a comparative study of a Roman frontier province. - Historia Antigua
a comparative study of a Roman frontier province. - Historia Antigua a comparative study of a Roman frontier province. - Historia Antigua
-390- CHAPTER 4: THE TRIBAL BACKGROUND II 4: 1 NOMADS AND FARMERS 1. Compare Herodotus, IV, 183 and Pliny, VIII, 178, on the backwards grazing cattle of the Garamantes. Mela I, 23; I, 47 and Pliny, V, 26, V, 44-45 show up a corruption to Herodotus' text where he described the timorous neighbours of the Garamantes, the Gamphasantes (incorrectly as Garamantes in the surviving manuscript). 2. Fentress 1979,18-19; Lassare 1977,349-51; Trousset 1982b, 97-110, discuss the problems. 3. For descriptions of recent semi-nomadic practices see, unesco 1963 (especially, Bataillon 1963,113-21; Cauneille 1963,101-112 and Sarel-Sternberg 1963,123-33); Johnson 1969, passim. For North Africa in general see Despois 1958,217-75; Clarke 1955,157-67; 1959,95-108; Lawless 1972,125-37; 1976,451-64. 4. Johnson 1969,15-19, argues that the classification problem is largely one of semantics and believes the terms semi-nomadism and transhumance are inapplicable in a North African context. Transhumance has become so thoroughly adopted as a convenient term outside the alpine region, where it was coined, that one can argue, contra Johnson, that its original application is now meaningless. In a North African context it can be used to describe the pastoral migrations of tribes which possess fixed bases, often villages and which show a -tendency towards sedentari- sation. Without more detailed information on the ancient tribes, Johnson's proposed classification system is impossible to use in the historical field. 5. See Chapter 1: 2 and Chapter 3: 1, note 5. 6. Lawless 1972,125-37, Lassere 1977,349-51; Garnsey 1978,232-52; Shaw 1978; Whittaker 1978a, 332-37,344-50; Fentress 1979,18-60,191-200; Trousset 1980a, 931-43; 1981,21-25; Barker 1981,131-45. 7. Trousset 1980a, 931-35. 8. Johnson 1969,11-12; 1973,29-91; Lawless 1972,125-37. 9. Whittaker 1978a, 232-37,344-50; Trousset 1980a, 935. 10. St. Augustine, Letters 46-47, referred to the entry of barbarians into the Roman provinces as crop-watchers. A well-known inscription from Mactar, CIL 8.11814, details the surprisingly successful career of a man who started off as a landless labourer, migrating northwards, following the harvest each year. 11. Trousset 1980a, 931-34, gives detailed references to the origins of this theory, as also Chapter 1: 2, above. 12. Diodorus Sic., III, 49,1-3. 13. Camps 1960,72-77; Fentress 1979,66-67; Berthier 1981, Plates 8-9. 14. One need only compare the accounts written on the Garamantes since the 1930's to appreciate the advances made; Pace, Sergi and Caputo 1951, passim; Daniels 1970a, passim; 1971a, 261-85. 15. Fentress 1979,18-60,191-200, especially 19-21. For the origins of agriculture in Berber North Africa, see Camps 1960,58-91. 16. Polybius, XXXVII, 3; Diodorus Siculus, IV, 17,4-5; XXXII, 16,4; Strabo, XXVII, 3,15. Fentress 1979,20-21 and Camps 1960,209-13 have pointed out the fallacy of these accounts. 17. Camps 1960,200 details the grain exports of Massinissa to the Romans. For example, in 200 B. C. he exported 200,000 bushels of both wheat and barley -a total of 36,016 hectolitres. 18. Sallust, BJ, XC, 1. The practice is also attested by Caesar, BAf, XX. 19. See, for instance, the maps published by Demougeot 1960; Trousset 1974; Lassere 1977; Whittaker 1978a. 20. Garnsey 1978,232; Lawless 1972,128-34. Scylax (109) referred to an annual migration made by the Macae from the coast inland, which sounds like transhumance rather than semi-nomadism.
-391- 4: 1 21. Johnson 1969,1-3. 22. Trousset 1980a, 937; 1980c, 195-203. One might compare the similarly rapid progress made by Thubursicu Numidiarum, Camps 1980,173-74. 23. Procopius, IV, 21,1-15. 24. Oates 1953,113; 1954,110-11; Abd el Hakam, 35-37; E1 Bekri, 25-26,31. 25. Procopius, IV, 21,6. 26. Herodotus, IV, 183. 27. Mela, I, 23; I, 45; Pliny, V, 26; V, 35-38; VI, 209; VIII, 142; 178; XIII, 111. The picture they present of interior nomadic tribes had hardly advanced from the simplistic view of Athenaeus, Deipnosoph- istae, XI, 462. 28. Tent-dwelling Garamantes in Lucian, De Dipsadibus II; the gentem indomitam was recorded by Tacitus, Hist., IV, 49. See also Tacitus, Ann, III, 74; Pliny V, 35-38. 29. Daniels 1973,35. Daniels 1971a, 283, revealed that traces of carbonised wheat, date stones and olive pips had been recovered in his excavations. 30. Briggs 1960,10-11; Klitsch and Baird 1969,73-80; Fentress 1979,169- 71, all discuss the technique of foggara construction and irrigation. 31. Daniels 1971a, 269-70; 1973,36-37. 32. Daniels 1968,122-42; 1971a, 262-63. 33. Whittaker 1978a, 232. See also Lawless 1973,229-37; 1976,451-64. Muhl 1954; Louis 1975, are examples of the potential value of anthro- pological work. 34. Compare Clarke 1960 52-53; IRT p. 203 with Clarke 1960,57-58; Louis 1975,20; Brogan 1965a, 47, Vita Finzi and Brogan 1965,65-71. The London-Libyan Universities project, Penrose et al 1970,45-110 is a comprehensive survey of recent land use patterns in Libya. 35. Clarke 1960,52-59. 36. Louis 1975,38-42; also personal observation in the Mareth-Medenine - Foum Tatahouine region. 37. Despois 1935,120; Louis 1975,20. 38. For instance, the territory of the Nefusa tribe extends half-way to Sin- aouen to the south (50-60 km) and 10-20 km into the Gefara to the north. 39. Louis 1975,145-51; Despois 1935,97-136. 40. There are, therefore, three distinct economic modes practised side by side across the three ecological zones of Gefara, Gebel and Dahar. Their interrelationship is essentially symbiotic. Despois 1935,9-45, 97-120; Louis 1975,17-22,145-89. See also Shaiboub 1979,23-76. 41. Despois 1935,109 (fruit trees), 123 (cereals). The total trees in the 1930's were as follows, olives, 201,105; figs, 341,688; palms, 66,583; almonds and vines, 5,795; pomegranates and others, 2,804. 42. Despois 1935,163-65; Louis 1975,91-94. The treaty relationships or sahab ("companions") are often hereditary and vary considerably in their terms. Sometimes the sedentary farmers are reduced to vassal status. 43. Despois 1935,97-120; Prost 1954a, 28-66 and Louis 1975,158-64,176-89, describe the use of barrages to create cultivation terraces (Jeser) in the wadis. 44. Brehony 1960,62-64. 45. Barth 1857,77-79, was astonished to see only three olive trees in the region in contrast to the hundreds near Garian. Also, Brehony 1960, 64-67. 46. Barth 1857,71-82; Cowper 1897,131-93,224-95; also personal observation 1979-81. 47. Brehony 1960,63. 48. Brehony 1960,64. 49. Sarel-Sternberg 1963,123-27.
- Page 1 and 2: TRIP0LITANIA: a comparative study o
- Page 3 and 4: -367- FOOTNOTES Chapter 1: Introduc
- Page 5 and 6: -369- 1: 2 /1: 3 14. Benabou 1976,
- Page 7 and 8: -371- CHAPTER 2: GEOGRAPHY AND CLIM
- Page 9 and 10: -373- 2: 2/2: 3 45. Capot-Rey 1953,
- Page 11 and 12: -375- 2: 4 10. Penrose et al, 1970;
- Page 13 and 14: -377- 2: 5/2: 6 34. On the lotus, s
- Page 15 and 16: -379- 2: 7 the basis of the mileage
- Page 17 and 18: -381- 2: 7 64. Goodchild 1954 b and
- Page 19 and 20: -383- 7 3: 1/3: 2 17. An example of
- Page 21 and 22: -385- 3: 2/3: 3 46. Frezouls 1957,6
- Page 23 and 24: -387- 3: 3 tribes which cumulativel
- Page 25: -389- 3: 3 75. There were at least
- Page 29 and 30: -393- 4: 2 13. Sallust, BJ, XCII, 1
- Page 31 and 32: -395- 4: 2 65. For Saniat Gebril, s
- Page 33 and 34: -397- 4: 3j4; 4 20. Camps 1960,279-
- Page 35 and 36: -399- 4: 5 12. See above note 7. Ma
- Page 37 and 38: I -401- CHAPTER 5 FRONTIER THEORY A
- Page 39 and 40: -403- 5: 1 36. A few examples from
- Page 41 and 42: -405- 5: 1 66. On Byzantine frontie
- Page 43 and 44: -407- 5: 2 15. Desanges 1957,5-43.
- Page 45 and 46: -409- 5: 2 intervention and when Ca
- Page 47 and 48: -411- 5: 3 12. The evidence has bee
- Page 49 and 50: -413- 5: 3 50. See note 49, above.
- Page 51 and 52: -415- 5: 4 43. Rebuffat 1981,213-22
- Page 53 and 54: -417- FOOTNOTES CHAPTER 6 TRIPODITA
- Page 55 and 56: -419- 6: 1 53. Romanelli 1939,110-1
- Page 57 and 58: -421- 6: 2 9. The case has been con
- Page 59 and 60: -423- 6: 2 /6: 3 presented each one
- Page 61 and 62: -425- 6: 3 Tillibari (Ramada); Then
- Page 63 and 64: -427- 6: 3 have been a nzanerus col
- Page 65 and 66: -429- 6: 4 9. Rebuffat 1977,402-14;
- Page 67 and 68: -431- 7: 1 26. See Jones et al 1983
- Page 69 and 70: -433- 7; 1/7; 2 81. Cagnat 1913,542
- Page 71 and 72: 7: 2 -435- 45. The survey of the si
- Page 73 and 74: -437- 7; 3 2. See Pringle 1981,96 a
- Page 75 and 76: -438- 7: 3 28. Trousset 1978,167-79
-391-<br />
4: 1<br />
21. Johnson 1969,1-3.<br />
22. Trousset 1980a, 937; 1980c, 195-203. One might compare the similarly<br />
rapid progress made by Thubursicu Numidiarum, Camps 1980,173-74.<br />
23. Procopius, IV, 21,1-15.<br />
24. Oates 1953,113; 1954,110-11; Abd el Hakam, 35-37; E1 Bekri, 25-26,31.<br />
25. Procopius, IV, 21,6.<br />
26. Herodotus, IV, 183.<br />
27. Mela, I, 23; I, 45; Pliny, V, 26; V, 35-38; VI, 209; VIII, 142;<br />
178; XIII, 111. The picture they present <strong>of</strong> interior nomadic tribes<br />
had hardly advanced from the simplistic view <strong>of</strong> Athenaeus, Deipnosoph-<br />
istae, XI, 462.<br />
28. Tent-dwelling Garamantes in Lucian, De Dipsadibus II; the gentem<br />
indomitam was recorded by Tacitus, Hist., IV, 49. See also Tacitus,<br />
Ann, III, 74; Pliny V, 35-38.<br />
29. Daniels 1973,35. Daniels 1971a, 283, revealed that traces <strong>of</strong> carbonised<br />
wheat, date stones and olive pips had been recovered in his excavations.<br />
30. Briggs 1960,10-11; Klitsch and Baird 1969,73-80; Fentress 1979,169-<br />
71, all discuss the technique <strong>of</strong> foggara construction and irrigation.<br />
31. Daniels 1971a, 269-70; 1973,36-37.<br />
32. Daniels 1968,122-42; 1971a, 262-63.<br />
33. Whittaker 1978a, 232. See also Lawless 1973,229-37; 1976,451-64.<br />
Muhl 1954; Louis 1975, are examples <strong>of</strong> the potential value <strong>of</strong> anthro-<br />
pological<br />
work.<br />
34. Compare Clarke 1960 52-53; IRT p. 203 with Clarke 1960,57-58;<br />
Louis 1975,20; Brogan 1965a, 47, Vita Finzi and Brogan 1965,65-71.<br />
The London-Libyan Universities project, Penrose et al 1970,45-110<br />
is a comprehensive survey <strong>of</strong> recent land use patterns in Libya.<br />
35. Clarke 1960,52-59.<br />
36. Louis 1975,38-42; also personal observation in the Mareth-Medenine -<br />
Foum Tatahouine<br />
region.<br />
37. Despois 1935,120; Louis 1975,20.<br />
38. For instance, the territory <strong>of</strong> the Nefusa tribe extends half-way to Sin-<br />
aouen to the south (50-60 km) and 10-20 km into the Gefara to the north.<br />
39. Louis 1975,145-51; Despois 1935,97-136.<br />
40. There are, therefore, three distinct economic modes practised side by<br />
side across the three ecological zones <strong>of</strong> Gefara, Gebel and Dahar.<br />
Their interrelationship is essentially symbiotic. Despois 1935,9-45,<br />
97-120; Louis 1975,17-22,145-89. See also Shaiboub 1979,23-76.<br />
41. Despois 1935,109 (fruit trees), 123 (cereals). The total trees in the<br />
1930's were as follows, olives, 201,105; figs, 341,688; palms, 66,583;<br />
almonds and vines, 5,795; pomegranates and others, 2,804.<br />
42. Despois 1935,163-65; Louis 1975,91-94. The treaty relationships or<br />
sahab ("companions")<br />
are <strong>of</strong>ten hereditary and vary considerably in<br />
their terms. Sometimes the sedentary farmers are reduced to vassal<br />
status.<br />
43. Despois 1935,97-120; Prost 1954a, 28-66 and Louis 1975,158-64,176-89,<br />
describe the use <strong>of</strong> barrages to create cultivation terraces (Jeser)<br />
in<br />
the wadis.<br />
44. Brehony 1960,62-64.<br />
45. Barth 1857,77-79, was astonished to see only three olive trees in the<br />
region in contrast to the hundreds near Garian. Also, Brehony 1960,<br />
64-67.<br />
46. Barth 1857,71-82; Cowper 1897,131-93,224-95; also personal<br />
observation 1979-81.<br />
47. Brehony 1960,63.<br />
48. Brehony 1960,64.<br />
49. Sarel-Sternberg 1963,123-27.
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