />
Lancet. 1997;349:825–832.<br />
Westin J, Lagging M, Spak F, Aires N, Svensson E, Lindh M, Dhillon AP, Norkrans G,<br />
Wejstal R. Moderate alcohol intake increases fibrosis progession in untreated patients with<br />
hepatitis C virus infection J Virol Hepat 2002;9:235-41.<br />
Tagger A, Donato F, Ribero ML, Chiesa R, Portera G, Gelatti U, Albertini A, Fasola M,<br />
B<strong>of</strong>fetta P, Nardi G. Case-control study on hepatitis C virus (HCV) as a risk factor <strong>for</strong><br />
hepatocellular carcinoma: <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> HCV genotypes and <strong>the</strong> synergism with hepatitis B virus<br />
and alcohol. Brescia HCC <strong>Study</strong>. Int J Cancer 1999;81:695-9.<br />
Hassan MM, Hwang LY, Hatten CJ, Swaim M, Li D, Abbruzzese JL, Beasley P, Patt YZ.<br />
Risk factors <strong>for</strong> hepatocellular carcinoma: synergism <strong>of</strong> alcohol with viral hepatitis<br />
and diabetes mellitus. Hepatology 2002;36:1206-13.<br />
Anand BS, Currie S, Dieperink E, Bini EJ, Shen H, Ho SB, Wright T, VA-HCV-001<br />
<strong>Study</strong> Group. Alcohol use and treatment <strong>of</strong> hepatitis C virus: results <strong>of</strong> a national multicenter<br />
study. Gastroenetrology 2006;130:1607-16.<br />
Ohnishi K, Iida S, Iwama S, Goto N, Nomura F, Takashi M, Mishima A, Kono K, Kimura K,<br />
Musha H, Kotota K, Okuda K. The effect <strong>of</strong> chronic habitual alcohol intake on <strong>the</strong> development<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma: relation to hepatitis B surface antigen carriage.<br />
Cancer 1982;49:672-7<br />
Greenfield JR, Samaras K, Hayward CS, Chisholm DJ, Campbell LV. Beneficial postprandial<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> a small amount <strong>of</strong> alcohol on diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors: modification<br />
by insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrin Metab 2005;90:661-72.<br />
Bellentani S, Tiribelli C. The spectrum <strong>of</strong> liver disease in <strong>the</strong> general population: lesson from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Dionysos study. J Hepatol 2001; 35:531-7.<br />
Naveau S, Giraud V, Borotto E, Aubert A, Capron F, Chaput JC. Excess weight risk factor<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 1997;25:108-11.<br />
Raynard B, Balian A, Fallik D, Capron F, Bedossa P, Chaput JC, Naveau S. Risk factors <strong>of</strong><br />
Figure 1<br />
fibrosis in alcohol-induced liver disease. Hepatology 2002;35:635-8<br />
Ascha MS, Hanouneh IA, Lopez R, Tamimi TA, Feldstein AF, Zein NN. The incidence<br />
and risk factors <strong>of</strong> hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.<br />
Hepatology 2010;51:1972-8.<br />
Wang Y, Millonig G, Nair J, Patsenker E, Stickel F, Mueller S, Bartsch H, Seitz HK.<br />
Ethanol-induced cytochrome P4502E1 causes carcinogenic e<strong>the</strong>no-DNA lesions in alcoholic<br />
liver disease. Hepatology 2009;50:453-61.<br />
Huang YS, Chern HD, Su WJ, Wu JC, Chang SC, Chiang CH, Chang FY, Lee SD. Cytochrome<br />
P450 2E1 genotype and <strong>the</strong> susceptibility to antituberculosis drug-induced hepatitis.<br />
Hepatology 2003;37:924-30<br />
Wang XD, Liu C, Chung J, Stickel F, Seitz HK, Russell RM. Chronic alcohol intake reduces<br />
retinoic acid concentration and enhances AP-1 (c-Jun and c-Fos) expression in rat liver.<br />
Hepatology 1998;28:744-50.<br />
Dan Z, Popov Y, Patsenker E, Preimel D, Liu C, Wang XD, Seitz HK, Schuppan D,<br />
Stickel F. Hepatotoxicity <strong>of</strong> alcohol-induced polar retinol metabolites involves apoptosis via loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> mitochondrial membrane potential. FASEB J 2005;19:845-7.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
126 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 127<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 2<br />
Figure 5<br />
Figure 3<br />
Figure 6<br />
Figure 4<br />
Figure 7
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
128 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 129<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 8<br />
Figure 11<br />
Figure 9<br />
Figure 12<br />
Figure 10<br />
Figure 13
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
130 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 131<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Table 1<br />
HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: IS IT DIFFERENT IN PATIENTS<br />
WITH ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
Thomas Decaens<br />
Creteil, France<br />
Email: thomas.decaens@hmn.aphp.fr<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Compared to <strong>the</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), alcohol<br />
consumption is increasing. The incidence <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is<br />
probably under-estimated with regard to worldwide alcohol consumption.<br />
• Alcohol is now well-defined as a liver carcinogen. Although <strong>the</strong> general mechanisms <strong>of</strong> alcoholrelated<br />
carcinogenesis are similar to those <strong>of</strong> viral carcinogenesis, <strong>the</strong>re are many differences<br />
in <strong>the</strong> fine details. However, only a few studies have been designed to compare alcohol-related<br />
with viral-related HCC.<br />
• The prognoses <strong>of</strong> patients with HCC who are referred to hepatologists do not seem to vary<br />
significantly. However, liver-transplantation data show that ALD patients have less access to<br />
treatment compared to o<strong>the</strong>r patients. There may also be discrimination against o<strong>the</strong>r treatments<br />
<strong>for</strong> HCC in ALD patients, though <strong>the</strong>se comparisons have not been made as yet.<br />
Table 2<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is <strong>the</strong> sixth most common cancer worldwide and <strong>the</strong> third most common<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> cancer-related death 1 . In 70–90% <strong>of</strong> cases, HCC develops on underlying liver cirrhosis or<br />
inflammation. Worldwide, 75–80% primary liver cancers are attributable to chronic viral infections <strong>of</strong><br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r HBV (50–55%) or HCV (25–30%). In contrast, <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related HCCs is not well<br />
defined. According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report 2 , <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> deaths from liver<br />
cancer attributable to alcohol is 30.3%. Thus, we can suppose that 25–30% <strong>of</strong> HCCs are related to alcohol<br />
consumption. However, <strong>the</strong> overall 5-year incidence <strong>of</strong> HCC is 10% <strong>for</strong> HBV infection, 30% <strong>for</strong> HCV infection,<br />
20% <strong>for</strong> hemochromatosis-related liver damage, but only 8% <strong>for</strong> alcohol-induced cirrhosis.<br />
HOW TO ATTRIBUTE HCC TO ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION<br />
In <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis, <strong>the</strong>re are no specific biological markers that suggest an alcoholic etiology <strong>of</strong> HCC<br />
(compared to HBV and HCV infections). In<strong>for</strong>mation on alcohol intake must be collected through interviews<br />
with patients, which are open to error regarding methodologies used <strong>for</strong> acquisition (<strong>for</strong> example: x beers<br />
per day and not y g/day), as well as <strong>the</strong> unreliability <strong>of</strong> patients’ recall and/or reporting. Moreover, data<br />
collection can be prone to mistakes made by physicians as well as underestimations <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption<br />
made by patients.<br />
As shown in Figure 1, <strong>the</strong> geographical distribution <strong>of</strong> alcohol use is very variable worldwide. Although<br />
global alcohol consumption seems to be stable, according to <strong>the</strong> WHO 5-year change-in-alcohol use<br />
2001–2005 report 2 , over a longer period <strong>of</strong> time, alcohol consumption has increased in many countries.<br />
For example, in China, where almost all cases <strong>of</strong> HCC are supposed to be related to HBV, <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol production increased by nine-fold between 1978 and 1997. In a Chinese survey, annual ethanol<br />
consumption among adults (aged 15+) was 4.5l, and heavy drinkers accounted <strong>for</strong> 6.7% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sample 3 .<br />
As <strong>the</strong> current Chinese population is ~1.3 billion, heavy drinkers represent ~87.1 million people (compared<br />
to 14 million in <strong>the</strong> USA). Alcohol consumption is also increasing in o<strong>the</strong>r countries, such as Japan, South<br />
Korea, USA, Russian Federation, and <strong>the</strong> UK. These data are worrying because we know that per capita<br />
alcohol consumption is correlated with alcoholic cirrhosis in various populations 4 . Compared to <strong>the</strong> increase<br />
in alcohol consumption, it is <strong>of</strong> note that HBV infection 5 and HCV infection 6 are currently decreasing.<br />
Heavy alcohol intake (>50–70 g/day) <strong>for</strong> prolonged periods (5–10 years) is a well-recognized risk factor<br />
<strong>for</strong> HCC, and its risk (odds ratio) increases linearly when alcohol intake is >60 g/day <strong>for</strong> men and women
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
132 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 133<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
(Figure 2) 7 . Moreover, alcohol is also recognized as a c<strong>of</strong>actor in <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> HCC. An additive<br />
effect has been found between alcohol intake <strong>of</strong> ≥60 g/day and each hepatitis-virus infection. This effect<br />
is more pronounced <strong>for</strong> HCV infection and has been confirmed in different studies. In patients with nonalcoholic<br />
steatohepatitis (NASH), alcohol consumption has been recognized as <strong>the</strong> most significant factor<br />
associated with <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> developing HCC.<br />
The proportion <strong>of</strong> HCCs attributable to alcohol consumption varies across <strong>the</strong> world, from 45% in Europe<br />
and <strong>the</strong> USA, to 20% in Japan, and 0% in Africa and Asia 8 . These variations are possibly due to geographical<br />
variations in alcohol consumption (Figure 1) but may be also due to under estimations <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related<br />
HCC in countries where HCV or HBV incidence is still high. In fact, it is surprising to note that Japan and<br />
<strong>the</strong> USA have <strong>the</strong> same per capita alcohol consumption (8 and 9.4, respectively) but only 20% <strong>of</strong> Japanese<br />
HCCs are reported to be related to alcohol compared to 45% in <strong>the</strong> USA 8 . Moreover, South Korea and<br />
France have <strong>the</strong> same per capita alcohol consumption (14.8 and 13.7, respectively), but alcohol-related<br />
HCC is reported as 0% in South Korea compared to 70% in France. However, it is impossible to rule out<br />
a genetic susceptibility to alcohol-related HCC, which could be higher in USA and French populations<br />
compared to Asian. Patterns <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption are also important because we know that binge<br />
drinking is associated with an elevated incidence <strong>of</strong> sudden death.<br />
GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY<br />
As yet, only case-control studies or candidate-gene series have identified genetic-risk factors <strong>for</strong> HCC<br />
in alcoholic patients. These studies have mainly identified polymorphisms in superoxide dismutase<br />
(SOD), liver-iron overload, human hemochromatosis (HFE), glutathione peroxidase, myeloperoxidase,<br />
methylenetetrahydr<strong>of</strong>olate reductase (MTHFR) and, more recently, patatin-like phospholipase A3 (PLPLA3).<br />
Among <strong>the</strong>se risk factors, only <strong>the</strong> first four seem to be specific to alcohol-related HCC; <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs are also<br />
associated with HCV- or HBV-related HCC. Despite <strong>the</strong> incontestable usefulness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se studies, we now<br />
need global studies to improve our understanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> associations between HCC and alcohol.<br />
No genome-wide association study (GWAS) has been published yet that independently identifies <strong>the</strong><br />
genetic risk factors <strong>for</strong> HCC in alcoholic liver disease. Although GWAS data that evaluate <strong>the</strong> genetic risks<br />
<strong>for</strong> HCC are available, <strong>the</strong>y only provide in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>for</strong> chronic HBV or HCV infection.<br />
MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS<br />
In <strong>the</strong> past, alcohol was considered more as a co-carcinogen than a direct carcinogen, but recent studies<br />
have clearly identified ethanol as a liver carcinogen by itself. General mechanisms <strong>of</strong> alcohol carcinogenesis<br />
involve acetaldehyde <strong>for</strong>mation, oxidative-stress induction, <strong>for</strong>mation <strong>of</strong> liver cirrhosis, retinoid depletion,<br />
and DNA-methylation deficiency (reviewed in Seitz et al. 9 and summarized in Figure 3). In <strong>the</strong> liver,<br />
acetaldehyde is quickly metabolized and does not play a major role in HCC.<br />
a.Oxidative stress<br />
Oxidative stress is an important factor in hepatocarcinogenesis, whatever <strong>the</strong> etiology <strong>of</strong> liver disease.<br />
Oxidative stress leads to <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> reactive oxygen species (ROS). Ethanol-mediated ROS<br />
<strong>for</strong>mation may be caused by several factors:<br />
• Chronic ethanol consumption causes a 10–20-fold increase in hepatic cytochrome<br />
P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in animals and humans, resulting in increased ROS production by<br />
<strong>the</strong> CYP2E1-dependent microsomal mono-oxygenase system.<br />
•TNFα production can increase ceramide levels, leading to increased mitochondrial ROS production.<br />
•Hepatic iron overload (increased by chronic alcohol consumption) increases ROS.<br />
ROS induces <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> lipid-peroxidation products, such as malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal<br />
(4-HNE), which can react with DNA bases to <strong>for</strong>m exocyclic DNA adducts that are highly mutagenic.<br />
b. Cirrhosis<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> pre-neoplastic lesions found in <strong>the</strong> liver are enzyme-altered foci and dysplastic nodules. After<br />
long-term administration <strong>of</strong> ethanol to rodents, <strong>the</strong>se enzyme-altered foci are observed to contain quiescent<br />
hepatic progenitor cells. In ALD, TNFα and TGFβ1 are markedly up-regulated. TNFα is an important<br />
stimulator <strong>of</strong> oval-cell proliferation: it triggers JNK1 but also activates NFκB, which <strong>the</strong>n activates cellsurvival<br />
machinery. In addition, TGFβ1 is involved in <strong>the</strong> epi<strong>the</strong>lial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), which<br />
plays a role in carcinogenesis.<br />
c.Retinoid depletion<br />
Chronic alcohol consumption decreases vitamin A and retinoid-acid concentrations in <strong>the</strong> liver. In addition,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a strong inverse relationship between vitamin A concentration and later development <strong>of</strong> HCC.<br />
The main reason <strong>for</strong> decreased retinoid acid is increased catabolism by ethanol-induced CYP2E1. This<br />
decrease is associated with increased expression <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> AP1 transcriptional complex (JUN and FOS),<br />
resulting in hepatic hyperproliferation and decreased apoptosis, which may contribute to carcinogenesis.<br />
The retinoid pathway has been shown to play an important role in HBV- and HCV-related HCC, and a direct<br />
interaction between viral proteins has been shown. Moreover, it has been proposed that HBx may induce<br />
promoter methylation <strong>of</strong> RAR-beta via up-regulation <strong>of</strong> DNA methyltransferases 1 and 3a.<br />
d.DNA-methylation deficiency<br />
Methylation <strong>of</strong> genes is an important tool in controlling gene expression: hypermethylation induces a<br />
silencing effect and hypomethylation results in increased gene expression. Alcohol consumption interferes<br />
with <strong>the</strong>se methylation processes, mainly by inhibiting S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) syn<strong>the</strong>sis, which<br />
is <strong>the</strong> universal methyl-group donor and enzyme activator in methyl-transfer reactions.<br />
It has recently been shown that, depending on <strong>the</strong> HCC risk factors (HBV, HCV, or alcohol related), <strong>the</strong><br />
DNA methylation pr<strong>of</strong>ile differs 10 . Moreover, <strong>the</strong> methylation pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> a set <strong>of</strong> eight genes has been shown<br />
to distinguish <strong>the</strong> clinical features <strong>of</strong> HCC, such as gender, age, HBV-positive tumors, pathological grade,<br />
and alcohol intake when methylation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> MGMT gene significantly higher.<br />
e. Genotoxicity<br />
Few data on genome-wide HCC analyses show <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> etiology on <strong>the</strong> underlying liver disease.<br />
However, as mentioned above, it is possible that alcohol consumption is under-recorded in series that<br />
have a high incidence <strong>of</strong> viral-related HCC. It has been reported that specific deletion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 4q34-35<br />
region is associated with heavy alcohol intake, even if <strong>the</strong> patient is infected by HCV. However conflicting<br />
results have been published. Unsupervised global transcriptome analysis <strong>of</strong> HCC did not identify significant<br />
differences between <strong>the</strong> underlying liver pathology. However, direct comparison <strong>of</strong> transcriptome analysis<br />
between HCV and alcohol-related HCC has revealed some differences 11 .<br />
f. O<strong>the</strong>r mechanisms<br />
Alcohol-induced CYP2E1 may interfere with <strong>the</strong> metabolism <strong>of</strong> certain pro-carcinogens, such as<br />
nitrosamines, polycyclic hydrocarbons, and aflatoxins. This interaction increases <strong>the</strong> carcinogenic effect <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se pro-carcinogens (except <strong>for</strong> nitrosamines simultaneously administered with ethanol).<br />
PROGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF ALCOHOL-RELATED HCC<br />
None <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> frequently used HCC classification systems take into account <strong>the</strong> etiology <strong>of</strong> liver disease. In<br />
fact, no significant differences have been found in liver function between ALD and viral hepatitis 12 . Moreover,<br />
even though <strong>the</strong> etiology <strong>of</strong> liver disease has been defined as a prognostic factor in some studies, <strong>the</strong><br />
power <strong>of</strong> this finding is small.<br />
A patient’s prognosis depends on access to treatment. Compared to HBV-, HCV-, or NASH-related cirrhosis,<br />
ALD is considered to be self-inflected, and <strong>the</strong> general public and even some pr<strong>of</strong>essionals question <strong>the</strong><br />
degree <strong>of</strong> priority given to <strong>the</strong>se patients. In a study on adherence to AASLD criteria <strong>for</strong> referral <strong>for</strong> liver<br />
transplantation, it has been shown that patients with ALD have a significantly poorer odds ratio <strong>of</strong> receiving
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
134 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 135<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
a transplant, even after excluding patients who are still actively drinking 13 . In this study, HCC was not<br />
significantly associated with adherence to guidelines. The potential prejudice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> general public and<br />
<strong>of</strong> some medical pr<strong>of</strong>essionals towards <strong>the</strong>se patients probably induces a generally worse prognosis <strong>for</strong><br />
alcohol-related HCC compared to virally-related HCC.<br />
Figure 3: Simplified scheme <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mechanisms involved in ALD -related carcinogenesis (adapted from<br />
Seitz H.K. et al. 9 )<br />
Figure 1: Total <strong>of</strong> adults (aged 15+) per capita consumption <strong>of</strong> alcohol (L <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol), in 2005 2<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Figure 2: Odds ratio <strong>for</strong> HCC according to alcohol intake and <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> HBV or HCV, obtained by<br />
fitting spline regression models that included age and residence as covariates, in <strong>the</strong> Brasilia HCC study 7 .<br />
Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, et al. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2011;61:69-90.<br />
Global status report on alcohol and death. www.who.int/substance.../global_alcohol<br />
report/msbgsrupr<strong>of</strong>iles.pdf, 2011.<br />
Contains major reference about alcohol consumption in <strong>the</strong> world and by country.<br />
Cochrane J, Chen H, Conigrave KM, et al. Alcohol use in China. Alcohol Alcohol 2003;38:537-42.<br />
Corrao G, Ferrari P, Zambon A, et al. Are <strong>the</strong> recent trends in liver cirrhosis mortality affected<br />
by <strong>the</strong> changes in alcohol consumption Analysis <strong>of</strong> latency period in <strong>European</strong> countries.<br />
J Stud Alcohol 1997;58:486-94.<br />
Hepatitis B. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/hepatitis/whocdscsrlyo20022/en/index.html, 2002.<br />
Deuffic-Burban S, Deltenre P, Louvet A, et al. Impact <strong>of</strong> viral eradication on mortality related<br />
to hepatitis C: a modeling approach in France. J Hepatol 2008;49:175-83.<br />
Donato F, Tagger A, Gelatti U, et al. Alcohol and hepatocellular carcinoma: <strong>the</strong> effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> lifetime intake and hepatitis virus infections in men and women. Am J Epidemiol 2002;155:<br />
323-31.<br />
Contains pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> dose effect <strong>for</strong> alcohol consumption and additive effect <strong>of</strong> HCV<br />
or HBV infection.<br />
Bosch FX, Ribes J, Diaz M, et al. Primary liver cancer: Worldwide incidence<br />
and trends. Gastroenterology 2004;127:S5-S16.<br />
Seitz HK, Stickel F. Molecular mechanisms <strong>of</strong> alcohol-mediated carcinogenesis.<br />
Nat Rev Cancer 2007;7:599-612.<br />
Major review about molecular mechanism <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related carcinogenesis.<br />
Hernandez-Vargas H, Lambert MP, Le Calvez-Kelm F, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma<br />
displays distinct DNA methylation signatures with potential as clinical predictors.<br />
PLoS One 2010;5:e9749.<br />
Derambure C, Coulouarn C, Caillot F, et al. Genome-wide differences in hepatitis C- vs<br />
alcoholism-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:1749-58.<br />
Herold C, Regn S, Ganslmayer M, et al. Can quantitative tests <strong>of</strong> liver function discriminate<br />
between different etiologies <strong>of</strong> liver cirrhosis Dig Dis Sci 2002;47:2669-73.<br />
Julapalli VR, Kramer JR, El-Serag HB. Evaluation <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation: adherence to<br />
AASLD referral guidelines in a large Veterans Affairs center. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2005;11:1370-8.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
136 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 137<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE<br />
EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF CANDIDATES FOR LIVER<br />
TRANSPLANTATION<br />
Georges-Philippe Pageaux<br />
Montpellier, France<br />
E-mail: gp-pageaux@chu-montpellier.fr<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Alcoholic cirrhosis, with or without hepatocellular carcinoma, is <strong>the</strong> second cause <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
transplantation (LT) in Europe and United States.<br />
• When we take into account <strong>the</strong> usual criteria <strong>for</strong> success in LT (patient and graft survival, rejection<br />
and infection rates), alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a good indication <strong>for</strong> transplantation, with<br />
1- and 5-year survival rates <strong>of</strong> 84% and 73%, respectively.<br />
• Some disparities are observed at <strong>the</strong> referral level when patients with ALD are compared with<br />
non ALD patients.<br />
• Recent results support <strong>the</strong> current procedure <strong>of</strong> giving priority <strong>for</strong> organ allocation to <strong>the</strong><br />
sickest patients.<br />
• The pre-transplant investigation is based on assessing <strong>the</strong> patient’s conditions and alcoholrelated<br />
co-morbidities that might limit <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>for</strong> successful transplantation.<br />
• The so-called 6-month rule (a duration <strong>of</strong> 6 months <strong>of</strong> abstinence be<strong>for</strong>e LT) has not demonstrated<br />
its ability to predict relapse after LT, and should no longer be <strong>the</strong> definite rule and should not be<br />
<strong>the</strong> determining factor <strong>for</strong> graft access.<br />
• The participation <strong>of</strong> a team specialized in addiction problems in this period should be<br />
recommended and <strong>the</strong>ir involvement should be based on a contract <strong>of</strong> care.<br />
• The alcoholic patient, candidate <strong>for</strong> LT, should be considered as suffering from a double<br />
pathology, both hepatic and alcoholic.<br />
The French Committee <strong>of</strong> Health Education estimates that <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> people having excessive alcohol<br />
consumption in France is about 10% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> general population. It is estimated that <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> registered<br />
deaths per year in France, which are related to excessive and regular alcohol consumption is 45,000.<br />
There are 8,000 to 10,000 annual registered deaths linked to a complication <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis. Alcoholic<br />
liver disease (ALD) is <strong>the</strong> most common cause <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis in western countries. Consequently, alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis, with or without hepatocellular carcinoma, is <strong>the</strong> main cause <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation (LT) in France<br />
and <strong>the</strong> second in Europe and United States.<br />
The controversy surrounding ALD as indication <strong>for</strong> LT has already stirred debate regarding <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong><br />
abstinence be<strong>for</strong>e transplantation and <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> recurrence, resulting in several recommendations <strong>for</strong> LT<br />
indications. Guidelines evolve according to prevailing opinions, but <strong>the</strong>re is a consensus that, to <strong>the</strong> extent<br />
that <strong>the</strong>re is a multidisciplinary approach to <strong>the</strong> patient, ALD is as good indication <strong>for</strong> LT as are o<strong>the</strong>r chronic<br />
liver diseases.<br />
When LT is considered in a patient with ALD, several points need to be emphasized: <strong>the</strong> under-referral<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se patients to liver transplant programs, choosing <strong>the</strong> optima timing <strong>for</strong> transplantation, <strong>the</strong> pretransplant<br />
abstinence, <strong>the</strong> pre-transplant evaluation.<br />
In patients with end-stage ALD, <strong>the</strong> 5-year survival without LT is < 25%, when it is > 70% if LT is per<strong>for</strong>med.<br />
Thus, ALD has become one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main indications <strong>for</strong> LT. It emerges from most studies that when we take<br />
into account <strong>the</strong> usual criteria <strong>for</strong> success in LT (patient and graft survival, rejection and infection rates),<br />
ALD is a good indication <strong>for</strong> LT. According to <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> liver transplant registry, survival after TL <strong>for</strong> ALD<br />
is 84%, 73%, and 58% at 1, 5, and 10 years, respectively, significantly higher than in viral and cryptogenic<br />
cirrhosis (1). However, <strong>the</strong> main issue is <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong> relapse and its influence on <strong>the</strong> outcome, because<br />
it is <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> returning to alcohol use that separates patients with ALD from those with o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong><br />
chronic liver disease. Consequently, some disparities are observed at <strong>the</strong> referral level when patients with<br />
ALD are compared with non ALD patients (2). Thus, less than 10% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 70-100,000 patients per year who<br />
develop decompensated cirrhosis due to ALD in United States are referred <strong>for</strong> transplant (3). The attitude<br />
<strong>of</strong> physicians to alcohol addiction is likely an influence on <strong>the</strong> referral <strong>of</strong> ALD patients <strong>for</strong> LT. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m<br />
hold pejorative views <strong>of</strong> patients who suffer from alcohol abuse and dependence. O<strong>the</strong>rs are confused<br />
about when <strong>the</strong>y should refer <strong>the</strong>ir patients <strong>for</strong> an LT evaluation and about whe<strong>the</strong>r a specific interval <strong>of</strong><br />
abstinence is needed be<strong>for</strong>e any referral (4)<br />
Concerning <strong>the</strong> timing <strong>of</strong> LT in ALD patients, recent results support <strong>the</strong> current procedure <strong>of</strong> giving priority<br />
<strong>for</strong> organ allocation to <strong>the</strong> sickest patients. A recent randomized trial has demonstrated that immediate<br />
listing <strong>for</strong> LT did not show a survival benefit compared with standard care <strong>for</strong> Child-Pugh stage B alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis (5). In addition, immediate listing <strong>for</strong> transplantation increased <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> extra-hepatic cancer.<br />
In contrast, a retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> UNOS database showed that ALD patients with relatively low<br />
MELD scores in <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong> 9 to 11 derived a survival benefit (6). Patients with severe acute alcoholic<br />
hepatitis present particular challenges to transplant teams because <strong>the</strong>y have obviously consumed alcohol<br />
in <strong>the</strong> previous month. A recent French, multicenter, case-control analysis about patients presenting <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
first episode <strong>of</strong> severe, cortico-resistant acute alcoholic hepatitis demonstrated that <strong>the</strong>y had an excellent<br />
intermediate-term survival and a low frequency <strong>of</strong> harmful drinking after LT (7).<br />
In addition to evaluating <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver disease, <strong>the</strong> pre-transplant investigation is based on assessing<br />
<strong>the</strong> patient’s conditions and co-morbidities that might limit <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>for</strong> successful transplantation.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> numerous extra-hepatic complications <strong>of</strong> alcoholism, we have to focus on <strong>the</strong> followings during<br />
<strong>the</strong> pre-transplant evaluation : pancreatitis, neurological manifestations, heart disease, renal disease, poor<br />
nutritional status, and cancers.<br />
Several studies have demonstrated a close relationship between alcohol consumption and acute/chronic<br />
pancreatitis. In <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> transplantation, one must consider <strong>the</strong> probability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sequels <strong>of</strong> previous<br />
manifestations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease such as abcess, venous thrombosis, adherences, which could make more<br />
difficult <strong>the</strong> surgical transplant procedure. Moreover, carcinoma <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pancreas may occur with increased<br />
frequency in alcoholic patients, although it correlates better with cigarette smoking than with alcohol<br />
consumption. The exclusion <strong>of</strong> pancreatic carcinoma in a patient with chronic alcoholic pancreatitis may<br />
be a difficult diagnostic problem. Thus, high quality imaging tests are necessary <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> pre-transplant<br />
evaluation.<br />
Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsak<strong>of</strong>f’s syndrome are nutritional disorders caused by thiamine<br />
deficiency. Chronic alcohol consumption can result in thiamine deficiency by causing inadequate nutritional<br />
thiamine intake, decreased absorption <strong>of</strong> thiamine from <strong>the</strong> gastroeintestinal tract, and impaired thiamine<br />
utilization in <strong>the</strong> cells. Mental confusion in <strong>the</strong> main characteristic <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se diseases, sometimes difficult to<br />
distinguish from hepatic encepalopathy. Treatment consists <strong>of</strong> parenteral thiamine, but in <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong><br />
patients with Korsak<strong>of</strong>f’s syndrome, recovery is incomplete. This situation represents a contraindication <strong>for</strong><br />
LT.<br />
Alcoholism is also responsible <strong>for</strong> dose-related injury to <strong>the</strong> peripheral nervous system. Direct cumulative<br />
neurotoxicity from alcohol, nutritional and vitamin deficiencies associated with alcoholism, and liver cirrhosis<br />
itself each probably contribute to this peripheral neuropathy. Resolution <strong>of</strong> alcoholic neuropathy following LT<br />
has been reported. Thus, this manifestation does not request a contraindication to transplant. However, it<br />
must be emphasized that calcineurin inhibitors immunosuppressive agents used after transplantation have<br />
some degree <strong>of</strong> dose-related peripheral neurotoxicity which can worsen a pre-transplant neuropathy with<br />
some degree <strong>of</strong> disablement.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
138 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 139<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Chronic alcohol consumption can lead to progressive cardiac dysfunction, resulting in congestive<br />
cardiomyopathy. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy is characterized by an increase in myocardial mass, dilation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ventricles, and wall thinning. Changes in ventricular function may depend on <strong>the</strong> stage, in that<br />
asymptomatic stage is associated with diastolic dysfunction, whereas systolic dysfunction is a common finding<br />
in symptomatic patients, leading to heart failure in latter stages. Moreover, cirrhosis per se is associated<br />
with impaired cardiac contractility. This phenomenon <strong>of</strong> attenuated cardiac responsiveness to stimuli is<br />
termed cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. The emergence <strong>of</strong> LT as an effective treatment <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis has<br />
led to <strong>the</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> previously subclinical cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure accounts <strong>for</strong><br />
significant mortality and morbidity after this procedure. Coronary heart disease which is associated with<br />
excessive alcohol consumption needs to be extensively examined in <strong>the</strong> setting <strong>of</strong> transplantation.<br />
Numerous clinical and experimental studies have demonstrated that excessive alcohol consumption<br />
has deleterious effects on <strong>the</strong> kidney. A variety <strong>of</strong> tubular defects have been described in <strong>the</strong>se patients,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten reversible with abstinence. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, IgA nephropathy has been demonstrated in chronic<br />
alcoholism, with irreversible lesions responsible <strong>for</strong> asymptomatic proteinuria. This raises <strong>the</strong> possibility<br />
that alcoholic cirrhosis itself and <strong>the</strong> attendant abnormalities in renal function may predispose <strong>the</strong> liver<br />
transplant patient to permanent renal damage when treated with calcineurin inhibitors.<br />
The progression <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease to decompensated cirrhosis stage has pr<strong>of</strong>ound effects on<br />
hepatic metabolism and ultimately, on body composition and weight. This results in pr<strong>of</strong>ound nutritional<br />
changes that include weight loss and evidence <strong>for</strong> protein caloric malnutrition. Moreover, malnutrition is an<br />
additional developmental factor in <strong>the</strong> functional and structural muscle damage induced by chronic ethanol<br />
consumption. The impact <strong>of</strong> nutritional status on outcomes after LT has been studied. Poor pre-operative<br />
nutritional status was associated with longer intensive care unit stays and increased likelihood <strong>of</strong> posttransplant<br />
infections.<br />
There is a clear association <strong>of</strong> heavy alcohol consumption with cancers <strong>of</strong> mouth, larynx, pharynx, and<br />
oesophagus. Moreover, alcoholics are also <strong>of</strong>ten heavy smokers. It is crucial to rule out any neoplastic<br />
disease or pre-neoplastics conditions during <strong>the</strong> pre-transplant evaluation, since ALD patients appear to<br />
have a higher incidence <strong>of</strong> malignancies after LT, especially oropharyngeal carcinomas.<br />
The first approach to ensuring abstinence after transplantation has been to try to select during <strong>the</strong> pretransplant<br />
period only those patients likely to maintain abstinence. A recent meta-analysis identified 3 pretransplant<br />
factors associated with alcoholic relapse after LT: lack <strong>of</strong> social support, a family history <strong>of</strong><br />
alcoholism, and less than 6 months <strong>of</strong> abstinence from alcohol (8). There is a lack <strong>of</strong> consensus <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
duration <strong>of</strong> abstinence from alcohol, as well as what constitute good psychosocial criteria <strong>for</strong> listing <strong>for</strong> LT.<br />
Abstinence is essential and <strong>the</strong> pre-transplantation period should be used <strong>for</strong> streng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>the</strong> motivation<br />
to end alcohol use. This discontinuation commits <strong>the</strong> patient to a <strong>the</strong>rapeutic program which may prevent<br />
post-transplantation relapse. However, <strong>the</strong> so-called 6-month rule (a duration <strong>of</strong> 6 months <strong>of</strong> abstinence<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e LT) has not demonstrated its ability to predict relapse after LT, and should no longer be <strong>the</strong> definite<br />
rule and should not be <strong>the</strong> determining factor <strong>for</strong> graft access. A 3- or 6-month period <strong>of</strong> abstinence be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
transplantation may be justified when carried out as part <strong>of</strong> a larger strategy <strong>for</strong> management <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
dependence. It should take into account time <strong>for</strong> motivation, achievement <strong>of</strong> abstinence, and <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
prevention <strong>of</strong> relapse, and should never be carried out under <strong>the</strong> pretext <strong>of</strong> coercion. Moreover, alcohol<br />
withdrawal is sometimes associated with recovery <strong>of</strong> liver function : three months <strong>of</strong> abstinence may unmask<br />
those with truly irreversible ALD (9). Patients with a lack <strong>of</strong> social support, personality disorders, or a pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> non-adherence should be listed only with reservation.<br />
LT <strong>for</strong> ALD should be a central event in <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alcoholic patient, imposing some<br />
responsabilities on <strong>the</strong> medical team in its follow-up care. The participation <strong>of</strong> a team specialized in<br />
addiction problems in this period should be recommended and <strong>the</strong>ir involvement should be based on a<br />
contract <strong>of</strong> care. Without being a written document, this contract may be seen as a <strong>the</strong>rapeutic alliance in<br />
which empathy plays a key role.<br />
In summary, it is possible to place patients with ALD on <strong>the</strong> waiting list under two conditions:<br />
• that <strong>the</strong>re is a pre-transplantation assessment with particular attention paid to <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong>: lesions<br />
related to alcohol consumption or smoking; extra-hepatic lesions, such as cancers and precancerous<br />
conditions including oropharyngeal, bronchial, esophageal; respiratory and cardiovascular pathology.<br />
• that alcoholic care management is started as early as possible by a team specialized in addictive behaviors.<br />
Many studies suggest that short- and mid-term results <strong>of</strong> LT <strong>for</strong> ALD are not influenced by alcohol relapse.<br />
However, beyond five years, it seems that long-term survival is reduced because <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r target-organ<br />
damage <strong>of</strong> both alcohol and tobacco, especially aero-digestive malignancies, which are greater causes <strong>of</strong><br />
morbidity and mortality than is recurrent ALD.<br />
Finally, we have to keep in mind <strong>the</strong> dichotomy between ethical issues and public perceptions, that is well<br />
illustrated in <strong>the</strong> debate about LT <strong>for</strong> patients with ALD : does <strong>the</strong> general public support organ donation <strong>for</strong><br />
patients with ALD Societal attitudes towards <strong>the</strong>se patients must change. The alcoholic patient, candidate<br />
<strong>for</strong> LT, should be considered as suffering from a double pathology, both hepatic and alcoholic.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Burra P, Senzolo M, Adam R, et al. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease in<br />
Europe: a study from <strong>the</strong> ELTR. Am J Transplant 2010;10:138-148<br />
Julapalli VR, Kramer JR, El-Serag HB, et al. Evaluation <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation: adherence<br />
to AASLD referral guidelines in a large Veterans Affairs center. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2005;11:1370-1378<br />
Kotlyar DS, Burke A, Campbell MS, et al. A critical review <strong>of</strong> candidacy <strong>for</strong> orthotopic<br />
liver transplantation in alcoholic liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:734-743<br />
Lucey MR. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation in patients with alcoholic liver disease. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2011;<br />
17:751-759<br />
Vanlemmens C, Di Martino V, Milan C, et al. Immediate listing <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation<br />
versus standard care <strong>for</strong> Child-Pugh stage B alcoholic cirrhosis: a randomized trial.<br />
Ann Intern Med 2009;150:153-161<br />
Lucey MR, Schaubel DE, Guidinger MK, and al. Effects <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease<br />
and hepatitis C infection on waiting list and posttransplant mortality and transplant survival<br />
benefit. Hepatology 2009;50:400-406<br />
Mathurin P, Moreno C, Samuel D, et al. Early liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis.<br />
N Engl J Med 2011; 365:1790-1800<br />
Dew MA, DiMartini AF, Steel J, et al. Meta-analysis <strong>of</strong> risk <strong>for</strong> relapse to substance<br />
use after transplantation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver or o<strong>the</strong>r solid organs. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2008;14:159-172<br />
Veldt BJ, Lainé F, Guillygomarc’h A, et al. Indication <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation in severe alcoholic<br />
liver cirrhosis: quantitative evaluation and optimal timing. J Hepatol 2002;36:93-98<br />
Weinrieb RM, Van Horn DHA, Lynch KG, et al. A randomized, controlled study <strong>of</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcohol dependence in patients awaiting liver transplantation. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2011;17:539-547<br />
The second approach to reducing <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> post-transplantation drinking is to initiate alcoholism <strong>the</strong>rapy<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e transplantation. Results are disappointing (10). It appears that alcohol-dependent liver transplant<br />
candidates struggle with total abstinence be<strong>for</strong>e transplantation. Treatment interventions to effect robust<br />
and lasting sobriety in this population are limited. It is also important to emphasize that <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
disease in <strong>the</strong>se patients is so substantial, that a rigorous approach is quite difficult.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
140 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 141<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
PATIENTS WITH ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE AND LIVER<br />
TRANSPLANTATION: SPECIFIC ISSUES<br />
Patrizia Burra<br />
Padova, Italy<br />
E-mail: burra@unipd.it<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Outcomes <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcohol-related cirrhosis are comparable with those <strong>of</strong><br />
liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r aetiologies.<br />
• Most transplant programs in <strong>the</strong> US and Europe consider acute alcoholic hepatitis a<br />
contraindication to liver transplantation. However early liver transplantation in selected patients<br />
with a first episode <strong>of</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis not responding to medical <strong>the</strong>rapy has been<br />
shown to improve survival.<br />
• The role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> pre-transplantation abstinence, <strong>the</strong> so called “6-month rule”, as<br />
predictor <strong>of</strong> post-transplantation abstinence is still controversial.<br />
• A psycho-social assessment to establish <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong> long-term abstinence after liver<br />
transplantation should be per<strong>for</strong>med in patients with alcoholic liver disease considered<br />
potential candidates <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation.<br />
• Alcohol relapse after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis ranges between 10% and 50%<br />
in up to 5 years follow-up, according to <strong>the</strong> method used to assess alcohol relapse.<br />
• Overall quality <strong>of</strong> life and employment levels appear similar between patients transplanted <strong>for</strong><br />
alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver disease. However <strong>the</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> deaths due to all social<br />
causes has been shown to be double in patients with an alcoholic etiology <strong>of</strong> liver disease,<br />
compared to o<strong>the</strong>r etiologies.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Alcoholic liver disease is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most common causes <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis and indications <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation<br />
in Europe and North America [1-3]. Despite <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcohol-related cirrhosis<br />
are comparable with those <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r aetiologies, alcoholic liver disease has been<br />
considered a controversial indication to liver transplantation. The reluctance to transplant alcoholics stems<br />
in part from <strong>the</strong> view that alcoholics bear responsibility <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir illness [3] and <strong>the</strong>re is also <strong>the</strong> perception<br />
that <strong>the</strong> alcoholic person is likely to relapse into alcohol use after transplantation and <strong>the</strong>reby damage <strong>the</strong><br />
allograft.<br />
ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE AND INDICATION FOR LIVER TRANSPLANTATION<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> transplantation in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis was first acknowledged in 1983 [4]. Poynard et al.<br />
[5] showed that <strong>the</strong>re was a survival benefit when patients with advanced de-compensation (Child-Turcotte-<br />
Pugh score ranging between 11 and 15) underwent transplantation, whereas <strong>the</strong>re was no survival benefit<br />
when alcoholic patients with better compensated liver function were transplanted.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis, whe<strong>the</strong>r occurring in <strong>the</strong> previously healthy liver or<br />
in patients with established cirrhosis, fail to recover despite abstinence and maximal medical <strong>the</strong>rapy.<br />
Most transplant programs in <strong>the</strong> US and Europe consider acute alcoholic hepatitis a contraindication to<br />
liver transplantation [6, 7]. However a recent multicenter study by Mathurin et al. [8] showed that early<br />
liver transplantation can improve survival in patients with a first episode <strong>of</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis not<br />
responding to medical <strong>the</strong>rapy. Twenty-six patients with no prior episode <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis and with no<br />
response to medical <strong>the</strong>rapy or rapid worsening <strong>of</strong> liver function despiite medical treatment were selected<br />
after an adequate psychiatric and social evaluation. The cumulative 6-month survival rate was higher among<br />
patients who received early transplantation than among those who did not (77±8% vs. 23±8%; p
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
142 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 143<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
In a recent study based on ELTR (<strong>European</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> Transplant Registry) database, it has been demonstrated<br />
that patient survival at 1, 3, 5 and 10 years from first transplantation was 84%, 78%, 73%, 58%, significantly<br />
higher in alcoholic liver disease patients compared to HCV and HBV-relate liver disease recipients (82%,<br />
74%, 70%, 60%) and cryptogenic cirrhosis patients (78%, 73%, 69%, 61%) (log rank p = 0.04 and p = 0.05,<br />
respectively). When alcoholic liver disease patients were analysed according to HCV or HBV infection,<br />
patient survival at 1, 3, 5 and 10 years from first transplantation was 84%, 75%, 65%, 52%, respectively,<br />
in alcoholic liver disease with concomitant HCV infection group, significantly lower than 89%, 85%, 81%,<br />
64%, respectively, observed in alcoholic liver disease with concomitant HBV infection patients (log rank p =<br />
0.0002). The incidence <strong>of</strong> deaths due to all social causes was double in patients with an alcoholic etiology<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver disease with or without viral infection, compared to o<strong>the</strong>r etiologies (1.3% alcoholic liver disease and<br />
alcoholic liver disease with concomitant HCV or HBV infection vs. 0.7% HCV or HBV and 0.4% cryptogenic<br />
cirrhosis, respectively; p = 0.03). In detail, transplanted patients or previous alcoholic liver disease had<br />
double <strong>the</strong> incidence <strong>of</strong> deaths <strong>for</strong> suicide compared to viral etiology, p = 0.02 [24].<br />
Alcohol relapse after liver transplantation<br />
With <strong>the</strong> term “relapse” is generally defined any alcohol intake occurring after liver transplantation. Studies<br />
which have evaluated alcohol relapse after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis have reported a wide<br />
range <strong>of</strong> frequencies ranging from 10% to 50% in up to 5 years follow up [21, 25]. However most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
studies evaluating alcohol relapse after liver transplantation are based on retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> routine<br />
screening tests, questionnaires or interviews with patients and/or family during routine follow-up, with a<br />
consequent potential underestimate <strong>of</strong> patients’ real drinking habits.<br />
In a study based on 51 patients with alcoholic liver disease who underwent strictly medical and psychological<br />
evaluation be<strong>for</strong>e and after liver transplantation, alcohol abuse was recorder in 60% and alcohol dependence<br />
in 40% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m be<strong>for</strong>e transplantation. Alcohol relapse was observed in 33% <strong>of</strong> transplanted patients, 64%<br />
<strong>of</strong> who were occasional and 36% were heavy drinkers. The admission <strong>of</strong> alcoholism by <strong>the</strong> patient and his/<br />
her family prior to transplantation significantly predicted abstinence after transplantation [26].<br />
Combining results from many studies is evident that from a third to half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alcoholic transplant recipients<br />
start drinking again after transplantation <strong>of</strong>ten within <strong>the</strong> first year after surgery; amongst <strong>the</strong>se nearly 10%<br />
resume drinking in an abusive or dependent fashion [27].<br />
Acute and chronic rejection<br />
Patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis experience fewer episodes <strong>of</strong> acute cellular rejection after<br />
liver transplantation compared to patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r reasons [28, 29]. Histologically-proven<br />
acute cellular rejection was reported in 14% <strong>of</strong> patients 23-180 days after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis [23].<br />
Chronic ductopenic rejection is also very uncommon in alcoholics receiving liver transplants. In Padua <strong>Liver</strong><br />
Transplant Centre, since November 1990, 415 patients have undergone 480 liver transplantations. Eighty<br />
<strong>of</strong> whom were transplanted <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease ei<strong>the</strong>r alone or in combination with viral hepatitis or<br />
hepatocellular cancer. Among 312 long-term survivors, chronic rejection was seen in 6 (5%).<br />
Medical complications following liver transplantation<br />
Infections are common after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease. Bacterial infections seem to be<br />
more frequent than in patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r causes. The incidence <strong>of</strong> cytomegalovirus infection<br />
was reportedly 14.3% in patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis, which is no different from <strong>the</strong> 25%<br />
incidence observed in patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r causes. The incidence <strong>of</strong> new-onset insulin-dependent<br />
diabetes is reportedly less than 10%, while <strong>for</strong> hypertension it is around 33%, again much <strong>the</strong> same as in<br />
patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> non-alcoholic liver disease [30].<br />
Patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease may have an higher incidence <strong>of</strong> cardiovascular events<br />
compared to patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r causes <strong>of</strong> liver disease. It was recently demonstrated that<br />
cardiovascular events were <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> death in 8% <strong>of</strong> patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease with<br />
and without associated viral infection and in 5.3% <strong>of</strong> patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> HCV or HBV cirrhosis, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> difference was statistically significant [24].<br />
The prevalence <strong>of</strong> diabetes mellitus (10%), and hypertension (33%) are comparable with patients<br />
transplanted <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r aetiologies [30].<br />
Te cerebral blood flow may also be impaired after liver transplantation since many functional alterations<br />
in brain physiology are seen in alcoholic cirrhotic patients. Usually <strong>the</strong>se abnormalities are reversed after<br />
liver transplantation, but a reduction in <strong>the</strong> frontal cerebral blood flow may persist <strong>for</strong> up to 12 months after<br />
surgery [31].<br />
De novo neoplasms<br />
An increased risk <strong>of</strong> de novo malignancies after liver transplantation has been reported to rise from 6%<br />
to 55% at 15 years after liver transplantation and to account <strong>for</strong> a significant risk <strong>of</strong> late death [32]. An<br />
overall incidence <strong>of</strong> oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma <strong>of</strong> 17% in alcohol-induced cirrhosis transplant<br />
patients was reported [33]. In ano<strong>the</strong>r series <strong>of</strong> patients who underwent liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic<br />
liver disease, an incidence <strong>of</strong> 4.2% <strong>of</strong> oropharyngeal and esophageal malignancies were seen between<br />
8-40 months after surgery [34].<br />
The incidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> de novo tumors as cause <strong>of</strong> death was significantly higher in alcoholic compared with<br />
non-alcoholic etiology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary liver disease. Among solid organ tumors, 2% <strong>of</strong> patients with viral<br />
cirrhosis developed oral or upper GI tract tumors compared to 5.4% <strong>of</strong> patients with alcoholic liver disease<br />
and <strong>the</strong> difference was statistically significant [24].<br />
Quality <strong>of</strong> life and adherence to medical prescriptions<br />
Whatever <strong>the</strong> reason <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation, quality <strong>of</strong> life improves after surgery in most domains [35].<br />
Overall quality <strong>of</strong> life and employment levels appear similar between patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> alcoholic and<br />
non-alcoholic liver disease [36].<br />
Adherence <strong>of</strong> patients suffering from alcoholic cirrhosis is still under discussion. After liver transplantation<br />
no difference between patients with or without alcohol relapse concerning compliance with medication,<br />
incidence <strong>of</strong> rejection or adherence to check-ups were reported [37]. They appear to return to society to<br />
lead active and productive lives, despite <strong>the</strong>y seem less likely to be involved in structured social activities<br />
than patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> non-alcoholic liver disease [38].<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
In conclusion, alcoholic cirrhosis is a widely accepted indication <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation, whereas <strong>the</strong><br />
experience <strong>of</strong> transplantation in patients with acute alcoholic hepatitis is limited to a restricted number <strong>of</strong><br />
patients with specific slection criteria.<br />
Literature data showed that, despite alcohol relapse is ranging between 10% and 50% at 5 years after liver<br />
transplantation, graft and patient survival is comparable with patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> different aetiology.<br />
A psycho-social assessment to establish <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong> long-term abstinence after liver transplantation<br />
and a psychiatric evaluation should be per<strong>for</strong>med in all patients with alcoholic liver disease. The role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
length <strong>of</strong> pretransplantation abstinence, <strong>the</strong> so called “6-month rule”, as predictor <strong>of</strong> posttransplantation<br />
abstinence is still controversial.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
144 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 145<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Combined alcoholism and HCV infection are common among patients under evaluation <strong>for</strong> liver<br />
transplantation and histological changes <strong>of</strong> HCV infection are also common in post transplant biopsies<br />
from <strong>the</strong>se patients. In addition, <strong>the</strong> hepatocellular carcinoma may develop on top <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis, and in this<br />
case <strong>the</strong> candidate’s management is based on <strong>the</strong> accepted criteria <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation in <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> hepatocellular carcinoma. Co-morbidities that might limit <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>for</strong> successful operation - such<br />
as pancreatitis, central and peripheral neuropathy, heart disease, myopathy, renal insufficiency or poor<br />
nutritional status should be assessed during <strong>the</strong> candidate’s management.<br />
Although only about 10% <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver allograft recipients resume drinking in an abusive or dependent<br />
fashion, ef<strong>for</strong>ts to restrict <strong>the</strong> risks <strong>of</strong> relapse and graft loss are mandatory. Histological changes are usual<br />
mild and liver damage is slow to develop after alcohol relapse but fatty changes and fibrosis are more<br />
severe in patients who are heavy drinkers than in occasional drinkers and abstainers. Whe<strong>the</strong>r due to a<br />
direct effect on <strong>the</strong> graft or indirectly because <strong>of</strong> noncompliance or damage to o<strong>the</strong>r organs, <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong><br />
histological recurrence due to alcohol recidivism is much less than that seen with some o<strong>the</strong>r indications,<br />
notably with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.<br />
Alcoholic patients experience fewer episodes <strong>of</strong> acute cellular rejection after liver transplantation than<br />
patients transplanted <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r reasons and chronic ductopenic rejection is also very uncommon. Conversely,<br />
cardiovascular complications and infections are common after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease<br />
as well as <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> de novo malignancies.<br />
Lastly, <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> life and employment levels appear similar or even better between patients transplanted<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver disease, whereas <strong>the</strong> compliance <strong>of</strong> such patients is still under<br />
discussion despite no difference between patients with or without alcohol relapse concerning compliance<br />
with medication, incidence <strong>of</strong> rejection or adherence to check-ups have been reported.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
http://www.eltr.org.<br />
http://www.unos.org/donation/index.phptopic=data<br />
Neuberger J. Transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease: a perspective from Europe.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> Transpl Surg 1998;4:S51-57.<br />
National Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health Consensus Development Conference Statement:<br />
liver transplantation--June 20-23, 1983. Hepatology 1984;4:107S-110S.<br />
Poynard T, Naveau S, D<strong>of</strong>foel M, Boudjema K, Vanlemmens C, Mantion G, et al.<br />
Evaluation <strong>of</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation in alcoholic cirrhosis using matched<br />
and simulated controls: 5-year survival. Multi-centre group. J Hepatol 1999;30:1130-1137.<br />
Mutimer DJ, Burra P, Neuberger JM, Hubscher S, Buckels JA, Mayer AD, et al. Managing<br />
severe alcoholic hepatitis complicated by renal failure. Q J Med 1993;86:649-656.<br />
Veldt BJ, Laine F, Guillygomarc’h A, Lauvin L, Boudjema K, Messner M, et al. Indication<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver transplantation in severe alcoholic liver cirrhosis: quantitative evaluation<br />
and optimal timing. J Hepatol 2002;36:93-98.<br />
Mathurin P, Moreno C, Samuel D, Dumortier J, Salleron J, Durand F, et al. Early liver<br />
transplantation <strong>for</strong> severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med 2011;365:1790-1800.<br />
Poynard T, Bedossa P, Opolon P. Natural history <strong>of</strong> liver fibrosis progression in patients with<br />
chronic hepatitis C. The OBSVIRC, METAVIR, CLINIVIR, and DOSVIRC groups.<br />
Lancet 1997;349:825-832.<br />
Schafer DF, Sorrell MF. Hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 1999;353:1253-1257.<br />
Bruix J, Llovet JM. Prognostic prediction and treatment strategy in hepatocellular carcinoma.<br />
Hepatology 2002;35:519-524.<br />
Merion RM, Wolfe RA, Dykstra DM, Leichtman AB, Gillespie B, Held PJ. Longitudinal<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> mortality risk among candidates <strong>for</strong> liver transplantation. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl<br />
2003;9:12-18.<br />
Wiesner R, Edwards E, Freeman R, Harper A, Kim R, Kamath P, et al. Model <strong>for</strong><br />
end-stage liver disease (MELD) and allocation <strong>of</strong> donor livers. Gastroenterology 2003;124:91-96.<br />
Poynard T, Bar<strong>the</strong>lemy P, Fratte S, Boudjema K, D<strong>of</strong>foel M, Vanlemmens C, et al.<br />
Evaluation <strong>of</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation in alcoholic cirrhosis by a case-control study<br />
and simulated controls. Lancet 1994;344:502-507.<br />
Anand AC, Ferraz-Neto BH, Nightingale P, Mirza DF, White AC, McMaster P, et al.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease: evaluation <strong>of</strong> a selection protocol.<br />
Hepatology 1997;25:1478-1484.<br />
Sherman D, Williams R. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease. J Hepatol<br />
1995;23:474-479.<br />
Burra P, Smedile A, Angelico M, Ascione A, Rizzetto M. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation in Italy:<br />
current status. <strong>Study</strong> Group on <strong>Liver</strong> Transplantation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Italian <strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Study</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> (A.I.S.F.). Dig <strong>Liver</strong> Dis 2000;32:249-256.<br />
Gish RG, Lee AH, Keeffe EB, Rome H, Concepcion W, Esquivel CO. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation<br />
<strong>for</strong> patients with alcoholism and end-stage liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1993;88:1337-1342.<br />
Pageaux GP, Perney P, Larrey D. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease.<br />
Addict Biol 2001;6:301-308.<br />
Tome S, Lucey MR. Timing <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation in alcoholic cirrhosis.<br />
J Hepatol 2003;39:302-307.<br />
Tome S, Martinez-Rey C, Gonzalez-Quintela A, Gude F, Brage A, Otero E, et al.<br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> superimposed alcoholic hepatitis on <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation <strong>for</strong><br />
end-stage alcoholic liver disease. J Hepatol 2002;36:793-798.<br />
Walter M, Scholler G, Moyzes D, Hildebrandt M, Neuhaus R, Danzer G, et al.<br />
Psychosocial prediction <strong>of</strong> abstinence from ethanol in alcoholic recipients<br />
following liver transplantation. Transplant Proc 2002;34:1239-1241.<br />
Burra P, Mioni D, Cecchetto A, Cillo U, Zanus G, Fagiuoli S, et al. Histological features<br />
after liver transplantation in alcoholic cirrhotics. J Hepatol 2001;34:716-722.<br />
Burra P, Senzolo M, Adam R, Delvart V, Karam V, Germani G, et al. <strong>Liver</strong> transplantation<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease in Europe: a study from <strong>the</strong> ELTR (<strong>European</strong> <strong>Liver</strong><br />
Transplant Registry). Am J Transplant 2010;10:138-148.<br />
Mackie J, Groves K, Hoyle A, Garcia C, Garcia R, Gunson B, et al. Orthotopic liver<br />
transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic liver disease: a retrospective analysis <strong>of</strong> survival, recidivism,<br />
and risk factors predisposing to recidivism. <strong>Liver</strong> Transpl 2001;7:418-427.<br />
Burra P, Mioni D, Cillo U, Fagiuoli S, Senzolo M, Naccarato R, et al. Long-term medical<br />
and psycho-social evaluation <strong>of</strong> patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation <strong>for</strong><br />
alcoholic liver disease. Transpl Int 2000;13 Suppl 1:S174-178.<br />
Tang H, Boulton R, Gunson B, Hubscher S, Neuberger J. Patterns <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption<br />
after liver transplantation. Gut 1998;43:140-145.<br />
Berlakovich GA, Rockenschaub S, Taucher S, Kaserer K, Muhlbacher F, Steiniger R.<br />
Underlying disease as a predictor <strong>for</strong> rejection after liver transplantation. Arch Surg<br />
1998;133:167-172.<br />
Farges O, Saliba F, Farhamant H, Samuel D, Bismuth A, Reynes M, et al. Incidence<br />
<strong>of</strong> rejection and infection after liver transplantation as a function <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary disease:<br />
possible influence <strong>of</strong> alcohol and polyclonal immunoglobulins. Hepatology 1996;23:240-248.<br />
Platz KP, Mueller AR, Spree E, Schumacher G, Nussler NC, Rayes N, et al.<br />
<strong>Liver</strong> transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis. Transpl Int 2000;13 Suppl 1:S127-130.<br />
Dam M, Burra P, Tedeschi U, Cagnin A, Chierichetti F, Ermani M, et al. Regional cerebral blood
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
146 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 147<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
flow changes in patients with cirrhosis assessed with 99mTc-HM-PAO single-photon<br />
emission computed tomography: effect <strong>of</strong> liver transplantation. J Hepatol 1998;29:78-84.<br />
Haagsma EB, Hagens VE, Schaapveld M, van den Berg AP, de Vries EG, Klompmaker IJ,<br />
et al. Increased cancer risk after liver transplantation: a population-based study.<br />
J Hepatol 2001;34:84-91.<br />
Duvoux C, Delacroix I, Richardet JP, Roudot-Thoraval F, Metreau JM, Fagniez PL,<br />
et al. Increased incidence <strong>of</strong> oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas after liver transplantation<br />
<strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis. Transplantation 1999;67:418-421.<br />
Kenngott S, Gerbes AL, Schauer R, Bilzer M. Rapid development <strong>of</strong> esophageal squamous<br />
cell carcinoma after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcohol-induced cirrhosis. Transpl Int 2003;16:639-641.<br />
De Bona M, Ponton P, Ermani M, Iemmolo RM, Feltrin A, Boccagni P, et al. The impact<br />
<strong>of</strong> liver disease and medical complications on quality <strong>of</strong> life and psychological distress be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
and after liver transplantation. J Hepatol 2000;33:609-615.<br />
Cowling T, Jennings LW, Jung GS, Goldstein RM, Molmenti E, Gonwa TA, et al.<br />
Comparing quality <strong>of</strong> life following liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> Laennec’s versus<br />
non-Laennec’s patients. Clin Transplant 2000;14:115-120.<br />
Berlakovich GA, Langer F, Freundorfer E, Windhager T, Rockenschaub S, Sporn E,<br />
et al. General compliance after liver transplantation <strong>for</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis. Transpl Int 2000;13:<br />
129-135.<br />
Cowling T, Jennings LW, Goldstein RM, Sanchez EQ, Chinnakotla S, Klintmalm GB, et al.<br />
Societal reintegration after liver transplantation: findings in alcohol-related and<br />
non-alcohol-related transplant recipients. Ann Surg 2004;239:93-98.<br />
NOVEL TARGETS FOR ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE (ALD) THERAPY<br />
IDENTIFIED IN TRANSLATIONAL STUDIES<br />
Bin Gao<br />
Be<strong>the</strong>sda, Maryland, USA<br />
E-mail: bgao@mail.nih.gov<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• The mechanisms underlying <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ALD are not fully understood.<br />
• Ethanol-mediated hepatotoxicity and activation <strong>of</strong> innate immunity contribute to <strong>the</strong><br />
pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ALD; however activation <strong>of</strong> many innate immunity components also promotes<br />
liver repair.<br />
• Steroid treatment may be beneficial in some ALD patients by inhibiting inflammation; however,<br />
such treatment may also block liver regeneration and increase bacterial infection.<br />
• Several novel targets that can be used to block liver inflammation in ALD: CXC chemokines,<br />
complement, gut microbiota and LPS pathways, osteopontin.<br />
• Several novel targets that can be used to promote hepatocyte survival and proliferation in ALD:<br />
apoptosis inhibitors and interleukin-22 (IL-22).<br />
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a major cause <strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease, leading to fibrosis and cirrhosis<br />
worldwide. The latest surveillance report published by <strong>the</strong> National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism,<br />
National Institutes <strong>of</strong> Health showed that liver cirrhosis was <strong>the</strong> 12th leading cause <strong>of</strong> death in <strong>the</strong> United<br />
States, with a total <strong>of</strong> 29,925 deaths in 2007, 48% <strong>of</strong> which were alcohol related (http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/<br />
publications/surveillance88/Cirr07.htm). The mechanisms underlying <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ALD are not fully<br />
understood. Several major factors contributing <strong>the</strong> progression <strong>of</strong> ALD have been proposed 1, 2 and are<br />
summarized in Figure 1.<br />
Figure 1. Mechanisms underlying <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ALD. Chronic alcohol consumption directly<br />
induces hepatocyte death via multiple mechanisms, and indirectly causes hepatocellular damage via <strong>the</strong><br />
activation <strong>of</strong> innate immunity and adaptive immunity. All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se events can lead to liver inflammation<br />
with accumulation <strong>of</strong> neutrophils. Inflammation <strong>the</strong>n fur<strong>the</strong>r promotes hepatocyte death; however, it also<br />
plays an important role in promoting liver regeneration. In addition, activation <strong>of</strong> several innate immunity<br />
components (such as TNF-α and complements) contributes significantly to <strong>the</strong> liver repair.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> significant progress on <strong>the</strong> understanding <strong>of</strong> ALD pathogenesis, no targeted <strong>the</strong>rapies are<br />
available. The cornerstone <strong>of</strong> treatment <strong>for</strong> alcoholic hepatitis remains as it was 40 years ago: abstinence,<br />
nutritional support, and corticosteroids. The clinical results from <strong>the</strong> steroid treatment <strong>of</strong> alcoholic hepatitis<br />
have been controversial. Accumulated data indicate that steroid treatment can improve <strong>the</strong> short-term survival<br />
rate in some patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis. The disappointing results from <strong>the</strong> anti-inflammatory<br />
<strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>of</strong> steroids may be due to several reasons. First, <strong>the</strong> broad inhibition <strong>of</strong> inflammation by steroids<br />
may not only abolish <strong>the</strong> inflammation-mediated liver injury but also diminish <strong>the</strong> inflammation-mediated<br />
liver repair. Second, inflammation may not be <strong>the</strong> major or <strong>the</strong> only factor contributing to hepatocellular<br />
damage in ALD patients. Third, steroid treatment also increases <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> bacterial infection.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
148 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 149<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Recently translational studies <strong>of</strong> human liver samples and animal models have identified several novel<br />
<strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets.1, 2 These include targets that can be used to block liver inflammation in ALD, and<br />
targets that can be used to promote hepatocyte survival and proliferation.<br />
Figure 2 summarizes <strong>the</strong> STAT3 signaling activated by various cytokines in hepatocytes.<br />
THE TARGETS THAT CAN BE USED TO BLOCK LIVER INFLAMMATION IN ALD:<br />
CXC chemokines:<br />
The CXC family <strong>of</strong> chemokines includes IL-8 and Gro-α; <strong>the</strong>se usually attract neutrophils, which infiltrate<br />
livers <strong>of</strong> patients with ALD. In patients with AH, hepatic expression <strong>of</strong> CXC chemokines is increased and<br />
correlates with survival time and <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> portal hypertension. Reagents that target CXC chemokines<br />
might be developed as <strong>the</strong>rapeutics <strong>for</strong> AH.<br />
Gut microbiota and LPS pathway:<br />
Modulation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gut microbiota and LPS pathways might also be used to treat patients with ALD. The<br />
gut microbiota and LPS signaling can be modified by probiotics and TLR4 antagonists, respectively, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> latter being proposed as <strong>the</strong>rapeutic agents <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> chronic liver diseases, including ALD.<br />
Results from a placebo-controlled trial recently showed that <strong>the</strong> nonabsorbable antibiotic rifaximin, which<br />
modifies <strong>the</strong> gut microbiota, protected patients from hepatic encephalopathy. Reagents that alter <strong>the</strong> gut<br />
microbiota might also prevent ALD, so fur<strong>the</strong>r studies are required.<br />
Complement:<br />
Activation <strong>of</strong> complement is an important step in <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> ethanol-induced liver injury in mice.<br />
Therapeutic interventions to ei<strong>the</strong>r block complement activation or increase <strong>the</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> negative regulators<br />
<strong>of</strong> complement might be used to treat patients with ALD. Several compounds that inhibit complement<br />
activation are in phase 1 or 2 trials <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> age-related macular degeneration. These drugs<br />
may be developed to treat patients with ALD.<br />
Osteopontin:<br />
Osteopontin is an extracellular matrix protein that is markedly up-regulated in patients with ALD. The<br />
basal expression levels <strong>of</strong> osteopontin correlate with disease severity (R. Bataller et al, unpublished<br />
data, September 2011), indicating that osteopontin contributes to <strong>the</strong> pathogenesis <strong>of</strong> ALD. Blockade <strong>of</strong><br />
osteopontin might be effective <strong>for</strong> amelioration <strong>of</strong> ALD.<br />
THE TARGETS THAT CAN BE USED TO PROMOTE HEPATOCYTE SURVIVAL AND PROLIFERATION<br />
IN ALD:<br />
Apoptosis inhibitors:<br />
Apoptosis is a prominent feature <strong>of</strong> chronic liver disease, so apoptosis inhibitors have been investigated<br />
in animal models <strong>of</strong> liver injury and patients with chronic liver diseases. Multiple clinical trials have shown<br />
that various caspase inhibitors reduced liver injury and fibrosis in patients with chronic HCV infection or<br />
nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.156 ALD is also associated with significant levels <strong>of</strong> hepatocyte apoptosis, so<br />
inhibitors might be a treatment option <strong>for</strong> ALD.<br />
Interleukin-22 (IL-22):<br />
IL-22 is a recently discovered hepatoprotective cytokine and seems to have many beneficial effects <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> ALD. IL-22 was originally identified as an IL-9-induced gene and belongs to IL-10 family, but<br />
IL-22 and IL-10 have very different biological functions. In contrast, IL-22 has very similar hepatoprotective<br />
functions as IL-6 via <strong>the</strong> activation <strong>of</strong> signal transducer and activator <strong>of</strong> transcription 3 (STAT3) in hepatocytes.<br />
Figure 2: STAT3 signaling in hepatocytes. Hepatocytes express high levels <strong>of</strong> gp130, which is a common<br />
signal chain <strong>for</strong> IL-6 and IL-6 family cytokines, high levels <strong>of</strong> IL-6 receptors and various corresponding<br />
receptors <strong>for</strong> IL-6 family cytokines. IL-6 family cytokines include leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), ciliary<br />
neurotrophic factor (CNTF), oncostatin M (OSM), cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1), and IL-11. The ligation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
cytokines (IL-6 and IL-6 family cytokines) with <strong>the</strong>ir corresponding receptors leads to <strong>the</strong> dimerization <strong>of</strong><br />
gp130, followed by dimerization <strong>of</strong> gp130-associated Janus kinases (JAKs) and phosphorylation <strong>of</strong> JAKs<br />
and gp130. This receptor-kinase complex <strong>the</strong>n recruits and phosphorylates cytoplasmic protein STAT3.<br />
Phosphorylated STAT3 <strong>for</strong>ms a dimer, translocates into <strong>the</strong> nuclei and subsequently induces transcription<br />
<strong>of</strong> many genes. Hepatocytes also express high levels <strong>of</strong> IL-22R1 and IL-10R2 <strong>for</strong> IL-22 signaling. IL-6, IL-6<br />
family cytokines, and IL-22 predominantly activate STAT3, but also induce a weak activation <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r STATs<br />
and MAP kinases. Human hepatocytes express high levels <strong>of</strong> IFNAR1 and functional IFNAR2c. IFN-α/β<br />
predominately induces STAT1 activation in primary human hepatocytes but also induces strong STAT3<br />
activation. Activated STAT3 induces transcription <strong>of</strong> many genes that play important roles in inducing acute<br />
phase responses, promoting hepatocyte survival and liver regeneration, and ameliorating fatty liver. (Wang<br />
H., Lafdil F., Kong, X., and Gao, B.: International Journal <strong>of</strong> Biological Sciences 2011,7:536-550)<br />
In 2004, we demonstrated <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> first time that IL-22 is a critical survival factor <strong>for</strong> hepatocytes and plays<br />
a key role in protecting against Con A-induced T cell hepatitis.3 The hepatoprotetion <strong>of</strong> IL-22 in T cell<br />
hepatitis was fur<strong>the</strong>r confirmed using IL-22-deficient mice 4 and IL-22 transgenic mice.5 In addition, IL-22<br />
ameliorates steatosis and hepatocellular damage in many o<strong>the</strong>r models <strong>of</strong> liver injury, including high fat<br />
diet-induced fatty liver 6 and acute and chronic alcoholic liver injury.7, 8 The hepatoprotective effect <strong>of</strong><br />
IL-22 in alcoholic liver injury is likely mediated via <strong>the</strong> activation <strong>of</strong> STAT3, followed by <strong>the</strong> upregulation <strong>of</strong><br />
anti-apoptotic genes (e.g., Bcl-2 and BcI-xL), anti-oxidative genes (e.g., metallothioneins 1 and 2), and <strong>the</strong><br />
downregulation <strong>of</strong> lipogenic genes (e.g., SREBP-1c) in hepatocytes (Fig. 3).
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
150 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 151<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
NOTES<br />
CLINICAL CASE: LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF ALD<br />
A. De Gottardi<br />
Bern, Switzerland<br />
N. Goossens<br />
Geneva, Switzerland<br />
E-mail: Nicolas.Goossens@hcuge.ch<br />
A 48 year old man with chronic HCV infection, genotype 1b and cirrhosis (Child-Pugh B 7, MELD 14) comes<br />
<strong>for</strong> a routine visit to your outpatient clinic.<br />
Figure 3: The mechanisms underlying <strong>the</strong> hepatoprotective and antimicrobial effects <strong>of</strong> IL-22.<br />
Treatment <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes with IL-22 results in upregulation <strong>of</strong> many genes that prevent hepatocyte apoptosis<br />
and stimulate hepatocyte proliferation. IL-22 also downregulates lipogenic genes such as SREBP-1 in <strong>the</strong><br />
liver, <strong>the</strong>reby ameliorating fatty liver disease. Finally, IL-22 stimulates hepatocytes to produce lipocalin-2,<br />
which may contribute to IL-22 inhibition <strong>of</strong> bacterial infection.<br />
In summary, IL-22 treatment appears to have multiple beneficial effects on alcoholic hepatitis, such as<br />
preventing hepatocellular damage, promoting hepatocyte proliferation, and inhibiting bacterial infection.<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> side effect <strong>of</strong> clinical treatment with IL-22 may be minimal because IL-22 only targets<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>lial cells such as hepatocytes. Clinical trials examining combination <strong>the</strong>rapy with IL-22 or IL-22 plus<br />
corticosteroids <strong>for</strong> patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis are warranted.<br />
He was treated <strong>for</strong> alcoholic hepatitis 5 years ago and after this episode he continued to drink excessively.<br />
After an inpatient treatment <strong>for</strong> alcoholism, he stopped his alcohol intake 6 months ago. Currently he<br />
drinks 3 alcohol-free beers a day. He injected intravenous drugs when he was a teenager and he currently<br />
consumes intranasal cocaine once a month. He smokes 20 cigarettes per day.<br />
His medication includes losartan, sertralin, propranolol, spironolactone and torasemide.<br />
He works as a barkeeper and has a stable family situation.<br />
An ultrasound examination with intravenous contrast shows a 3 cm lesion in <strong>the</strong> right liver with arterial<br />
enhancement and washout suggesting hepatocellular carcinoma. There is, in addition, a partial thrombosis<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> splenomesenteric confluence. There is no ascites and <strong>the</strong> spleen is 15 cm in diameter.<br />
Laboratory analyses show albumin 31 g/L, bilirubin 32 umol/L (1.87 mg/dL), creatinine 101 umol/L (1.14<br />
mg/dL), INR 1.5, alpha-fetoprotein 20 ug/L.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Gao B, Bataller R. Alcoholic liver disease: pathogenesis and new <strong>the</strong>rapeutic targets.<br />
Gastroenterology 2011;141:1572-85.<br />
Lucey M, Mathurin P, Morgan T. Alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med 2009, 360: 2758–2769.<br />
Radaeva S, Sun R, Pan HN, Hong F, Gao B. Interleukin 22 (IL-22) plays a protective role in T<br />
cell-mediated murine hepatitis: IL-22 is a survival factor <strong>for</strong> hepatocytes via STAT3 activation.<br />
Hepatology 2004;39:1332-42.<br />
Zenewicz LA, Yancopoulos GD, Valenzuela DM, Murphy AJ, Karow M, Flavell RA. Interleukin-22<br />
but not interleukin-17 provides protection to hepatocytes during acute liver inflammation.<br />
Immunity 2007;27:647-59.<br />
Park O, Wang H, Weng H, Feigenbaum L, Li H, Yin S, Ki SH, Yoo SH, Dooley S, Wang FS,<br />
Young HA, Gao B. In vivo consequences <strong>of</strong> liver-specific interleukin-22 expression in mice:<br />
Implications <strong>for</strong> human liver disease progression. Hepatology 2011;54:252-61.<br />
Yang L, Zhang Y, Wang L, Fan F, Zhu L, Li Z, Ruan X, Huang H, Wang Z, Huang Z, Huang Y,<br />
Yan X, Chen Y. Amelioration <strong>of</strong> high fat diet induced liver lipogenesis and hepatic steatosis by<br />
interleukin-22. J Hepatol 2010;53:339-47.<br />
Ki SH, Park O, Zheng M, Morales-Ibanez O, Kolls JK, Bataller R, Gao B. Interleukin-22<br />
treatment ameliorates alcoholic liver injury in a murine model <strong>of</strong> chronic-binge ethanol<br />
feeding: role <strong>of</strong> signal transducer and activator <strong>of</strong> transcription 3.<br />
Hepatology 2010;52:1291-300.<br />
Xing WW, Zou MJ, Liu S, Xu T, Wang JX, Xu DG. Interleukin-22 protects against acute alcoholinduced<br />
hepatotoxicity in mice. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2011;75:1290-4.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
152 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 153<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
STEM CELLS IN ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE: THE ROAD FROM<br />
ANIMAL MODELS TO HUMAN STUDIES<br />
Laurent Spahr<br />
Geneva, Switzerland<br />
E-mail: Laurent.Spahr@hcuge.ch<br />
Grants: Supported by <strong>the</strong> Clinical Research Center, University Hospital and Faculty <strong>of</strong> Medicine, Geneva,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Louis-Jeantet Foundation, and Foundation <strong>for</strong> <strong>Liver</strong> and Gut Studies (FLAGS) in Geneva<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• The impaired regenerative capacity <strong>of</strong> alcoholic cirrhosis with ASH (acute-on chronic ALD)<br />
participates to <strong>the</strong> high morbidity and mortality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease.<br />
• Under specific experimental conditions, animal studies show that bone marrow (BM)-derived<br />
stem cells participate in liver regeneration, but mechanisms are incompletely elucidated.<br />
• Some benefits derived from BM-derived cell <strong>the</strong>rapy seem associated with <strong>the</strong> co-administration<br />
<strong>of</strong> G-CSF to mobilize hematopoietic stem cells, produce humoral factors, and facilitate cells<br />
homing to <strong>the</strong> site <strong>of</strong> injury.<br />
• In patients with cirrhosis and ASH, G-CSF stimulates <strong>the</strong> short-term proliferation <strong>of</strong> hepatic<br />
progenitors.<br />
• In patients with decompensated liver disease <strong>of</strong> mixed aetiology, results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> few RCTs<br />
suggest that autologous BM stem cell transplantation is safe and may transiently improve liver<br />
function in non alcoholic cirrhosis.<br />
• Autologous BM stem cell transplantation in decompensated ALD doesn’t improve liver function<br />
(MELD score) over a 3-month period.<br />
• Future studies should better characterize <strong>the</strong> efficiency <strong>of</strong> G-CSF and BM stem cell <strong>the</strong>rapy in<br />
<strong>the</strong> regeneration and repair <strong>of</strong> decompensated alcoholic liver, and explore <strong>the</strong> fate and potential<br />
<strong>of</strong> transplanted cells.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Cirrhosis is associated with insufficient regeneration in response to injury, due to multiples causes including<br />
extensive fibrosis, inflammation, steatosis and replicative senescence <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes, all <strong>of</strong> which constitute<br />
an unsuitable environment <strong>for</strong> liver cell proliferation. Acute-on-chronic liver disease is a frequent clinical<br />
presentation <strong>of</strong> ALD, and is associated with a poor outcome. Malnutrition and recent exposure to alcohol<br />
have a negative influence on liver cell regeneration by influencing intracellular proliferative pathways. In<br />
patients with decompensated ALD and biopsy-proven alcoholic ASH, supportive (N-acetylcystein, calories,<br />
vitamins, alcohol abstinence) and anti-inflammatory strategies (corticosteroids) improve short-term survival<br />
but overall prognosis remains poor with a 3-month mortality around 25%. Thus, new strategies to stimulate<br />
liver regeneration and improve function are needed. As liver transplantation is <strong>of</strong>ten not an option at this<br />
stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disease, a minimally invasive regenerative strategy would be welcome.<br />
BONE MARROW CELLS AND LIVER REGENERATION<br />
It has been shown that a subpopulation <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes and cholangiocytes may derive from <strong>the</strong> bone<br />
marrow [1]. Under particular experimental conditions with strong selective pressure (<strong>for</strong> example<br />
immunodeficient animals subject to sublethal liver injury followed by bone marrow transplantation,<br />
fumarylacetatoacetate hydrolase (FAH) deficiency, exposition to hepatotoxin such as retrorsin or carbon<br />
tetrachloride ), hepatocytes <strong>of</strong> bone marrow origin may participate in liver cell repopulation. However, <strong>the</strong><br />
precise mechanisms underlying <strong>the</strong> beneficial effect <strong>of</strong> this promising approach are still under investigation.<br />
Firstly, bone marrow-derived pluripotent cells include hematopoietic and mesenchymal stem cells, as well<br />
as endo<strong>the</strong>lial progenitor cells, and <strong>the</strong> relative contribution <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se cellular contingents in liver<br />
repair is ill defined. Secondly, <strong>the</strong>re is much controversy concerning <strong>the</strong> mechanism by which BM-derived<br />
stem cells contribute to liver regeneration (cell fusion, transdifferentiation, local stimulation <strong>of</strong> endogenous<br />
liver cell progenitors, production <strong>of</strong> cytokines and growth factors, remodelling <strong>of</strong> fibrous tissue). Thirdly, <strong>the</strong><br />
mechanisms driving <strong>the</strong>se BM-derived stem cells to <strong>the</strong> site <strong>of</strong> liver injury probably involves multiple factors,<br />
including stromal-derived factor-1 (ie: SDF-1 binding to CXR4 present on HSC surface). Fourthly, <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong><br />
engraftment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se cells in <strong>the</strong> diseased liver is difficult to determine, and seems to vary according to <strong>the</strong><br />
experimental model (< 1% to 50%). Finally, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> administration <strong>of</strong> G-CSF (to mobilize BM cells and<br />
promote growth factors production), is crucial in governing successful tissue repair is not yet determined.<br />
Regarding safety, <strong>the</strong> small size <strong>of</strong> BM stem cells avoids <strong>the</strong>m to be trapped within <strong>the</strong> sinusoids with <strong>the</strong><br />
potential risk <strong>of</strong> aggregation, ischemia, and increased portal pressure, but <strong>the</strong>re are some concerns about<br />
<strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> inducing cancer (particularly in culture-expanded cells) and <strong>the</strong> promotion <strong>of</strong> fibrosis (due to <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> my<strong>of</strong>ibroblasts among BM cells).<br />
IS BM CELLS MOBILIZATION USING G-CSF ASSOCIATED WITH LIVER REGENERATION<br />
Experimental studies<br />
Animals exposed to various, severe, <strong>of</strong>ten sublethal liver injury (but not related to alcohol) have demonstrated<br />
an improved survival and less severe histological lesions when G-CSF was co-administered [2]. In a<br />
combined toxic liver injury and partial hepatectomy model, G-CSF induced a strong proliferative activity<br />
<strong>of</strong> oval cells (<strong>the</strong> intrahepatic progenitors), as well as <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> a subpopulation <strong>of</strong> hepatocytes<br />
originating in <strong>the</strong> bone marrow [3]. Thus, G-CSF seems to improve liver regeneration via both direct (<strong>the</strong><br />
liver stem cell niche) and indirect (contribution to <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> bone marrow-derived hepatocytes)<br />
mechanisms. It has also been suggested that G-CSF may contribute to <strong>the</strong> homing <strong>of</strong> bone marrow cells<br />
to <strong>the</strong> injured liver.<br />
Clinical studies<br />
Transposition <strong>of</strong> experimental data with G-CSF into clinical studies with cirrhotics is challenging, with regard<br />
to tolerance (musculoskeletal pain, fever, allergic reactions) and potentially severe side effects (rare cases<br />
<strong>of</strong> splenic rupture). In a small uncontrolled pilot study [4] on advanced cirrhosis (Child-Pugh > 9) <strong>of</strong> mixed<br />
aetiology, subcutaneous administration <strong>of</strong> G-CSF (5 ug/kg twice a day <strong>for</strong> 3 days) was associated with<br />
increased circulating levels <strong>of</strong> CD34+ mobilized BM cells. Tolerance was excellent, although transient<br />
increase in spleen size was reported during treatment. These results were confirmed in a larger group <strong>of</strong><br />
patients with acute decompensated cirrhosis, using ei<strong>the</strong>r a 5 ug/kg/day or a 15 ug/kg/day dose <strong>for</strong> 5 days,<br />
and increased circulating CD34+ cells were associated with a production <strong>of</strong> stromal cell derived factor<br />
(SDF-1), a potent chemo attractant <strong>of</strong> hematopoietic progenitor cells, as well as <strong>the</strong> growth factor VEGF [5].<br />
However, <strong>the</strong>se biological effects didn’t translate into clinical improvement over a 3-week period. To fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
explore <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> G-CSF in decompensated cirrhosis, we per<strong>for</strong>med a randomized trial to study <strong>the</strong> shortterm<br />
effect on liver regeneration in patients with decompensated ALD and superimposed ASH (median<br />
Child-Pugh score <strong>of</strong> 10) [6]. Using a 5-day course <strong>of</strong> 10 ug/kg/day G-CSF treatment, circulating CD34+<br />
hematopoietic stem cells were detectable in G-CSF treated patients, but <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> CD34+ cells was<br />
lower than <strong>the</strong> value obtained in healthy stem cells donors. Using a double immunostaining methods <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
proliferation marker MiB1 and cytokeratin 7 and 18 (immunoreactivity <strong>for</strong> hepatic progenitors and mature<br />
hepatocyte, respectively) per<strong>for</strong>med on baseline and a repeat liver biopsy at day 7, we demonstrated a<br />
significant increase in MiB1+/CK7+ and MiB1+/CK18+ hepatic cells in liver biopsy specimen limited to<br />
G-CSF-treated patients. In addition, changes in circulating CD34+ and MiB1+/CK7+ in liver tissue between<br />
baseline and day-7 values showed a positive correlation (r = 0.65, p < 0.03). Again, <strong>the</strong>se encouraging<br />
results on liver cell proliferation were not associated with any benefits in terms <strong>of</strong> liver function over a<br />
4-week study period.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
154 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 155<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure: evolution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> proliferating hepatic progenitors (MiB1+/CK7+ cells) and mature<br />
hepatocytes (MiB1+/CK18+ cells), expressed as % changes in <strong>the</strong> liver biopsy repeated at day 7 in both<br />
G-CSF treated and non treated patients with cirrhosis and ASH [6]<br />
Taken toge<strong>the</strong>r, G-CSF administration in patients with cirrhosis is well tolerated, is associated with signs<br />
<strong>of</strong> BM derived cell mobilization, and stimulates <strong>the</strong> proliferation <strong>of</strong> hepatic progenitors on <strong>the</strong> short term in<br />
decompensated alcoholics. However, no improvement in liver function was evident over a 4-week period.<br />
Harb (2009)<br />
Li (2010)<br />
Monocrotaline +<br />
radiation in rats<br />
Radiation injury in<br />
mice<br />
No G-CSF<br />
5 x 10 6 unsorted BM<br />
Cells<br />
G-CSF +<br />
10 5 CD34+ cells<br />
Tail vein<br />
Tail vein<br />
Improved liver repair<br />
via SEC <strong>of</strong> BM origin<br />
Improved liver repair<br />
Abbreviation: SEC: sinusoidal endo<strong>the</strong>lial cell; NOD-SCID: non obese diabetic severe combined<br />
immunodeficiency<br />
IS G-CSF FOLLOWED BY BM STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION ASSOCIATED WITH LIVER<br />
REGENERATION<br />
Experimental studies<br />
Transplantation <strong>of</strong> bone marrow derived cells (ei<strong>the</strong>r hematopoietic, mesenchymal, or endo<strong>the</strong>lial progenitors)<br />
may contribute to liver repair in acute liver injury models [7] [8] [9] [10]. Due to great variability between<br />
studies (design, type <strong>of</strong> liver injury, use <strong>of</strong> G-CSF, protocols <strong>for</strong> cellular isolation and characterization, etc..)<br />
and real life situations (fibrosis, repeated episodes <strong>of</strong> liver injury, bone marrow exhaustion, etc..), results<br />
should be interpreted with caution.<br />
Table 1: Selected list <strong>of</strong> experimental studies <strong>of</strong> bone marrow derived cells transplantation<br />
Author (yr)<br />
Terai (2003)<br />
Kuo (2008)<br />
Piscaglia (2007)<br />
Model<br />
CCl 4<br />
in mice<br />
CCl 4<br />
in NOD-SCID<br />
mice<br />
Radiation injury in<br />
rats<br />
Transplantation<br />
protocol<br />
No G-CSF<br />
10 5 unsorted BM<br />
Cells<br />
No G-CSF<br />
1.4 x 10 6 MSC/kg<br />
G-CSF +<br />
5 x 10 7 unsorted BM<br />
Cells<br />
Route<br />
Tail vein<br />
Intravenous<br />
Tail vein<br />
Outcome<br />
Evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
transdifferentiation<br />
25% repopulation <strong>of</strong><br />
damaged liver<br />
Stimulation <strong>of</strong><br />
endogenous<br />
hepatocyte<br />
proliferation<br />
Endogenous oval cell<br />
stimulation<br />
Improved liver repair<br />
Clinical studies<br />
Clinical studies with autologous BM derived stem cells have reported some benefits in terms <strong>of</strong> biological and<br />
clinical parameters (serum bilirubin, albumin, coagulopathy, ascites), but <strong>the</strong> vast majority are uncontrolled<br />
and only few recent trials have included a control group [11] [12-14]. To optimize <strong>the</strong> potential benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
BM-derived pluripotent cells, unsorted mononuclear cells (including both hematopoietic and mesenchymal<br />
stem cells) are used. Table 3 summarizes <strong>the</strong> results issued from 3 RCT[15-17]. In a Chinese study <strong>of</strong><br />
decompensated hepatitis B patients[17] (mean MELD score <strong>of</strong> 30; mean number <strong>of</strong> BM cells 3.4 x 10e8),<br />
a significant improvement in MELD score was observed during several weeks after treatment, while<br />
autologous BM transplant in decompensated alcoholics (mean MELD score <strong>of</strong> 19; mean number <strong>of</strong> BM<br />
cells/kg: 10e8) was not associated with any benefits in terms <strong>of</strong> liver function over 3 months <strong>of</strong> follow-up[16].<br />
Thus, autologous BM stem cell <strong>the</strong>rapy seems relatively well tolerated without severe side effects, and is<br />
associated with ei<strong>the</strong>r a modest and transient improvement in liver function or with no benefit as compared<br />
to standard <strong>of</strong> care alone.<br />
Table 2: Selected list <strong>of</strong> uncontrolled clinical studies <strong>of</strong> autologous BM- derived cells transplantation<br />
in chronic liver disease<br />
Author (yr) Pts (n) Clinical setting Protocol Route Outcome<br />
Terai (2006) 9<br />
Gordon (2006) 5<br />
Mohamadnejad<br />
(2007)<br />
4<br />
Pai (2008) 9<br />
Viral compensated<br />
cirrhosis<br />
Cirrhosis<br />
(4 = alcoholic)<br />
Decompensated<br />
cirrhosis (mixed<br />
etiology)<br />
Abstinent alcoholic<br />
cirrhosis<br />
No G-CSF<br />
BMA+<br />
78 x 10 9<br />
MNC<br />
G-CSF+<br />
No BMA<br />
10 6 -10 8<br />
CD34+ cells<br />
No G-CSF<br />
BMA+<br />
3 x 10 6<br />
CD34+ cells<br />
G-CSF +<br />
No BMA<br />
2 x 10 8<br />
MNC<br />
Peripheral<br />
vein<br />
PV = 3<br />
HA = 2<br />
HA<br />
HA<br />
Improved Child-Pugh<br />
score at 6 months<br />
Modest improvement<br />
in biological<br />
parameters<br />
Major side effect<br />
Improvement in<br />
Child-Pugh score at 3<br />
months
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
156 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 157<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Table 3 : Controlled clinical studies <strong>of</strong> autologous BM- derived cells transplantation in chronic liver<br />
disease<br />
Abbreviations: BM: bone marrow; ALD: alcoholic liver disease; ASH: alcoholic steatohepatitis; G-CSF:<br />
granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; RCT: randomized controlled trial<br />
Author (yr) Patients (n) Clinical setting Protocol Route Outcome<br />
Lyra<br />
(2010)<br />
Peng (2011) 53<br />
Spahr (2011) 28<br />
15 Cirrhosis on LT list<br />
Decompensated<br />
chronic Hep B<br />
Decompensated<br />
alcoholic liver<br />
disease<br />
No G-CSF<br />
BMA+<br />
No G-CSF<br />
BMA+<br />
3.4 x 10 8 MNC<br />
G-CSF +<br />
BMA+<br />
0.47 x 10 8 MNC/k<br />
HA<br />
HA<br />
HA<br />
Transient<br />
improvement in<br />
bilirubin<br />
Transient<br />
improvement in MELD<br />
score<br />
No benefit<br />
Abbreviation: BMA: bone marrow aspiration; MNC: mononuclear cells; HA: hepatic artery; PV: portal vein<br />
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES<br />
BM stem cell <strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>of</strong>fers <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>for</strong> a novel approach to liver regeneration. Based on available<br />
data, <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> BM-derived stem cells to liver repair seems marginal, and <strong>the</strong> mechanisms are<br />
incompletely understood. RCTs in patients with decompensated liver disease suggest that autologous BMC<br />
transplantation is safe and may transiently improve clinical and biological parameters. The aetiology <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
disease may account <strong>for</strong> differences in <strong>the</strong> response to stem cell <strong>the</strong>rapy, as patients with decompensated<br />
ALD don’t derive any benefits in terms <strong>of</strong> liver function compared to standard <strong>of</strong> care treatment. Future<br />
studies should better characterize <strong>the</strong> efficiency <strong>of</strong> G-CSF and BM stem cell <strong>the</strong>rapy in <strong>the</strong> regeneration/<br />
repair mechanisms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> injured alcoholic liver, and explore <strong>the</strong> fate and potential <strong>of</strong> transplanted cells.<br />
Figure: evolution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> MELD score in patients with decompensated ALD (n=58) (ref 21)<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Theise, N.D., et al., <strong>Liver</strong> from bone marrow in humans. Hepatology, 2000. 32(1): p. 11-6.<br />
Yannaki, E., et al., G-CSF-primed hematopoietic stem cells or G-CSF per se accelerate recovery<br />
and improve survival after liver injury, predominantly by promoting endogenous repair programs.<br />
Experimental hematology, 2005. 33(1): p. 108-19.<br />
Piscaglia, A.C., et al., Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor promotes liver repair<br />
and induces oval cell migration and proliferation in rats. Gastroenterology, 2007. 133(2): p. 619-31.<br />
Gaia, S., et al., Feasibility and safety <strong>of</strong> G-CSF administration to induce bone marrow-derived<br />
cells mobilization in patients with end stage liver disease. Journal <strong>of</strong> hepatology, 2006. 45(1):<br />
p. 13-9.<br />
Di Campli, C., et al., Safety and efficacy pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> G-CSF <strong>the</strong>rapy in patients with acute<br />
on chronic liver failure. Digestive and liver disease : <strong>of</strong>ficial journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Italian Society<br />
<strong>of</strong> Gastroenterology and <strong>the</strong> Italian <strong>Association</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Liver</strong>, 2007. 39(12): p. 1071-6.<br />
Spahr, L., et al., Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor induces proliferation <strong>of</strong> hepatic<br />
progenitors in alcoholic steatohepatitis: a randomized trial. Hepatology, 2008. 48(1): p. 221-9.<br />
Terai, S., et al., An in vivo model <strong>for</strong> monitoring trans-differentiation <strong>of</strong> bone marrow cells<br />
into functional hepatocytes. Journal <strong>of</strong> biochemistry, 2003. 134(4): p. 551-8.<br />
Kuo, T.K., et al., Stem cell <strong>the</strong>rapy <strong>for</strong> liver disease: parameters governing <strong>the</strong> success<br />
<strong>of</strong> using bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Gastroenterology, 2008. 134(7):<br />
p. 2111-21, 2121 e1-3.<br />
Harb, R., et al., Bone marrow progenitor cells repair rat hepatic sinusoidal endo<strong>the</strong>lial<br />
cells after liver injury. Gastroenterology, 2009. 137(2): p. 704-12.<br />
Li, N., et al., Human CD34+ cells mobilized by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor<br />
ameliorate radiation-induced liver damage in mice. Stem cell research & <strong>the</strong>rapy, 2010. 1(3): p. 22.<br />
Terai, S., et al., Improved liver function in patients with liver cirrhosis after autologous<br />
bone marrow cell infusion <strong>the</strong>rapy. Stem cells, 2006. 24(10): p. 2292-8.<br />
Gordon, M.Y., et al., Characterization and clinical application <strong>of</strong> human CD34+ stem/progenitor<br />
cell populations mobilized into <strong>the</strong> blood by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Stem cells,<br />
2006. 24(7): p. 1822-30.<br />
Mohamadnejad, M., et al., Phase 1 human trial <strong>of</strong> autologous bone marrow-hematopoietic<br />
stem cell transplantation in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. World journal<br />
<strong>of</strong> gastroenterology : WJG, 2007. 13(24): p. 3359-63.<br />
Pai, M., et al., Autologous infusion <strong>of</strong> expanded mobilized adult bone marrow-derived<br />
CD34+ cells into patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis. The American journal <strong>of</strong> gastroenterology,<br />
2008. 103(8): p. 1952-8.<br />
Lyra, A.C., et al., Infusion <strong>of</strong> autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells through hepatic<br />
artery results in a short-term improvement <strong>of</strong> liver function in patients with chronic liver disease:<br />
a pilot randomized controlled study. <strong>European</strong> journal <strong>of</strong> gastroenterology & hepatology,<br />
2010. 22(1): p. 33-42.<br />
Spahr, L. et al. Autologous bone marrow stem cell transplantation versus standard<br />
<strong>of</strong> care in patients with decompensated alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology, 2011. 54(S1): p. A62.<br />
Peng, L., et al., Autologous bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in liver<br />
failure patients caused by hepatitis B: Short-term and long-term outcomes.<br />
Hepatology, 2011.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
158 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 159<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
CURRENT POLICIES TO REDUCE THE HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL<br />
Peter Anderson<br />
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK<br />
E-mail: peteranderson.mail@gmail.com<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• A substantive evidence base <strong>of</strong> systematic reviews and meta-analyses in<strong>for</strong>m effective alcohol<br />
policy.<br />
• Making alcohol more expensive and less available are highly cost-effective strategies to reduce<br />
harm.<br />
• Banning alcohol advertising and drink driving counter measures are also cost-effective.<br />
• Individually directed interventions to already at risk drinkers are cost-effective and should be<br />
widely implemented.<br />
• School-based education does not reduce harm, but public in<strong>for</strong>mation and education<br />
programmes can increase attention to alcohol on public and political agendas.<br />
HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL<br />
Both <strong>the</strong> volume <strong>of</strong> lifetime alcohol use and a combination <strong>of</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> drinking and amount drunk per<br />
drinking occasion increase <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related harm, largely in a dose-dependent manner. Surrogate<br />
and illegal alcohols can bring an extra health risk from high ethanol levels and toxic contaminants, such as<br />
methanol and lead, <strong>of</strong>ten compounded by social marginalization.<br />
Alcohol is an intoxicant affecting a wide range <strong>of</strong> structures and processes in <strong>the</strong> central nervous system<br />
which, interacting with personality characteristics, associated behaviour and sociocultural expectations, are<br />
causal factors <strong>for</strong> intentional and unintentional injuries and harm to people o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> drinker, including<br />
interpersonal violence, suicide, homicide, crime and drink-driving fatalities, and a contributory factor <strong>for</strong><br />
risky sexual behaviour, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection. Alcohol is a potent teratogen with a<br />
range <strong>of</strong> negative outcomes to <strong>the</strong> foetus, including low birth weight, cognitive deficiencies and foetal alcohol<br />
disorders. Alcohol is neurotoxic to brain development, leading in adolescence to structural hippocampal<br />
changes and, in middle age, to reduced brain volume. Alcohol is a dependence-producing drug, similar to<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r substances under international control, through its rein<strong>for</strong>cing properties and neuroadaptation in <strong>the</strong><br />
brain. Alcohol is hepatotoxic, causing between 75% and 80% <strong>of</strong> all liver cirrhosis in Europe; this is attributed<br />
to a relatively low prevalence <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r risk factors <strong>for</strong> this disease in Europe, and, as a consequence, trends in<br />
liver cirrhosis mortality rates follow closely trends in alcohol consumption. Alcohol is an immunosuppressant,<br />
increasing <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> communicable diseases, including tuberculosis. Alcoholic beverages are classified<br />
as a carcinogen by <strong>the</strong> International Agency <strong>for</strong> Research on Cancer, increasing <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> cancers <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> oral cavity and pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, colon, rectum and breast in a linear dose–response<br />
relationship. Alcohol has a bi-<strong>for</strong>m relationship with coronary heart disease. In low and apparently regular<br />
doses, it appears to be cardio-protective, but at high doses, particularly when consumed in an irregular<br />
fashion, it is cardio-toxic. The lifetime risk <strong>of</strong> dying <strong>for</strong>m an alcohol-related injury across <strong>the</strong> total <strong>European</strong><br />
population over 15 years old increases exponentially with increasing daily alcohol consumption beyond 10g<br />
alcohol per day, <strong>the</strong> first data point, Figure 1. At any given level <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption, <strong>the</strong> risks are much<br />
higher <strong>for</strong> men than <strong>for</strong> women.<br />
Figure 1 Absolute annual risk <strong>of</strong> death from alcohol-related diseases, <strong>European</strong> Region <strong>of</strong> WHO.<br />
The WHO <strong>European</strong> Region has <strong>the</strong> highest proportion <strong>of</strong> total ill health and premature deaths due to<br />
alcohol in <strong>the</strong> world, as measured by disability adjusted life years (DALYs), where one DALY is a year<br />
<strong>of</strong> ill-health or premature death, measuring a gap between present health status and what could best<br />
be achieved. Eighteen per cent and 5% <strong>of</strong> all female <strong>of</strong> all male ill-health and premature death is due to<br />
alcohol (world average, 7% and 1% respectively). The social cost <strong>of</strong> alcohol to <strong>the</strong> WHO <strong>European</strong> Region<br />
as a whole is not known. However, based on <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> 21 <strong>European</strong> studies, <strong>the</strong> total tangible cost <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol to <strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> Union as it existed in 2003, was estimated to be €125 billion (range <strong>of</strong> estimates:<br />
€79–220 billion), equivalent to 1.3% <strong>of</strong> gross domestic product (0.9–2.4%). Actual spending on alcoholrelated<br />
problems accounts <strong>for</strong> €66 billion <strong>of</strong> this, while potential production not realized due to absenteeism,<br />
unemployment and premature mortality accounts <strong>for</strong> a fur<strong>the</strong>r €59 billion. There are enormous differences<br />
in life expectancy between different parts <strong>of</strong> Europe, and this has been most comprehensively studied in<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>European</strong> Union, where, about 25% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> difference in life expectancy between western and eastern<br />
Europe <strong>for</strong> men aged 20–64 years in 2002 is attributed to alcohol, largely as a result <strong>of</strong> differences in heavy<br />
episodic drinking patterns, and deaths from cardiovascular diseases and injuries.<br />
EFFECTIVE POLICIES TO REDUCE THE HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL<br />
A summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> estimated cost and impact <strong>of</strong> different interventions, compared to a Europe with none <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se policies is shown in Table 1, with an estimate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cost per DALY saved.<br />
Pricing policies<br />
Drinkers respond to changes in <strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> alcohol as <strong>the</strong>y do to changes in <strong>the</strong> prices <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r consumer<br />
products. When o<strong>the</strong>r factors are held constant, such as income and <strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r goods, a rise in<br />
alcohol prices leads to less alcohol consumption and less alcohol-related harm, and vice versa. Given<br />
that demand <strong>for</strong> alcohol is usually found to be relatively inelastic to price, increasing alcohol taxes not<br />
only reduces alcohol consumption and related harm but increases government revenue at <strong>the</strong> same time,<br />
noting that in general, alcohol taxes are well below <strong>the</strong>ir maximum revenue-producing potential and that <strong>the</strong><br />
revenue collected is usually well below <strong>the</strong> social costs <strong>of</strong> alcohol. Beverage elasticities are generally lower<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> preferred beverage in a particular market and tend to decrease with higher levels <strong>of</strong> consumption.<br />
Controlling <strong>for</strong> overall consumption, beverage preferences and time period, consumer responses to changes
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
160 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 161<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
in <strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> alcoholic beverages are found not to vary by country. Policies that increase alcohol prices<br />
delay <strong>the</strong> time when young people start to drink, slow <strong>the</strong>ir progression towards drinking larger amounts, and<br />
reduce <strong>the</strong>ir heavy drinking and <strong>the</strong> volume <strong>of</strong> alcohol drunk on each occasion. Price increases reduce <strong>the</strong><br />
harm caused by alcohol, which is an indicator that heavier drinking has been reduced. Setting a minimum<br />
price per gram <strong>of</strong> alcohol can be as effective as an across-<strong>the</strong>-board tax increase, with both options<br />
increasing <strong>the</strong> cost to heavy consumers far in excess <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cost to light consumers. Natural experiments in<br />
Europe consequent to economic treaties have shown that as alcohol taxes and prices have been lowered,<br />
so sales and alcohol consumption have usually increased. Table 1 shows that tax increases (<strong>of</strong> 20% or<br />
even 50%) are highly cost-effective throughout Europe. Even accounting <strong>for</strong> longer life, and thus potentially<br />
increased social welfare costs, taxation remains a highly cost-effective alcohol policy option. As discussed<br />
above, <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> alcohol tax increases could be mitigated by illegal production, tax evasion and illegal<br />
trading, which accounts <strong>for</strong> approximately 12% <strong>of</strong> all consumption in Eur-A countries and 40% in Eur-B and<br />
Eur-C countries. Reducing this unrecorded consumption (by 20–50%) via concerted tax en<strong>for</strong>cement ef<strong>for</strong>ts<br />
is estimated to cost 50–100% more than a tax increase but produces similar levels <strong>of</strong> effect. In settings with<br />
higher levels <strong>of</strong> unrecorded production and consumption, increasing <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> consumption that is<br />
taxed (and <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e more costly to <strong>the</strong> price-sensitive consumer) may represent a more effective pricing<br />
policy than a simple increase in excise tax, which may only encourage fur<strong>the</strong>r illegal production, smuggling<br />
and cross-border purchases.<br />
Table 1 Costs, impact and cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong> different policy options in Europe<br />
a) Implementation cost in 2005 international dollars (millions).<br />
b) Cost–effectiveness ratio, expressed in terms <strong>of</strong> international dollars per DALY saved.<br />
c) Not applicable because <strong>the</strong> effect size is not significantly different from zero (<strong>the</strong> cost–effectiveness ratio<br />
would <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e approach infinity).<br />
MARKETING OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong>ir methodological difficulties, econometric studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> link between alcohol advertising and<br />
consumption have found effects <strong>of</strong> alcohol advertising on behaviour, although not across all studies. The<br />
strongest evidence comes from longitudinal studies that have shown an impact <strong>of</strong> various <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> alcohol<br />
marketing, including exposure to alcohol advertising in <strong>the</strong> traditional media as well as promotion in <strong>the</strong><br />
contents <strong>of</strong> films and via alcohol-branded merchandise, on when young people start to drink and on riskier<br />
patterns <strong>of</strong> drinking by young people. The effects <strong>of</strong> exposure seem to be cumulative; in markets where<br />
alcohol is more widely advertised young people are more likely to continue to increase <strong>the</strong>ir drinking as<br />
<strong>the</strong>y move into <strong>the</strong>ir mid-twenties, whereas drinking declines at an earlier age among those who are less<br />
exposed. These findings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> impact that advertising can have on young people’s behaviour are supported<br />
by experimental studies, and are in keeping with research on young people’s smoking and children’s food<br />
preferences. In some jurisdictions, alcohol marketing relies on self-regulation by economic operators,<br />
including in advertising, <strong>the</strong> media and by alcohol producers. Evidence from a number <strong>of</strong> studies shows<br />
that <strong>the</strong>se voluntary systems do not, however, prevent <strong>the</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> marketing that has an impact on younger<br />
people. It should be noted that a total marketing strategy is multilevel, including not only marketing and<br />
promotional activities but also product development, pricing, physical availability, and market segmentation<br />
and targeting. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, while alcohol is marketed through increasingly sophisticated advertising in <strong>the</strong>
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
162 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 163<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
mainstream media, it is also promoted by linking alcohol brands to sports and cultural activities through<br />
sponsorships and product placements, and by direct marketing using new technologies such as <strong>the</strong> internet,<br />
podcasting and mobile telephones.<br />
ADDRESSING THE AVAILABILITY OF ALCOHOL<br />
Government monopolies on <strong>the</strong> sale <strong>of</strong> alcohol can reduce alcohol-related harm. Such systems tend to have<br />
fewer outlets open <strong>for</strong> shorter hours than private retailers. A licensing system <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> sale <strong>of</strong> alcohol allows<br />
<strong>for</strong> control, since infringement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> laws can be punished by revocation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> licence. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand,<br />
a licensing system with fees generated from licences can lead to a proliferation <strong>of</strong> licensed establishments<br />
as an income-generating mechanism <strong>for</strong> jurisdictions. The implementation <strong>of</strong> laws setting a minimum age<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> purchase <strong>of</strong> alcohol shows clear reductions in drink-driving casualties and o<strong>the</strong>r alcohol-related<br />
harms. The most effective means <strong>of</strong> en<strong>for</strong>cement is on sellers, who have a vested interest in retaining <strong>the</strong><br />
right to sell alcohol. In general, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> alcohol outlets is related to <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> alcohol-related harm,<br />
which is strongest when <strong>the</strong>re are major changes in <strong>the</strong> number or type <strong>of</strong> such outlets. A greater density <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol outlets is associated with higher alcohol consumption among young people, with increased levels <strong>of</strong><br />
assault and with o<strong>the</strong>r harms such as homicide, child abuse and neglect, self-inflicted injury and, with less<br />
consistent evidence, road traffic accidents. While extending <strong>the</strong> times <strong>of</strong> sale can redistribute <strong>the</strong> times when<br />
many alcohol-related incidents occur, such extensions generally do not reduce <strong>the</strong> rates <strong>of</strong> violent incidents<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten lead to an overall increase in consumption with association problems. Reducing <strong>the</strong> hours or days<br />
<strong>of</strong> sale <strong>of</strong> alcoholic beverages leads to fewer alcohol-related problems, including homicides and assaults.<br />
Strict restrictions on availability can create an opportunity <strong>for</strong> a parallel illicit market, although in <strong>the</strong> absence<br />
<strong>of</strong> substantial home or illicit production, this can in most circumstances be managed with en<strong>for</strong>cement.<br />
Where a large illicit market exists, licence-en<strong>for</strong>ced restrictions may increase <strong>the</strong> competitiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
alternative market, and this will need to be taken into account in policy-making.<br />
harmful alcohol consumption are one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most cost-effective <strong>of</strong> all health service interventions in leading<br />
to health gain.<br />
RAISING AWARENESS<br />
While <strong>the</strong> provision <strong>of</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mation and education is important to raise awareness and impart knowledge,<br />
by <strong>the</strong>mselves in<strong>for</strong>mation and education do not lead to sustained changes in alcohol-related behaviour.<br />
Education can, however, be a tool <strong>for</strong> awareness and raising support, and an important feature <strong>of</strong> a broader<br />
alcohol strategy. Campaigns and health education messages funded by <strong>the</strong> alcohol industry seem to<br />
have negative effects, serving to advance <strong>the</strong> interests <strong>of</strong> both <strong>the</strong> industry’s sales and public relations.<br />
Although warning labels have little impact on behaviour, <strong>the</strong>y are important in helping to establish a social<br />
understanding that alcohol is a special and hazardous commodity.<br />
OVERVIEW OF EFFECTIVE POLICIES TO REDUCE THE HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL<br />
Essentially, those policies that regulate <strong>the</strong> environment in which alcohol is marketed (economic and physical<br />
availability) are effective in reducing alcohol-related harm, Table 2. En<strong>for</strong>ced legislative measures to reduce<br />
drinking and driving are effective, as are individually-directed interventions to already at-risk drinkers. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> contrary, <strong>the</strong> evidence shows that in<strong>for</strong>mation and education-type programmes do not reduce alcoholrelated<br />
harm, although <strong>the</strong>y have a role in providing in<strong>for</strong>mation, reframing alcohol-related problems, and<br />
increasing attention to and acceptance <strong>of</strong> alcohol on <strong>the</strong> political and public agendas.<br />
Table 2 Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> effectiveness <strong>of</strong> alcohol policies<br />
DRINK-DRIVING POLICIES AND COUNTERMEASURES<br />
The setting <strong>of</strong> a legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) level <strong>for</strong> driving and lowering it is effective in<br />
reducing drink-driving casualties. Intensive random breath-testing, where police regularly stop drivers on a<br />
random basis to check <strong>the</strong>ir BAC level, and checkpoints where all cars are stopped and drivers suspected <strong>of</strong><br />
drink-driving are breath-tested, do reduce alcohol-related injuries and fatalities. There is evidence <strong>for</strong> some<br />
effectiveness in setting lower BAC levels, including a zero level, <strong>for</strong> young or novice drivers, administrative<br />
suspension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> driver’s licence <strong>for</strong> a driver caught with a positive BAC level, and mandatory treatment<br />
and <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> an ignition interlock (a mechanical device which does not allow a car to be driven by a driver<br />
with a BAC above a low level) <strong>for</strong> repeat drink-drivers. In contrast, <strong>the</strong>re is evidence that designated driver<br />
schemes have no effect.<br />
RESPONSE OF THE HEALTH SECTOR<br />
There is a clear gap in <strong>the</strong> potential contribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> health sector’s response in reducing <strong>the</strong> harm done<br />
by alcohol. In primary health care settings, commonly less than 10% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population at risk <strong>of</strong> becoming<br />
hazardous and harmful drinkers are identified and less than 5% <strong>of</strong> those who could benefit are <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
brief interventions. A 2004 needs assessment study in England found that only 1 in 18 (5.6%) <strong>of</strong> alcoholdependent<br />
drinkers actually accessed treatment each year, with regional variations ranging from 1 in 102<br />
to 1 in 12. The health sector work<strong>for</strong>ce in Europe is an enormous resource with great potential. Disorders<br />
related to alcohol use are included as mental and behavioural disorders within <strong>the</strong> ICD-10 classification<br />
<strong>of</strong> mental and behavioural disorders, and <strong>the</strong>re is a legal imperative to provide help and treatment <strong>for</strong><br />
alcohol use disorders. Brief advice heads <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> effective and cost-effective evidence-based treatment<br />
methods. Much is now also understood about <strong>the</strong> mechanisms <strong>for</strong> implementing brief advice programmes<br />
countrywide. For individuals with more severe alcohol dependence and related problems, a wide variety <strong>of</strong><br />
specialized treatment approaches have been evaluated with evidence <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir effectiveness <strong>for</strong> behavioural<br />
and pharmacological <strong>the</strong>rapies. Table 1 shows that <strong>the</strong> cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong> brief interventions is not as<br />
favourable as <strong>the</strong> population-level policy instruments summarized above, because <strong>the</strong>y require direct<br />
contact with health care pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and services. Although brief interventions are <strong>the</strong> most expensive to<br />
implement, it should be noted that within health service expenditure, brief interventions <strong>for</strong> hazardous and
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
164 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 165<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Anderson P, Baumberg B. Alcohol in Europe. London, Institute <strong>of</strong> Alcohol Studies, 2006<br />
(http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determinants/life_style/alcohol/documents/alcohol_europe.pdf.<br />
Accessed 30 June 2009).<br />
Rehm, J, Ma<strong>the</strong>rs, C, Popova, S, Thavorncharoensap, M, Teerawattananon, Y, Patra,<br />
J. Global burden <strong>of</strong> disease and injury and economic cost attributable to alcohol use<br />
and alcohol use disorders. Lancet 2009; 373(9682): 2223-2233.<br />
Anderson P, Chisholm D, Fuhr DC. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong> policies<br />
and programmes to reduce <strong>the</strong> harm caused by alcohol. Lancet 2009; 373: 2234–46.<br />
Anderson, P. Evidence <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> effectiveness and cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong> interventions to reduce<br />
alcohol-related harm. Copenhagen, World Health Organization Regional Office <strong>for</strong> Europe, 2009.<br />
Babor T, Caetano R, Casswell S, Edwards G, Giesbrecht N, Graham K, et al. Alcohol:<br />
No ordinary commodity (Second Edition). Ox<strong>for</strong>d, Ox<strong>for</strong>d University Press, 2010.<br />
Casswell S, Thamarangsi T. Reducing <strong>the</strong> harm from alcohol: call to action.<br />
Lancet 2009; 373: 2247–57.<br />
Gordon, R. & Anderson, P. Science and alcohol policy: A case study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> EU Strategy<br />
on Alcohol. Addiction 2011 106 Supplement 55-66.<br />
Rehm J, Anderson P, Kanteres F, Parry CD, Samokhvalov AV, & Patra J. Alcohol,<br />
social development and infectious disease. 978-1-77052-444-6. Toronto, ON: Centre <strong>for</strong> Addiction<br />
and Mental Health, 2009<br />
Rehm J, Baliunas D, Borges GLG, Graham K, Irving HM, et al. The relation between different<br />
dimensions <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption and burden <strong>of</strong> disease - an overview. Addiction 2010;<br />
105: 817-843<br />
World Health Organization. Handbook <strong>for</strong> action to reduce alcohol-related harm.<br />
Copenhagen, World Health Organization Regional Office <strong>for</strong> Europe, 2009.<br />
ILLEGALLY PRODUCED SPIRITS IN EASTERN EUROPE: TO WHAT<br />
EXTENT AND AT WHAT RISK<br />
Dirk W. Lachenmeier<br />
Karlruhe, Germany<br />
E-Mail: Lachenmeier@web.de<br />
KEY POINTS<br />
• Unrecorded alcohol comprises homemade, illegally produced, or smuggled alcohol products<br />
as well as surrogate alcohol that is not <strong>of</strong>ficially intended <strong>for</strong> human consumption (e.g.,<br />
mouthwash, perfumes and eau-de-colognes).<br />
• Unrecorded alcohol consumption is highest in Eastern Europe.<br />
• Illegally produced spirits are <strong>of</strong>ten sold at higher alcoholic strength (>45% vol) but <strong>for</strong> half<br />
<strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> legal beverages, potentially leading to more detrimental patterns <strong>of</strong> drinking and<br />
overproportional rates <strong>of</strong> liver cirrhosis.<br />
• There is currently a lack <strong>of</strong> data to demonstrate causality between <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> illicit spirits<br />
(e.g., higher levels <strong>of</strong> certain contaminants in home-produced products) and liver toxicity on a<br />
population scale.<br />
• Polyhexamethyleneguanidine (PHMG) contained in surrogate alcohol (antiseptic liquids) from<br />
Russia was associated with an outbreak <strong>of</strong> acute cholestatic liver injury, histologically different<br />
from conventional alcoholic liver disease.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
In Central and Eastern Europe, large discrepancies can be found between recorded alcoholic beverage<br />
consumption and alcohol-related mortality (1). One example is Hungary, where mortality from liver disease<br />
is approximately fourfold that <strong>of</strong> countries with similar per capita consumption <strong>of</strong> alcohol (e.g. (2, 3)). One<br />
reason <strong>for</strong> this might be <strong>the</strong> particularly high unrecorded consumption (2).<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> high levels <strong>of</strong> unrecorded consumption in some countries (up to 40% <strong>of</strong> total consumption),<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are almost no data on long-term consequences, such as chronic diseases, which may stem specifically<br />
from unrecorded consumption. This is partially due to <strong>the</strong> fact that few people consume only unrecorded<br />
alcohol over time (4). Consider <strong>the</strong> example <strong>of</strong> a person who died <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver cirrhosis in Russia, and<br />
had been mainly consuming unrecorded alcohol products in his final years. Typically, he would have been<br />
drinking only recorded alcohol <strong>for</strong> some time be<strong>for</strong>e switching to surrogate alcohol <strong>for</strong> economic reasons<br />
when drinking became increasingly heavily (5). With this switch and subsequent exposure to ‘o<strong>the</strong>r’ <strong>for</strong>ms<br />
<strong>of</strong> alcohol, <strong>the</strong>re are three potential impacts (4):<br />
• The alcoholic liver cirrhosis would have taken exactly <strong>the</strong> same course<br />
• The alcoholic liver cirrhosis would have taken a different course, <strong>for</strong> example, later onset, longer duration,<br />
or no fatal outcome, if this person had consumed recorded alcohol only.<br />
• The alcoholic liver cirrhosis would not have occurred with consumption <strong>of</strong> recorded alcohol.<br />
It is extremely difficult to determine whe<strong>the</strong>r unrecorded consumption or mainly unrecorded consumption<br />
is causal in <strong>the</strong> onset <strong>of</strong> a chronic disease; i.e., whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> components which differ between recorded<br />
and unrecorded alcohol cause certain health consequences (6). As a result, few studies have investigated<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r unrecorded consumption causes health consequences over and above those <strong>of</strong> recorded<br />
consumption. Notably, such a study was conducted in India (7), wherein <strong>the</strong> authors concluded that<br />
unrecorded consumption (country liquor) was associated with a general risk <strong>of</strong> alcoholic liver disease,<br />
particularly alcoholic liver cirrhosis, despite having relatively low alcohol concentrations compared with <strong>the</strong><br />
local recorded type. However, this study was not well controlled, and <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e confounding by social status<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r factors cannot be excluded (4).
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
166 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 167<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Figure 1. Comparison <strong>of</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> unrecorded alcohol consumption and liver cirrhosis death rates<br />
in Europe <strong>for</strong> 2005 (data from WHO (8); no data available <strong>for</strong> uncoloured countries)<br />
Figure 2. Correlation between unrecorded consumption and liver cirrhosis mortality <strong>for</strong> countries<br />
worldwide (own calculation based on WHO data (8); <strong>the</strong> lower curve shows <strong>the</strong> result after controlling<br />
<strong>for</strong> heavy episodic drinking).<br />
In Figure 1, Hungary and Romania show high levels <strong>of</strong> unrecorded adult (15+) per capita alcohol consumption<br />
(4.0 litres <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol per year). For <strong>the</strong>se countries, liver cirrhosis rates (47 and 43 per 100,000 adult<br />
population <strong>for</strong> Hungary and Romania, respectively) were much higher than <strong>for</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>European</strong> countries<br />
(only <strong>the</strong> Republic <strong>of</strong> Moldova showed higher liver cirrhosis rates). Comparably low unrecorded alcohol<br />
consumption in France, Spain, and Switzerland (0.34, 1.4, and 0.50 litres <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol per year) were in<br />
agreement with liver cirrhosis rates in <strong>the</strong>se countries (less than 12 deaths per 100,000 adult population<br />
from alcoholic liver disease).<br />
INVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF UNRECORDED ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION ON LIVER<br />
CIRRHOSIS MORTALITY<br />
To provide fur<strong>the</strong>r insight into <strong>the</strong> connection between unrecorded alcohol consumption and liver cirrhosis,<br />
<strong>the</strong> following data was obtained from <strong>the</strong> WHO Global In<strong>for</strong>mation System on Alcohol and Health (GISAH)<br />
(8):<br />
• The age-standardised death rate (liver cirrhosis), defined as <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> individuals in a given<br />
population (100,000 people) who died from alcoholic liver disease during a calendar year (2005).<br />
Only adults (population above 15 years) were taken into account.<br />
• The levels <strong>of</strong> unrecorded and total consumption (in litres <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol) <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2005 and<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> population older than 15 years. Recorded alcohol consumption refers to <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics<br />
(production, import, export, and sales or taxation data), while unrecorded alcohol consumption<br />
refers to alcohol which is not taxed and is outside <strong>the</strong> usual system <strong>of</strong> governmental control, such<br />
as home- or in<strong>for</strong>mally-produced alcohol (legal or illegal), smuggled alcohol, surrogate alcohol<br />
(which is alcohol not intended <strong>for</strong> human consumption), or alcohol obtained through cross-border<br />
shopping (which is recorded in a different jurisdiction). The percentage <strong>of</strong> unrecorded alcohol<br />
consumption <strong>for</strong> each country was <strong>the</strong>n calculated from <strong>the</strong>se data.<br />
• Heavy episodic drinkers, defined as <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> adults (aged 15+) who have drunk at least<br />
60 grams (approximately 6 standard alcoholic drinks) or more <strong>of</strong> pure alcohol on at least one<br />
occasion weekly.<br />
• The data were evaluated using Origin V.7.5 (Originlab, Northampton, USA). Statistical correlation<br />
between <strong>the</strong> investigated parameters was evaluated using linear regression <strong>for</strong> all countries<br />
<strong>for</strong> which data was available. For all calculations, statistical significance was assumed below <strong>the</strong><br />
0.05 probability level. The results are shown in Figure 2.<br />
There appears to be a statistically significant correlation between <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> unrecorded consumption<br />
and liver cirrhosis mortality (R=0.65, p
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
168 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 169<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
Table 1. Compounds potentially associated with toxicity in unrecorded alcohol<br />
diethyl phthalate (DEP) (0.08–0.15%) and PHMG (0.10–0.14%). PHMG is an effective antiseptic and is<br />
commonly used <strong>for</strong> suppression <strong>of</strong> hospital infection in <strong>the</strong> Russian Federation (16) and DEP denatures<br />
alcohol (17). Several o<strong>the</strong>r studies detected PHMG toge<strong>the</strong>r with DEP in disinfectants that were used as<br />
an ethanol source in poisoning cases in Russia (6, 16, 18). On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> clinical manifestations and<br />
laboratory findings <strong>of</strong> 579 poisoned patients, Ostapenko et al. (15) concluded that <strong>the</strong> cholestatic hepatitis<br />
(histologically different from conventional alcoholic liver disease) was caused by PHMG, while a history <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol-induced hepatitis and cirrhosis contributed to a more severe course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> poisoning. O<strong>the</strong>r factors<br />
such as DEP or chronic viral hepatitis may have fur<strong>the</strong>r contributed to multifactorial liver damage. However,<br />
little is known about <strong>the</strong> alcohol consumed, which led to <strong>the</strong>se poisonings, <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> ethanol concentration,<br />
drinking patterns, or <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> unrecorded consumption (10, 19).<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
Recent research has shown that concerns about <strong>the</strong> toxicity <strong>of</strong> unrecorded alcohol were mostly exaggerated<br />
(4). For example, quantitative risk comparisons have shown that <strong>the</strong> potency <strong>of</strong> ethanol <strong>for</strong> liver toxicity is<br />
at least 5,000 times greater than that <strong>of</strong> ethyl carbamate (20). Ra<strong>the</strong>r than by reference to alcohol quality,<br />
liver cirrhosis rates could be better explained by <strong>the</strong> higher alcoholic strength <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> unrecorded alcohol<br />
consumed, problematic drinking patterns, lower socioeconomic status and poor health status and <strong>the</strong><br />
interaction effect between <strong>the</strong>se factors (4).<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
The author is grateful <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> assistance <strong>of</strong> Dr. Yulia Monakhova in conducting <strong>the</strong> statistical analysis.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r components besides ethanol analysed in unrecorded alcohols have not been found in <strong>the</strong> vast<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> unrecorded alcohol samples at levels known to cause harm to health on a population scale (13).<br />
While several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> contaminants detected in unrecorded alcohol (especially copper and ethyl carbamate)<br />
could be hepatotoxic above certain thresholds, <strong>the</strong> typical human exposure is less than 1% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> threshold<br />
doses in rodents (13). There<strong>for</strong>e, while fur<strong>the</strong>r research in this area is certainly necessary, it would appear<br />
that <strong>the</strong> volume <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumption and/or drinking patterns ra<strong>the</strong>r than alcohol quality predominantly<br />
contribute to <strong>the</strong> differences in mortality (13). Unrecorded alcohol may contribute to this by <strong>the</strong> fact that<br />
unrecorded alcohol is <strong>of</strong>ten higher in strength and its lower price may fur<strong>the</strong>r contribute to drinking greater<br />
quantities (13).<br />
METHANOL AND PHMG: EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE<br />
While unrecorded alcohol seldom contains substances more toxic than ethanol itself, <strong>the</strong> exception<br />
to <strong>the</strong> rule may be isolated outbreaks <strong>of</strong> methanol poisoning (14) as well as <strong>the</strong> occurrence <strong>of</strong><br />
polyhexamethyleneguanidine hydrochloride (PHMG), which was associated with an outbreak <strong>of</strong> acute<br />
cholestatic liver injury in Russia connected to <strong>the</strong> consumption <strong>of</strong> surrogate alcohol (15). In that case, <strong>the</strong><br />
alcohol that was consumed was a liquid intended <strong>for</strong> indoor disinfection, which contained ethanol (93%),<br />
IARC Working Group on <strong>the</strong> Evaluation <strong>of</strong> Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Alcohol consumption<br />
and ethyl carbamate. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2010;96:1-1428.<br />
Szücs S, Sárváry A, McKee M, Ádány R. Could <strong>the</strong> high level <strong>of</strong> cirrhosis in central and eastern<br />
Europe be due partly to <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> alcohol consumed An exploratory investigation. Addiction<br />
2005;100(4):536-542.<br />
Rehm J, Sulkowska U, Manczuk M, B<strong>of</strong>fetta P, Powles J, Popova S, et al. Alcohol accounts <strong>for</strong> a high<br />
proportion <strong>of</strong> premature mortality in central and eastern Europe. Int J Epidemiol 2007;36(2):458-<br />
467.<br />
Rehm J, Kanteres F, Lachenmeier DW. Unrecorded consumption, quality <strong>of</strong> alcohol and<br />
health consequences. Drug Alcohol Rev 2010;29(4):426-436.<br />
Gil A, Polikina O, Koroleva N, McKee M, Tomkins S, Leon DA. Availability and Characteristics <strong>of</strong><br />
Nonbeverage Alcohols Sold in 17 Russian Cities in 2007. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2009;33(1):79-85.<br />
Solodun YuV, Klevno VA, Lelyukh TD, Maslauskaite LS, Yaverbaum AP, Ermolaeva NB, et al.<br />
Forensic-medical evaluation <strong>of</strong> toxic hepatitis associated with surrogate alcohol poisoning. Sud<br />
Med Ekspert 2008;51(4):23-28.<br />
Narawane NM, Bhatia S, Abraham P, Sanghani S, Sawant SS. Consumption <strong>of</strong> ‘country liquor’ and<br />
its relation to alcoholic liver disease in Mumbai. J Assoc Physicians India 1998;46(6):510-513.<br />
WHO. Global In<strong>for</strong>mation System on Alcohol and Health (GISAH). Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.<br />
int/globalatlas/default.asp (Accessed 2011-11-30): World Health Organization; 2011.<br />
Lachenmeier DW, Taylor BJ, Rehm J. Alcohol under <strong>the</strong> radar: Do we have policy options regarding<br />
unrecorded alcohol Int J Drug Policy 2011;22(2):153-160.<br />
Lachenmeier DW, Gmel G, Rehm J. Unrecorded alcohol consumption. In: Boyle P,<br />
B<strong>of</strong>fetta P, Lowenfels A, Burns H, Brawley O, Zatonski W, et al., editors. Alcohol: Science,<br />
policy and public health. Ox<strong>for</strong>d, UK: Ox<strong>for</strong>d University Press; 2012, in press.<br />
Popova S, Rehm J, Patra J, Zatonski W. Comparing alcohol consumption in central and eastern<br />
Europe to o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>European</strong> countries. Alcohol Alcohol 2007;42(5):465-473.
BARCELONA . SPAIN<br />
170 POSTGRADUATE COURSE SYLLABUS ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 171<br />
APRIL 18 - 19/2012 THE INTERNATIONAL LIVER CONGRESS TM 2012<br />
WHO Regional Office <strong>for</strong> Europe. Evidence <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> effectiveness and cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong><br />
interventions to reduce alcohol-related harm. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office <strong>for</strong><br />
Europe; 2009.<br />
Lachenmeier DW, Leitz J, Schoeberl K, Kuballa T, Straub I, Rehm J. Quality <strong>of</strong> illegally and in<strong>for</strong>mally<br />
produced alcohol in Europe: Results from <strong>the</strong> AMPHORA project. Adicciones 2011;23(2):133-140.<br />
Lachenmeier DW, Rehm J, Gmel G. Surrogate alcohol: what do we know and where do we go<br />
Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007;31(10):1613-1624.<br />
Ostapenko YN, Brusin KM, Zobnin YV, Shchupak AY, Vishnevetskiy MK, Sentsov VG, et<br />
al. Acute cholestatic liver injury caused by polyhexamethyleneguanidine hydrochloride<br />
admixed to ethyl alcohol. Clin Toxicol 2011;40(6):471-477.<br />
Tsisanova ES, Salomatin EM. Forensic chemical investigation <strong>of</strong> alcohol-containing liquids<br />
doped with polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride and diethylphthalate. Sud Med Ekspert<br />
2010;53(4):33-37.<br />
Leitz J, Kuballa T, Rehm J, Lachenmeier DW. Chemical analysis and risk assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
diethyl phthalate in alcoholic beverages with special regard to unrecorded alcohol. PLoS One<br />
2009;4(12):e8127.<br />
Monakhova YB, Kuballa T, Leitz J, Lachenmeier DW. Determination <strong>of</strong> diethyl phthalate and<br />
polyhexamethylene guanidine in surrogate alcohol from Russia. Int J Anal Chem 2011;2011:Article<br />
ID 704795.<br />
Lachenmeier DW, Monakhova YB, Samokhvalov AV, Rehm J. Causality between<br />
polyhexamethyleneguanidine occurence in unrecorded alcohol and cholestatic hepatitis outbreak<br />
in Russia. Clin Toxicol 2011;in press.<br />
Lachenmeier DW, Kanteres F, Rehm J. Epidemiology-based risk assessment using <strong>the</strong> benchmark<br />
dose/margin <strong>of</strong> exposure approach: <strong>the</strong> example <strong>of</strong> ethanol and liver cirrhosis. Int J Epidemiol<br />
2011;40(1):210-218.<br />
Go to <strong>the</strong><br />
eASL Booth<br />
to know more!<br />
Join i<strong>Liver</strong> on Facebook<br />
www.iliver.eu/fb<br />
Follow i<strong>Liver</strong> on Twitter<br />
www.iliver.eu/twitter<br />
www.iliver.eu