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مق<strong>ا</strong>يسه، ميت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ست ق<strong>و</strong>ه هد<strong>ا</strong>يت ح<strong>ر</strong>کت هيد<strong>ر</strong>ژ<strong>ن</strong>، <strong>ا</strong>کسيژ<strong>ن</strong> <strong>و</strong> ک<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ه خ<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ست خ<strong>و</strong>د د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>شد."<br />
(صفح<strong>ا</strong>ت <strong>پ</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>گ<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ف د<strong>ر</strong> فصل <strong>ب</strong>عد: "عمل ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>س<strong>ا</strong>ئی يک عمل خ<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ستی <strong>ا</strong>ست<br />
"<strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>يد <strong>ب</strong>ه ع<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>م<strong>ر</strong>ی قطع<strong>ا</strong> مح<strong>ر</strong>ز د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> گ<strong>ر</strong>فته ش<strong>و</strong>د که کليه<br />
تج<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ی م<strong>ن</strong> ق<strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong>ل تقسيم <strong>ب</strong>ه د<strong>و</strong> گ<strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ه عمده<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د: <strong>ا</strong>عم<strong>ا</strong>ل <strong>ا</strong>ج<strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی <strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong>عم<strong>ا</strong>ل <strong>ا</strong>ختي<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی. کليه<br />
ت<strong>ا</strong>ٔثي<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ت جه<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> خ<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>جی <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ا</strong>عم<strong>ا</strong>ل <strong>ا</strong>خي<strong>ر</strong> متعلق<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د." (صفحه ۴٧) "<strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> که ممک<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>یه<strong>ا</strong>ی<br />
گ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>گ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong>ی <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ه يک قلم<strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>قعي<strong>ا</strong>ت ت<strong>و</strong>سعه د<strong>ا</strong>د... هم<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> قد<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی فيزيکد<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>ست که<br />
<strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong> مقدم<strong>ا</strong>ت يک تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>خت مطلق <strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>س<strong>ا</strong>زگ<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست <strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>قعيت <strong>ن</strong>يز <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong> خصيصه <strong>ا</strong>ٓز<strong>ا</strong>دی <strong>ا</strong>فک<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><br />
م<strong>ا</strong> م<strong>ر</strong>ت<strong>ب</strong>ط <strong>ا</strong>ست؛ همچ<strong>ن</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> تل<strong>و</strong>يح<strong>ا</strong>ً <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> مع<strong>ن</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ست که <strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ده م<strong>ا</strong> مقيد <strong>ب</strong>ه ش<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>يط خ<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>جی <strong>ن</strong>يست."<br />
–<br />
(٣٠ – ٢٩<br />
،"(Willenshandlung)<br />
–<br />
(صفحه ۵٠)<br />
ح<strong>ا</strong>ل<strong>ا</strong> قض<strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong>ت ک<strong>ن</strong>يد که <strong>ب</strong><strong>و</strong>گد<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ف چقد<strong>ر</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ظه<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> جس<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>و</strong>د که د<strong>ر</strong> فلسفه م<strong>ا</strong>خ "مطلق<strong>ا</strong>ً"<br />
ج<strong>ا</strong>ئی <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>ا</strong>ٓز<strong>ا</strong>د <strong>و</strong>ج<strong>و</strong>د <strong>ن</strong>د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>د"، <strong>و</strong>قتی خ<strong>و</strong>د م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>ن</strong>م<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong>ی چ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong> کل<strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong><strong>پ</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> ت<strong>و</strong>صيه میک<strong>ن</strong>د!<br />
ديده<strong>ا</strong>يم که شخص <strong>ا</strong>خي<strong>ر</strong> ک<strong>و</strong>شش <strong>ن</strong>میک<strong>ن</strong>د <strong>ا</strong>يده<strong>ا</strong>ٓليسم خ<strong>و</strong>د ي<strong>ا</strong> م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>پ</strong><strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> س<strong>ا</strong>زد. کل<strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong><strong>پ</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> س<strong>ا</strong>ل<br />
<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>شت: "ه<strong>ر</strong>تز هم<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> ذه<strong>ن</strong>یگ<strong>ر</strong>ی (<strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> م<strong>ا</strong>خ) <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ه م<strong>ا</strong>هيت مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم م<strong>ا</strong><br />
<strong>ا</strong>عل<strong>ا</strong>م میک<strong>ن</strong>د..." "... <strong>ا</strong>گ<strong>ر</strong> م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>و</strong> ه<strong>ر</strong>تز" (کل<strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong><strong>پ</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong> چه حقی <strong>پ</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی فيزيکد<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> مشه<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ه مي<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong><br />
ميکشد، <strong>ب</strong>ه ز<strong>و</strong>دی خ<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>هيم ديد) "<strong>ا</strong>ز ديدگ<strong>ا</strong>ه <strong>ا</strong>يده<strong>ا</strong>ٓليسم <strong>ب</strong>ه خ<strong>ا</strong>ط<strong>ر</strong> ت<strong>ا</strong>ٔکيد <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong> م<strong>ب</strong>دأ ذه<strong>ن</strong>ی کليه مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم م<strong>ا</strong> <strong>و</strong><br />
<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ت<strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>ط <strong>ب</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> <strong>و</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ه ت<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم ف<strong>ر</strong>دی معي<strong>ن</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>متي<strong>ا</strong>ز میگي<strong>ر</strong><strong>ن</strong>د. <strong>ا</strong>ز ديدگ<strong>ا</strong>ه تج<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong>هگ<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ئی <strong>ا</strong>متي<strong>ا</strong>ز<br />
کمت<strong>ر</strong>ی <strong>ب</strong>ه خ<strong>ا</strong>ط<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ذع<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ن</strong>میگي<strong>ر</strong><strong>ن</strong>د که ت<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> تج<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ب</strong>ه ع<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> محکمه<strong>ا</strong>ی مستقل <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ديشه<br />
میت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د مسئله د<strong>ر</strong>ستی <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>پ</strong><strong>ا</strong>سخ دهد." Philosophie") ،Archiv für systematische<br />
<strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> س<strong>ا</strong>ل ١٩٠٠ <strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>شت که علي<strong>ر</strong>غم کليه <strong>ن</strong>ق<strong>ا</strong>طی که<br />
کت<strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong> <strong>پ</strong><strong>ن</strong>جم ٩٩<br />
د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong> م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong> ک<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ت <strong>و</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong>کلی متف<strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong>ت <strong>ا</strong>ست، "<strong>ب</strong>ه ه<strong>ر</strong> ح<strong>ا</strong>ل <strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز يک ت<strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست <strong>و</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ه <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><br />
تج<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong>هگ<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ئی مت<strong>ا</strong>فيزيکی غ<strong>ا</strong>ل<strong>ب</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> علم ط<strong>ب</strong>يعی (يع<strong>ن</strong>ی م<strong>ا</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>ا</strong>ليسم! <strong>ا</strong>ست<strong>ا</strong>د د<strong>و</strong>ست <strong>ن</strong>د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>د <strong>ا</strong>سم شيط<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong><br />
<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong> ز<strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د) که <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ستی هدف عمده حمل<strong>ا</strong>ت م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> میس<strong>ا</strong>زد." (هم<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> ج<strong>ا</strong>، جلد<br />
<strong>و</strong>ی د<strong>ر</strong> س<strong>ا</strong>ل <strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>شت: "<strong>ن</strong>قطه ش<strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ع <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong>کلی <strong>و</strong> م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ک<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>پ</strong>ذي<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست... م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong> چه <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><br />
که ک<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ت ش<strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ع ک<strong>ر</strong>د، <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>پ</strong><strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ر</strong>س<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د." ،Kantstudien) کت<strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong> ١٩٠٣، ٨، صفحه ٣٧۴) ٣١۴،<br />
<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> هم<br />
د<strong>ر</strong> مقدمه <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong> چ<strong>ا</strong><strong>پ</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>سی کت<strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong> "تحليل <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>سه<strong>ا</strong>" م<strong>ا</strong>خ ت. تسيه<strong>ر</strong><br />
ذک<strong>ر</strong> میک<strong>ن</strong>د: "که <strong>ا</strong>گ<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ه هم<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>هه<strong>ا</strong>، حد<strong>ا</strong>قل <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>هه<strong>ا</strong>ی خيلی <strong>ن</strong>زديکی <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ن</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>ل میک<strong>ن</strong>د. م<strong>ا</strong> کت<strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong><br />
<strong>پ</strong><strong>ر</strong>فس<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong> تئ<strong>و</strong>د<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong> تسيه<strong>ر</strong> "تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>خت <strong>پ</strong>سيک<strong>و</strong> فيزي<strong>و</strong>ل<strong>و</strong>ژيکی<br />
<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> میگي<strong>ر</strong>يم <strong>و</strong> می<strong>ب</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong>يم که م<strong>و</strong>ٔلف د<strong>ر</strong> مقدمه <strong>ب</strong>ه<br />
م<strong>ا</strong>خ، <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>و</strong>س، ش<strong>و</strong><strong>پ</strong> <strong>و</strong> س<strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ر</strong>ج<strong>و</strong>ع میک<strong>ن</strong>د. <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> ج<strong>ا</strong> هم د<strong>و</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ه م<strong>ا</strong> م<strong>ر</strong>يدی د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>يم که معلم<br />
ق<strong>ب</strong><strong>و</strong>لش د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>د. تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی "مت<strong>ا</strong>ٔخ<strong>ر</strong>" تسيه<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست که ت<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> "جمع <strong>ا</strong>ش<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>" میت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د معتقد <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>شد که<br />
"<strong>ا</strong>شي<strong>ا</strong><strong>ء</strong> <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>قعی <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>سه<strong>ا</strong>ی م<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong>می<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>گيز<strong>ن</strong>د." (صفحه <strong>و</strong> "<strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ژهه<strong>ا</strong>ی تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>خت،<br />
س<strong>ر</strong>ل<strong>و</strong>حه<strong>ا</strong>ی جز کلم<strong>ا</strong>ت <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong>کلی <strong>ن</strong>میت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>شد: "<strong>ا</strong>شي<strong>ا</strong><strong>ء</strong> خ<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>جی فی<strong>ا</strong>ل<strong>ن</strong>فسه <strong>و</strong>ج<strong>و</strong>د <strong>ن</strong>د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ن</strong>د، <strong>ب</strong>لکه د<strong>ر</strong><br />
<strong>ا</strong>ذه<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> م<strong>ا</strong> <strong>و</strong>ج<strong>و</strong>د د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ن</strong>د!" (صفحه ۵) "<strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong> چه <strong>ب</strong>ه م<strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ا</strong>ده شده <strong>ا</strong>ست <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>سه<strong>ا</strong> <strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong>يدهه<strong>ا</strong> هست<strong>ن</strong>د، <strong>و</strong> ه<strong>ر</strong><br />
د<strong>و</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> کلمه <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ی ج<strong>ا</strong>ی د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ن</strong>د. غي<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ی کلمه<strong>ا</strong>ی خ<strong>ا</strong>لی <strong>ا</strong>ز مع<strong>ن</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ست." (صفحه<br />
۶، صفحه<br />
(Th. Zieher)<br />
Psychophysiologische )<br />
١٠٠) "ق<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong><br />
(٣<br />
–<br />
– ،١٨٩٨ صفحه – ۶٩ (٧٠<br />
١٩٠٣<br />
١٨٩٨<br />
-١٨٩٩<br />
(٨٧<br />
(Erkenntnistheorie, Jena 1898
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