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فصل س<strong>و</strong>م 115<br />
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[<br />
A<br />
م<strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong>لی <strong>و</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ح ث<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ست، د<strong>ر</strong> ح<strong>ا</strong>لی که <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی گ<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>يش ديگ<strong>ر</strong> عکس <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong> ص<strong>ا</strong>دق <strong>ا</strong>ست. تم<strong>ا</strong>م<br />
م<strong>ا</strong>خيسته<strong>ا</strong>ی <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>سی مس<strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ه "<strong>ر</strong>د" <strong>ب</strong><strong>و</strong>گد<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ف <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> تک<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> میک<strong>ن</strong><strong>ن</strong>د. <strong>ب</strong>ه ج<strong>ا</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>، ذ<strong>ر</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong>ی تفک<strong>ر</strong><br />
میت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ست <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ف<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>د <strong>ن</strong>ش<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> دهد که <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>سطه م<strong>ا</strong>هيت م<strong>و</strong>ض<strong>و</strong>ع غي<strong>ر</strong> ممک<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> د<strong>و</strong><br />
مفه<strong>و</strong>م <strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong>ئی ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>خت، تع<strong>ر</strong>يفی <strong>ب</strong>ه دست د<strong>ا</strong>د مگ<strong>ر</strong> تع<strong>ر</strong>يفی که مشخص میک<strong>ن</strong>د کد<strong>ا</strong>م يک <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong><br />
مقدم <strong>ا</strong>ست. م<strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز "تع<strong>ر</strong>يفی" <strong>ب</strong>ه دست د<strong>ا</strong>د<strong>ن</strong> چيست؟ <strong>ا</strong>س<strong>ا</strong>س<strong>ا</strong>ً <strong>ب</strong>ه مع<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست که يک مفه<strong>و</strong>م<br />
معي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> يک مفه<strong>و</strong>م ج<strong>ا</strong>معت<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>د. <strong>ب</strong>ه ع<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> مث<strong>ا</strong>ل <strong>و</strong>قتی م<strong>ن</strong> میگ<strong>و</strong>يم "<strong>ا</strong>ل<strong>ا</strong>غ يک حي<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست"،<br />
م<strong>ن</strong> مفه<strong>و</strong>م "<strong>ا</strong>ل<strong>ا</strong>غ" <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> يک مفه<strong>و</strong>م ج<strong>ا</strong>معت<strong>ر</strong> می<strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>م. <strong>پ</strong>س مسئله <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست که <strong>ا</strong>ٓي<strong>ا</strong> مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم ج<strong>ا</strong>معت<strong>ر</strong>ی<br />
<strong>ا</strong>ز هستی <strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ديشه، م<strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>س، فيزيکی <strong>و</strong> ذه<strong>ن</strong>ی <strong>و</strong>ج<strong>و</strong>د د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ن</strong>د که تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>خت <strong>ب</strong>ت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><br />
<strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> عمل ک<strong>ن</strong>د؟ خي<strong>ر</strong>. <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم <strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong>ئی <strong>و</strong> ج<strong>ا</strong>معت<strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> مف<strong>ا</strong>هيمی هست<strong>ن</strong>د که ش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>خت د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>قع ت<strong>ا</strong><br />
ک<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>سته <strong>ا</strong>ست <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> ف<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>د (ص<strong>ر</strong>ف<strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز تغيي<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ت لغ<strong>ا</strong>ت تخصصی، که هميشه<br />
ممک<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د). شخص <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>يد يک ش<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ل<strong>ا</strong>ت<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> ي<strong>ا</strong> يک ک<strong>و</strong>د<strong>ن</strong> محض <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>شد که <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> د<strong>و</strong> <strong>ر</strong>شته مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><br />
ج<strong>ا</strong>معيت <strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong>ئی "تع<strong>ر</strong>يفی" <strong>ب</strong>خ<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>هد که "تک<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> س<strong>ا</strong>ده" <strong>ن</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>شد: يکی ي<strong>ا</strong> ديگ<strong>ر</strong>ی <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>يد مقدم د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong><br />
گ<strong>ر</strong>فته ش<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong>د. سه دليل <strong>پ</strong>يش گفته د<strong>ر</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ه م<strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ب</strong>گي<strong>ر</strong>يد. [چه <strong>ن</strong>تيجه<strong>ا</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> ح<strong>ا</strong>صل<br />
میش<strong>و</strong>د؟ <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> که <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> فل<strong>ا</strong>سفه <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>حی <strong>و</strong> ي<strong>ا</strong> "م<strong>ن</strong>"، <strong>ب</strong>ه فيزيکی ي<strong>ا</strong> محيط <strong>پ</strong>يش می<strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong>د. مثل<strong>ا</strong>ً<br />
<strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ژه م<strong>ر</strong>کزی <strong>ب</strong>ه ضد <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ژه ي<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>س <strong>ب</strong>ه م<strong>ا</strong>ده، ي<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ا</strong>د<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ک حسی <strong>ب</strong>ه م<strong>ا</strong>ده. <strong>ا</strong>ٓي<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>و</strong>س،<br />
م<strong>ا</strong>خ <strong>و</strong> <strong>پ</strong>ي<strong>ر</strong>س<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong> میت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ست<strong>ن</strong>د <strong>ا</strong>س<strong>ا</strong>سً<strong>ا</strong> "تع<strong>ر</strong>يف" ديگ<strong>ر</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong>ز مف<strong>ا</strong>هيم <strong>ا</strong>س<strong>ا</strong>سی، غي<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ن</strong>ش<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> د<strong>ا</strong>د<strong>ن</strong> گ<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>يش<br />
خط فلسفیش<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ئه <strong>ب</strong>ده<strong>ن</strong>د؟ <strong>ا</strong>ٓي<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> میت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ست<strong>ن</strong>د <strong>ب</strong>ه ط<strong>ر</strong>يق ديگ<strong>ر</strong>ی، <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ش معي<strong>ن</strong>ی، تع<strong>ر</strong>يف<br />
ک<strong>ر</strong>ده <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>ش<strong>ن</strong>د که "م<strong>ن</strong>" چيست، <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>س چيست، <strong>ا</strong>د<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ک حسی چيست؟ شخص <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>يد ت<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> مسئله <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ه<br />
<strong>و</strong>ض<strong>و</strong>ح ف<strong>ر</strong>م<strong>و</strong>ل <strong>ب</strong><strong>ن</strong>دی ک<strong>ن</strong>د ت<strong>ا</strong> تشخيص دهد که م<strong>ا</strong>خيسته<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>جع <strong>ب</strong>ه چه مهمل محضی صح<strong>ب</strong>ت<br />
میک<strong>ن</strong><strong>ن</strong>د <strong>و</strong>قتی که میخ<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ه<strong>ن</strong>د م<strong>ا</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>ا</strong>ليسته<strong>ا</strong> تع<strong>ر</strong>يفی <strong>ا</strong>ز م<strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>ب</strong>ه دست ده<strong>ن</strong>د که <strong>ب</strong>ه تک<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> ق<strong>و</strong>ل<br />
<strong>ن</strong>ي<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ج<strong>ا</strong>مد که م<strong>ا</strong>ده، ط<strong>ب</strong>يعت، هستی، فيزيکی- <strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong>لی <strong>ا</strong>ست <strong>و</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ح، شع<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>، <strong>ا</strong>حس<strong>ا</strong>س، <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ی ث<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>ی.<br />
يک تع<strong>ب</strong>ي<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ز <strong>ن</strong><strong>ب</strong><strong>و</strong>غ م<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>کس <strong>و</strong> <strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>گلس <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ست که <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> کلمه <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>زی <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ق<strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong> ت<strong>ا</strong>زه <strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ژهه<strong>ا</strong>ی<br />
<strong>ا</strong>ست<strong>ا</strong>د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ه <strong>و</strong> "<strong>ا</strong>يسمه<strong>ا</strong>ی" ظ<strong>ر</strong>يف<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ه <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> حقي<strong>ر</strong> شم<strong>ر</strong>د<strong>ن</strong>د <strong>و</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ه س<strong>ا</strong>دگی <strong>و</strong> <strong>ر</strong><strong>و</strong>ش<strong>ن</strong>ی گفت<strong>ن</strong>د: يک خط<br />
م<strong>ا</strong>ت<strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>ا</strong>ليستی <strong>و</strong> يک خط <strong>ا</strong>يده<strong>ا</strong>ٓليستی د<strong>ر</strong> فلسفه <strong>و</strong>ج<strong>و</strong>د د<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>د، <strong>و</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> دستهه<strong>ا</strong>ی گ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>گ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><br />
<strong>ا</strong>ٓگ<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>ستیسيسم ق<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> گ<strong>ر</strong>فته<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>د. <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ر</strong>ز<strong>و</strong>ی د<strong>ر</strong>د<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>ک <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی يک <strong>ن</strong>قطه <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> "<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong>" د<strong>ر</strong> فلسفه هم<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> فق<strong>ر</strong><br />
ذه<strong>ن</strong>ی <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong>ٓشک<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> میس<strong>ا</strong>زد که ک<strong>و</strong>شش د<strong>ر</strong>د<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>ک <strong>ب</strong><strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong>ی خلق يک تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی <strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>زش "<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong>" ي<strong>ا</strong> يک تئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی<br />
"<strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong>" <strong>و</strong> غي<strong>ر</strong>ه.<br />
س<strong>و</strong>د<strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ر</strong>ی<br />
م<strong>ر</strong>يد <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>و</strong>س، ک<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ست<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ج<strong>ن</strong> میگ<strong>و</strong>يد که <strong>و</strong>ی يک <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> د<strong>ر</strong> يک م<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong>ه خص<strong>و</strong>صی <strong>ن</strong>ظ<strong>ر</strong> خ<strong>و</strong>د<br />
<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> چ<strong>ن</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> ت<strong>و</strong>ضيح د<strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>ا</strong>ست: "م<strong>ن</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ه فيزيکی <strong>ن</strong>ه ذه<strong>ن</strong>ی، <strong>ب</strong>لکه يک چيز س<strong>و</strong>می <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> میش<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong>سم." <strong>ب</strong>ه<br />
<strong>ا</strong>ظه<strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong> يک <strong>ن</strong><strong>و</strong>يس<strong>ن</strong>ده که مفه<strong>و</strong>م <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> چيز س<strong>و</strong>م ت<strong>و</strong>سط <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ر</strong>ي<strong>و</strong>س د<strong>ا</strong>ده <strong>ن</strong>شده، <strong>پ</strong>تز<strong>و</strong>لت ج<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ب</strong> د<strong>ا</strong>د: "م<strong>ا</strong><br />
مید<strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>يم چ<strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> <strong>ا</strong><strong>و</strong> <strong>ن</strong>ت<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong>ست چ<strong>ن</strong><strong>ا</strong><strong>ن</strong> مفه<strong>و</strong>می <strong>ر</strong><strong>ا</strong> ت<strong>و</strong>سعه دهد. <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> چيز س<strong>و</strong>م ف<strong>ا</strong>قد يک ضد مفه<strong>و</strong>م<br />
<strong>ا</strong>ست... <strong>ا</strong>ي<strong>ن</strong> سئ<strong>و</strong><strong>ا</strong>ل که چيز س<strong>و</strong>م چيست؟ <strong>ب</strong>ه <strong>ن</strong>ح<strong>و</strong>ی غي<strong>ر</strong> م<strong>ن</strong>طقی مط<strong>ر</strong>ح شده<br />
–<br />
(Rententheorie)<br />
(Gegenbegriff)<br />
Worauf lassen sie sich zurueckfuehren<br />
-A<br />
همه <strong>ا</strong>ٓ<strong>ن</strong>ه<strong>ا</strong> <strong>ب</strong>ه چه چيز <strong>ب</strong><strong>ا</strong>لغ میش<strong>و</strong><strong>ن</strong>د؟