FEED TECHNOLOGY UPDATE - AquaFeed.com

VOL 1. ISSUE 3. 2006 

FEED TECHNOLOGY UPDATE 

INSIDE THIS ISSUE 

PELLET QUALITY – INFLUENCE OF STORAGE AND HANDLING 

Factors that influence pellet quality 

THE TRUTH ABOUT MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION 

Achieve that critical pellet-to-pellet stability 

SAFE STORAGE OF GRAINS IN THE TROPICS 

Hermetic flexible storage provides an alternative to traditional silos

VOLUME 1. ISSUE 3. 2006 

FEED TECHNOLOGY UPDATE 

SOLUTIONS FOR THE GLOBAL FEED INDUSTRY 

ANIMAL FEED 

INSIDE THIS ISSUE 

WELCOME 

Pellet quality and storage solutions feature in this month’s FTU 

PELLET QUALITY—INFLUENCE OF STORAGE 

AND HANDLING 

Various factors that influence pellet quality discussed 

THE TRUTH ABOUT MOISTURE 

UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION 

Why good pellet-to-pellet stability is critically important 

SAFE STORAGE OF GRAINS IN THE TROPICS 

A comparison of hermetic storage in flexible silos versus rigid metal or concrete silos 

Above:150MT Cocoon storing maize in Rwanda. 

Cover photo by courtesy of Grainpro 

Feed Technology Update is published by: 

Linx Publishing, LLC., 

P.O. Box 161081, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816-0924, USA. 

Email: info@linxpublishing.com 

© Linx Publishing LLC 2006. 

All rights reserved. 

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RUNNING HEAD 

Pellet quality and tropical 

storage solutions 

T 

he impact of storage and processing on 

pellet quality are reviewed in our first article 

of this month's FTU. The key factors that 

influence pellet quality and the quality tests commonly 

used are described by Matthias Franke and 

Andreas Rey. 

Good pellet-to-pellet uniformity is critical and if 

you are one of the many feed producers who think 

that piece-to-piece variations are not important 

because the product will equilibrate in the bins or 

after packaging, think again, says Paul McKeithan, 

in his article "The truth about moisture uniformity 

and equilibration”. 

Tropical climates present particular problems for 

the long-term storage of feeds and feed ingredients. 

Even when properly dried, commodities can 

suffer from condensation and contamination from 

both insects and mycotoxins. Read how hermetically 

sealed flexible silos compare as an alternative 

to traditional metal and concrete silos in tropical 

applications. 

We wind up this issue with a look around what is 

happening in our industry: news briefs, jobs available, 

upcoming events and more. 

And now you can keep up-to-date with our pick of 

the feed news in our feed blog, Feedback. 

Updated regularly, Feedback brings you the most 

interesting feed-related stories in the news. 

Bookmark it now: 

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Phone +44 (0) 161 427 2402 

Skype: jcbconsult 

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The FTU Team 

Next Month: Aquafeed Production 

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to: info@linxpublishing.com 

Feed Technology Update 

is published by: 

Linx Publishing, LLC. 

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PELLET QUALITY 

Pellet Quality: influence of storage and handling 

This article deals in some detail with the various factors that 

influence pellet quality 

by Matthias Franke and Andreas Rey 

I 

nvestigations conducted by Dr. K.C. 

Behnke, Kansas State University, 

show individual parameters and their 

weighting with regard to the pellet 

quality. The influencing factors shown in the 

diagram are considered in more detail 

below, as well as elements that usually 

receive inadequate attention. 

15% 

combination 

die/rollers 

20% 

conditioning 

5% cooling 

40% raw 

material 

This enables this air to absorb more humidity, 

and the pellets are dried. This shows 

that a high air volume is not necessarily 

required to achieve a good drying result. A 

large air volume means high air flow velocity 

and therefore a shorter period of contact 

with the product. The air is heated to a 

lesser degree and can therefore absorb less 

humidity, which in turn degrades the drying 

result. For this reason, the air volume must 

be optimized relative to the required values. 

This is done by means of the butterfly valve 

on the cooling air fan. 

total cooling air 

Specific air volume = 

material throughput 

3 

[ m / min] 

[ t / h] 

The ratio of retention (dwell) time to specific 

air volume 

20% grinding 

Storage 

During pellet storage, the temperature is 

crucial. The pellets must be sufficiently 

cooled after the pelleting process. The pellet 

temperature should be in a range lower 

than 10°C above the ambient temperature. 

This will prevent condensation inside the 

storage bins. The storage bins should be 

equipped with an autonomous exhaust system 

to absorb major fluctuations in the climate 

which might affect the pellet quality. 

100 

50 

Specific air volume v [m 3 / min · t / h 

Cooling 

The pellets are additionally dried during the 

cooling phase. 

The temperature of the air flowing through 

the cooler is increased by the hot pellets. 

Retention 

time [min] 

5 

10 

15


The curve diagram shows how the specific 

cooling air requirement varies as a function 

of the retention time. 

The problem of mold growth on the upper 

pellet layer as a result of hot and humid air 

that may enter the bins – say, when the 

weather changes – can best be prevented 

by minimizing the pellet storage time. This 

is done by today’s feed manufacturers. 

Handling 

During transportation and handling of pellets, 

attention must focus on minimizing 

production of fines. As a result, agitation of 

the pellets must be minimized. At the same 

time, care must be taken to ensure movements 

that are easy on the pellets: low 

conveying velocities, low friction, and low 

falling heights. The term pellet quality in 

this case means hardness and stability. 

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PELLET QUALITY TESTING METHODS 

Two basically different measurement methods exist to assess and describe the durability and 

stability of pellets: 

One is “hardness” testing which measures the force required to destroy the pellet. 

The unit of measurement is typically [N] or [kP]. 

The other measurement method is the so-called “durability” test. It uses test devices to investigate 

the actual loads acting during transportation and handling on the pellets, simulating 

them and measuring the weight (percentage) of fines produced or the weight of the pellets left 

over. 

Measurement of hardness 

Note that during a hardness measurement, several samples must be drawn and analyzed. This 

is because the hardness of a given pellet is always measured at one single point, which may 

distort the test results if an insufficient quantity of pellets are tested. A good sample size would 

be 12 to 20 pellets. 

“Kahl” hardness tester 

In this measurement procedure, the absolute load withstanding force is 

measured in kilograms, i.e. the force is measured that is required to break 

the pellet. The device must be operated by hand. 

“Schleuniger” tablet tester 

This device is used to measure the absolute load withstanding 

capacity in kilograms, i.e. the force that is needed to break the 

pellet. The pellet must merely be placed in the device, 

after which the process will take place automatically. 

Durability or abrasion test 

Here, the following test devices and methods have gained wide acceptance: 

Holmen 

In this measurement method, 100 grams of dust-free pellets 

(mesh width 0.8 x diameter of the pellets) are cycled in a pneumatic 

circulation system during 1 to 2 minutes. 

After the fines have been removed by sieving, the remaining pellets 

are 

weighed. Then the durability factor is determined, i.e. the weight of the 

pellets is stated relative to the total weight as a percentage (DLU). 

“Pfost” method 

In this measurement method, 500 grams of pellets each are filled into the two plastic 

containers. After they have been rotated 500 times, the pellets are removed again, 

sieved, and weighed. 

The measure of the pellet quality is either the so-called 

Durability Factor 

or the 

DLU = m fines 

m total sample 

Durability Index 

PDI = m remaining pellets 

m total sample


Action for improving pellet quality 

Granulation / grinding 

Finely milled formulated feed has positive 

effects on the pellet quality. In practice, 

however, some restrictions exist such as 

the high energy requirement of the hammer 

mill, the limited throughput capacity of the 

hammer mill, and problems with the flow of 

product in the presence of an excessively 

fine particle size. As a result, a typical compound 

feed will have an average particle 

size of approximately 0.5 to 0.7 mm, with 

no particles > 1 – 1.5 mm. Otherwise, such 

a particle will act as a kind of predetermined 

breaking point in the pellet. 

20% depends on grinding, whether done by Hammermill 

(left) or by roller mill (above) 

Conditioning 

Today, the conditioning process is expected 

to meet new requirements. The 

main reasons for conditioning used to be 

the production of hard pellets, e.g. 

Flexible conditioning; separated mixing and time 

controlled retention process


• creation of liquids bridges 

• plasticizing of individual particles 

• increase in throughput rates due 

to lubrication effects 

• reduction of pelleting costs 

through lower energy consumption 

• increase in the service lives of 

dies and rollers 

• partial gelatinization of starch 

Today, special attention is paid to the reduction 

of germ and bacteria counts. Since 

the need to reduce the germ count and the 

requirement to achieve a high pellet hardness 

clash to a certain extent, the conditioning 

process must be of very flexible design. 

This is achieved by splitting the conditioning 

process into a mixing phase and a 

time-controlled retention process. 

Die / rollers 

The rollers in conjunction with the die are 

the most important elements of a pellet 

mill. 

It is enormously important to ensure the 

most uniform spreading of the mash across 

the entire width of the die and the rollers in 

a pellet mill in order to achieve the most 

consistent pelleting conditions possible. 

The higher the pellet quality requirements, 

the longer normally the active die hole 

length selected. This applies basically wherever 

the pellet quality cannot be further improved 

by selecting a higher conditioning 

temperature. This is especially true with 

products with an elevated fat content. 

Raw material 

As described above, the blending of the raw 

materials has the greatest impact on the 

pelleting process. Thus, for example, by 

adding pelleting aids with or without nutritional 

substances, adhesive forces can be 

created inside the pellet or, by adding fat, 

the pellet mill throughput can be increased 

and the energy requirement reduced. 

About the authors: 

Matthias Franke is Product Manager and Andreas 

Rey, Marketing Services, Buhler AG, 

Uzwil, Switzerland. For more information 

contact: 

andreas.rey@buhlergroup.com or 

matthias.franke@buhlergroup.com 

Visit the Buhler website 

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MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION 

The truth about moisture uniformity and 

equilibration 

By Paul McKeithan 

E 

veryone knows that feed moisture 

uniformity is important and most 

plants monitor the uniformity of the 

product. However, not everyone 

understands how critical it is to have a good 

pellet to pellet uniformity. 

Here are a number of reasons why you 

need to take a closer look at your product 

moisture uniformity. 

Product Quality 

Product stability is one of the main reasons 

you monitor moisture content. You are actually 

targeting a certain water activity in 

the product. Water activity is defined as “a 

measure of the energy status of the water 

in a system or the degree to which water is 

“bound” and, hence, its availability to act as 

a solvent and participate in chemical and 

biochemical reactions and growth of microorganisms.” 

1 It is important to monitor this 

water activity to know that the feed is at a 

stable state and, therefore, does not have 

enough free water to create microbial 

growth. 

However, it is not as practical to measure 

water activity in a production environment 

so moisture content is generally measured 

instead. For a given product moisture content 

can be related to the water activity. 

With this knowledge you can target feed 

moisture that is safe from mold and an acceptable 

quality for your customers. 

Production Economics 

If you are producing dried extruded feed 

and you are not focusing on your drying 

uniformity, you may be wasting a significant 

amount of money. You are aware that 

non-uniform drying can cause mold growth 

in your packaged product due to wet pellets, 

or result in wasted money due to excessive 

energy used to over-dry some pellets, 

but you may be overlooking the biggest 

cost of non-uniform drying. 

Drying your product non-uniformly is like 

throwing product out the exhaust stack. 

This is because your feed product is sold 

based on the weight of product shipped out 

your door. One of the key specifications for 

feed products is the moisture content. 

Suppose that your finished feed cannot contain 

over 10% moisture, and that your drier 

is only drying the product to +/- 3% moisture 

on a wet weight basis. This means 

that you must dry your product to 7% moisture 

on average in order to ensure that no 

product is over the 10% moisture maximum. 

The result is that you are sending 

3% less product to packaging than if you 

dried to only 10% moisture. This lost production 

is going out the drier exhaust stack 

in the form of water vapor. If your drier 

could be made to dry more uniformly, you 

could raise your discharge moisture and get 

more production out of your dry feed line 

with no additional cost or ingredients. 

The value of this lost production can be 

staggering. Consider a 15 ton/hour dry feed 

line that is producing feed overdried by just 

3% moisture. If the line runs 24 hours per 

day for 350 days a year, the lost production 

is: 

15 tph × 24hr/ 

day× 

350days/ 

year× 

3% = 3780tons/ 

year 

That’s an additional 3,780 tons of product 

per year that could be sold simply by drying 

more uniformly.


Most common causes of poor moisture 

uniformity 

First, the product must be consistently extruded. 

Once an extruder is set-up and allowed 

to run in a steady state production it 

will usually produce a consistent feed. The 

feed that leaves the extruder is high in 

moisture and temperature and therefore 

willing to release its moisture quickly. 

The drying curve is linear at this time; 

meaning that the product will lose its moisture 

as if it was just a cup of water. It is 

critical that each piece of product travels 

the same process path as it goes from a 

soft wet feed to the stable dry feed. Any 

difference along this path is a source of inconsistent 

product moisture. Some of the 

more common areas for this moisture difference 

occur in the drier and are caused by 

but not limited to: inconsistent bed loading, 

uneven airflow, and uneven product retention 

time. 

Tips to improve moisture uniformity 

The drying process is often where the most 

product moisture inconsistency can be introduced 

so it is important to have this 

process evaluated. An experienced drier 

expert will be able to adjust the drier to 

achieve its best potential moisture uniformity 

for that particular drier configuration and 

design. The drier expert should also conduct 

a detailed moisture uniformity check. 

Most daily process moisture samples are 

taken after the drying process in a mixed 

product stream. This sample would represent 

a masked sample. 

Taking a sample every so often is fine for 

production records, but for product quality 

or economics, a more discrete set of moisture 

samples must be taken. It is important 

that you understand your piece to piece 

product moisture uniformity. 

You may be one of the many feed 

producers who feel that piece-topiece 

variations are not important 

since you believe that product will 

equilibrate in the bins or after 

packaging. This is not the case! 

Moisture Equilibration 

You may be one of the many feed producers 

who feel that piece to piece variations 

are not important since you believe that 

product will equilibrate in the bins or after 

packaging. This is not the case! 

The following graph shows typical results 

from tests conducted using extruded feed to 

monitor the rate of equilibration. 

This particular test placed several samples of 

9mm extruded feed taken at two different 

moisture contents in a sealed bag. 

The wet sample was approximately 12.5 % 

moisture wet weight basis. The dry sample 

was approximately 5.5% moisture wet 

weight basis. These samples were mixed and 

packaged together. 

The combined average moisture content, 

similar to a typical production moisture 

sample, was approximately 9.2%. At different 

intervals the samples were analyzed and 

the results were telling. The equilibration 

curve may surprise you. 

The graph below shows the equilibration 

curve for seven hours. There is some equilibration 

but it is clear the curves do not meet 

at the average. Even after several days the 

product maintained a 3% moisture difference. 

So, although the average moisture sample 

was 9.2%, after seven hours the bag still 

contained product with moisture content 

over 11%.


Equilibration Curve 

1 kg wet with 1 kg dry feed mixed in plastic lined bag 

Moisture (%wwb) 

14.00 

13.00 

12.00 

11.00 

10.00 

9.00 

8.00 

7.00 

6.00 

5.00 

4.00 

0 2 4 6 8 

Time (hours) 

Dry Product (%wwb) 

Wet Product (% wwb) 

Average (%wwb) 

This higher moisture content could cause 

mold growth yielding product unacceptable 

to your customers. 

So with this in mind, when you are performing 

a moisture tolerance investigation, 

you should check your product after the 

drying stage and prior to any mixing. 

Because this can be difficult, let’s review 

some important considerations. 

The vast majority of extruded feed driers 

are horizontal conveyor driers. However, a 

few producers have installed some vertical 

semi-continuous batch driers on extruded 

feed lines. 

Different methods are required. Typically, 

taking samples from a conveyor drier is 

much easier due to better access and is 

continuous rather than a semi-continuous 

mode of operation. 

Collecting product moisture samples 

from a conveyor drier 

On a conveyor drier, you will want to investigate 

cross machine moisture variations, as 

well as transient moisture variations in 

time. 

You may also want to take samples from 

the first or second bed in a two or three 

pass drier to help in pinpointing the source 

of the variations. 

Figure 1 on the next page shows where to 

take the discharge samples.


Product Feed 

Discharge Sample 

Figure 1: Side view of a two-pass Horizontal 

Convection Conveyor drier showing the sample 

location 

The samples should be taken as a matrix 

in the vertical plane of the product prior 

to discharge from the bed. The bed of 

product can typically be accessed through 

the end doors of the drier. 

Figure 2 shows the discharge product sample 

matrix. 

Collecting product moisture samples 

from a vertical drier 

Taking samples from a vertical drier is 

considerably more difficult since you have 

very limited access to the decks of product. 

Also, you will need to take more 

samples in a “set” of samples since the 

vertical drier is a batch operation rather 

than a true continuous operation. 

This means that you are now looking to 

measure moisture variations across the 

whole deck of product rather than just 

across the bed as in a conveyor drier. 

Unfortunately, these difficulties make it 

very challenging to take a proper set of 

samples from the vertical drier. 

You will need to find a safe and effective 

way to collect these samples as different 

vertical configurations present different 

challenges to access the product prior to 

mixing. 

You should remember that a moisture 

gradient can exist through the depth of 

the product as well as across the width 

and length of the deck. 

Remember that you should not take samples 

at the discharge because this will be 

a mixed sample that can mask the piece 

to piece moisture content.


Product sample location. 

Last heating 

level prior to cooling. 

Figure 3: Hot spot and its impact on grain 

So why should you care 

As pointed out in this article, there are many 

compelling reasons to care about product 

moisture uniformity. With a tight moisture 

tolerance the economical savings are great. 

You are now efficiently utilizing your cheapest 

product ingredient - water, without fear 

of producing an unstable and non-saleable 

product. And with new evidence that shows 

product moisture equilibration is at best 

dampening the effect of significant moisture 

uniformity, the key is having the right drying 

equipment and operating it properly. 

About the author: 

Paul D. McKeithan, E.I. is a Market Manager 

for Aeroglide Corporation. Paul 

has evaluated hundreds of convection driers 

all over the world. He has also conducted 

drying theory classes in many different 

industries and countries. 

Contact him for more information at: 

pmckeithan@aeroglide.com 

1 Publication no. W-1999-1214-01F. 2000 American 

Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc. Understanding 

the Importance of Water Activity in 

Food, A.J. Fontana, Jr. 

RETURN TO CONTENTS PAGE

Improve Quality While 

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• Extrusion Systems 

• Horizontal Dryers & Coolers 

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• Liquid/Powder Coating Systems 

• Pneumatic Conveying Systems 

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GRAIN STORAGE 

Safe storage of grain in the tropics 

A comparison of hermetic storage in flexible silos versus rigid 

metal or concrete silos 

Fig. 1: 

300MT Cocoon with GrainShade storing paddy in 

the Philippines 

The metabolism of the organisms in the 

stored products, including insects found in 

grains, creates a Modified Atmosphere (MA) 

with high CO 2 and low O 2 conditions. The 

low-permeability, flexible PVC material used 

in the Cocoons both prevents changes in 

humidity and protects the stored grains 

By Philippe Villers, Tom de Bruin, and Dr. Shlomo Navarro 

I 

n modern hermetically sealed “silos” from rodents. 

such as Cocoons (as shown in Figure 1), This MA controls the insect population, prevents 

development of fungi (molds) and 

the bagged grain is stored under modified 

atmospheric conditions, insulated from slows down oxidation. The unique design 

the ambient atmosphere by means of a and PVC material of the Cocoon protect the 

special fabric that serves as a gas barrier. commodities from rodent attack. With the 

use of a Cocoon, all quality aspects of the 

grain, seeds or other dry agricultural products 

are protected without the need for fumigation 

or aeration. 

By contrast, in non-hermetic, traditional 

metal or concrete silos, grain is loaded into 

the silos by several means, including the 

use of bucket elevators. Once the grain is 

stored in non-hermetic conditions, it is exposed 

to atmospheric oxygen and external 

humidity, and therefore, insect infestation 

cannot be controlled without the use of 

toxic pesticides. 

Metal and concrete silo technologies originated 

in Europe and in the United States, 

where temperate climates, particularly in 

winter, permit the use of ventilation systems 

built into the silos to cool the grain 

during the cold season. Most storage pests 

are not active at temperatures of less than 

20 o C. 

A properly built conventional silo is effective 

in protecting against rodents but in tropical 

climates, does not prevent moisture condensation 

and subsequent moisture increase 

within the stored commodities. 

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GRAIN STORAGE 

Table 1 – Comparison of Hermetic Storage Vs Conventional Silos in Tropics 

Item of comparison Hermetic (“Cocoon TM ”) 

storage 

Control measures if 

infestation occurs 

Control by depleted O 2 . Gas 

analyzer enables follow up on 

infestation level, detection of 

leak 

Conventional metal or concrete 

bin silos 

Grain will have to be unloaded and 

treated with phosphine (PH 3 ) 

Fumigation Not needed Required every 6—12 weeks 

Condensation at 

14% MC 

Protection from 

rodents 

No, if “GrainShade” provided 

with Cocoon is used properly 

Protected 

High risk if storage is above 1 

month and grain is not sufficiently 

dry (low moisture content (MC) 

Protected 

Length of storage Unlimited 1—3 months depending on climate, 

silo material (metal or concrete), 

the extent of the exposure 

of the roof to absorb solar energy, 

and initial MC of the commodity 

Moisture level of 

commodity 

Remains constant 

Moisture content will rise significantly 

due to condensation 

Aeration Not needed Is required in temperate climates, 

but it is ineffective in tropics due 

to lack of cold nights 

Life span of the 

structure 

10—15 years 20—25 years (if metal is painted 

periodically against corrosion, and 

concrete with adequate maintenance) 

Set up Can be set up at any location Needs concrete floor, access road, 

construction time 

Infrastructure required 

None 

Road, electricity 

Auxiliary equipment None Bucket elevator, fans, “sweeper” 

auger 

Price per MT 

(investment) 

Mobility (ability to 

move/dismantle silos 

and move them 

to another area) 

US$50—US$80 

Excellent 

US$100—250 (including infrastructure 

and handling equipment) 

Impossible once set up 

Hazards 

Safe storage 

duration 

Rodents (but can easily be 

prevented) 

Proven under tropical conditions 

for long term storage 

Dust explosion, caking due to 

excess of moisture content, 

condensation 

Storage may not be extended 

above 1—3 months

GRAIN STORAGE 

Background information 

P 

roblems of metal or concrete silos 

for long-term storage in the tropics: 

In tropical climates, even if the 

commodity is sufficiently dry, it suffers 

from two major problems if stored within 

metal or concrete silos: 

1. Condensation occurring below the roof 

of the silos and at the top layers of the 

grain bulk, leading to fungal and insect 

growth. 

2. Contamination with fumigants and 

chemical contact insecticides necessarily 

used to prevent insect infestation. 

Cylindrical metal or concrete silos were 

designed for storing grain in bulk. Grain 

in a silo is protected against rain, but not 

“Conventional silos operate successfully 

in continental, temperate and 

subtropical climates where a cold 

season exists”. 

protected against change in moisture content 

(which is accompanied by rapid mold 

development), oxidation, or insect infestation. 

Conventional silos operate successfully in 

continental, temperate and subtropical climates 

where a cold season exists. 

Figure 2. Diagram showing factors having an impact 

on stored grain

GRAIN STORAGE 

The temperature of grain stored in nontropical 

climates rises because of high 

moisture content (MC) or insect infestation 

but can be reduced by mechanical 

aeration - using fans that take advantage 

of the cold air available during the night 

or during the cold season. If well managed, 

aeration can control insect populations, 

which are suppressed at temperatures 

below 18 o C. 

Humidity and Condensation 

C 

ondensation in metal or concrete 

silos is the result of heat build-up at 

the headspace of the grain bulk, 

followed by cooling. This is caused both 

by direct sunshine on the roof and the 

walls of the silo and by high prevailing 

daytime temperatures. Warm air has the 

capacity to hold more water than cold air 

and, aided by convection currents, warm 

headspace air in the silo absorbs moisture 

from the grain by adjusting its relative 

humidity to that of the grain. This moisture 

is transferred to the headspace air 

from the grain inside the silo through diffusion 

and “convection currents”. 

(Remember the principle: warm air rises, 

cold air goes down!) 

At night the ambient temperature drops 

and so does the temperature in the headspace 

of the silo. As the temperature goes 

down, the air in the headspace which has 

become over-saturated with moisture 

then releases its excess of water. This is 

known as condensation drops or 

“sweating.” 

These drops settle at the roof of the silo 

and will eventually drip onto the top surface 

layer of the grain bulk and along the 

walls. Wet grain at the top of the bulk 

forms, a phenomenon called “caking.” The 

grain becomes moldy and black, heats up 

during the warm day and, if not removed 

in time, can ignite due to spontaneous 

combustion. By contrast, a Cocoon is 

designed to have no headspace and to be 

protected from large temperature gradients. 

Infestation 

B 

ecause in metal and concrete silos in 

tropical climates the grain bulk cannot 

be properly cooled (unless refrigeration 

is applied), infestation is a common 

feature. Infestation usually occurs in spots 

where large populations of insects also develop; 

however, uniform distribution of the 

infestation is also possible. Infestation generates 

more heat and thus creates favorable 

conditions for further insect and mold development. 

Figure 3: Hot spot and its impact on grain

GRAIN STORAGE 

Moisture absorption 

T 

he commodity should be stored dry 

at a safe moisture content (MC). For 

corn, this is set at 12.0% (which is 

in equilibrium with 60% relative humidity) 

because molds develop at higher relative 

humidities. 

Density of 

Insect population 

both to high relative humidity and high temperature. 

Operation of the ventilation system 

is generally ineffective since the cooling effect 

of air with a day/night temperature difference 

of 5 o C is extremely low. In addition 

the ventilation system helps to expose the 

commodity to air with a high relative humidity 

(RH), thus increasing the MC of the commodity. 

As a result, insects easily develop in the grain 

(optimal temperatures for storage pest development 

is 28-35 o C). In addition, when the 

MC increases, molds and related aflatoxin 

easily develop. 

Figure 4: Effect of relative humidity on mold density 

Silos in the tropics 

I 

n the tropics average temperatures are 

around 30 o C and the relative humidity 

fluctuates between 70-90%. The water 

vapor capacity of this warm and humid air 

is high, particularly when the headspace 

heats to 50 o C. This air, at a relative 

humidity of 65%, may contain as much as 

62g of water per m 3 air. 

When this air cools to a temperature of 

30 o C, its maximum water vapor capacity 

drops to 29 g water/ m 3 air. The excess of 

water vapor condenses on the roof (inside 

the silo) and each m 3 air releases about 33 

g of water for each day/night cycle. 

Although day and nighttime temperature 

differences are very limited in tropical 

climates (usually not more than 5 o C), the 

problem arises due to heating of air at the 

headspace of the silo. The exposed metal 

roof temperature can easily heat up to 60 

o C or more, aggravating the condensation. 

Thus, a commodity stored at 14% MC (at 

70% RH) in a silo in the tropics is exposed 

Density of 

Insect population 

Figure 5: Effect of temperature on insect infestation 

Eventually, heat build-up at the roof and 

walls will result in condensation which, under 

tropical conditions, cannot be prevented due 

to inability to cool the grain sufficiently. 

What about existing silos in the tropics 

M 

any traditional metal and concrete 

silo complexes exist in the tropics, 

often built without sufficient understanding 

of the unique problems of storing 

grain in that environment. As a result, in 

some countries such as Nigeria, millions of 

dollars worth of storage capacity is standing 

idle. 

In the Philippines, a number of silo complexes 

acquired for storing paddy are unused due to 

the problems mentioned above. For example,

GRAIN STORAGE 

feed millers have had severe problems of 

caking of corn in their silos, requiring them 

to clean the silo walls at great expense. 

Although it is possible to hermetically seal 

conventional silos, the expenses involved 

are substantial. Silo roofs have to be insulated 

and walls may have to be painted 

white to reduce heat absorption. A solution 

is needed to cope with air expansion due to 

fluctuation of temperature. 

Hermetic storage in flexible liners called Cocoons* 

such as those shown in Figure 6 below, 

offers an alternative solution. 

3) using either vacuum or purging with CO 2 

or Nitrogen for rapid fumigation of highvalue 

commodities as different as figs and 

historically important museum pieces. 

Fig. 7 - IRRI Rice Seed in SuperGrainbags 

Recently, (as seen in Figure 7) the introduction 

of a novel type of low cost hermetic liners 

for conventional bags, called Super- 

Grainbags, allows 50Kg bags of grains or 

seed to benefit from hermetic storage. 

Fig. 6 - 150MT Cocoon storing maize in Rwanda 

It preserves the quality of the grain and is a 

totally environmentally user-friendly and 

green solution. Applying the existing hermetic 

technology to new metal silos to create 

Hermetic Silos for bulk grain storage 

is also possible using the same flexible PVC 

as in Cocoons. However, retrofitting existing 

silos in this manner would be quite difficult.The 

use of (patented) hermetic storage 

using Cocoons, as described above, is now 

used in some 20 countries for applications 

as varied as: 

1) long-term safe seed and grain storage 

without refrigeration; 2) preserving taste 

and aroma of coffee, cocoa and spices; and 

For further information contact 

Tom Debruin: 

tom@grainpro.com or visit: 

www.agri.gov.il/Envir/envir.html and 

www.grainpro.com 

For a list of references contact Dr. Shlomo 

Navarro, Agricultural Research Organization 

snavarro@volcani.agri.gov.il 

About the authors: 

Philippe Villers is President, GrainPro Inc., 

Concord, MA 01742 U.S.A.; Tom de Bruin 

is Vice President, Sales & Marketing, Grain- 

Pro, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines and Dr. 

Shlomo Navarro is Principal Scientist, 

Dept of Food Science, Agricultural Research 

Organization, Bet-Dagan, Israel. 

RETURN TO CONTENTS PAGE

VICTAM 

International2007 

THE WORLD’S PREMIER EVENT FOR SUPPLIERS TO THE ANIMAL & 

AQUATIC FEED, PETFOOD AND GRAIN PROCESSING INDUSTRIES 

8 – 10 May 2007 • Jaarbeurs Halls, Utrecht • The Netherlands 

VICTAM INTERNATIONAL 2007 will bring together exhibitors and visitors from all over the world who are 

concerned with animal feed technology, animal feed additives, aqua feed technology and ingredients, petfoods, 

specialist animal feeds, raw materials, flour milling, grain processing, storage, handling & transportation, 

explosion prevention and biomass technology. 

VICTAM ANIMAL FEED INGREDIENTS 

Ingredients for health and nutrition, feed additives and feed formulation 

VICTAM ANIMAL FEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY 

Animal feed production technology, machinery, processing, automation, packaging, etc. 

VICTAM AQUAFEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY & INGREDIENTS 

Aquafeed ingredients & production technology, machinery, processing, packaging, etc. 

VICTAM PETFOOD PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY & INGREDIENTS 

Ingredients, production technology, machinery, processing and packaging of dry petfoods 

VICTAM FLOUR, GRAIN, RICE & RAW MATERIALS PROCESSING 

Flour milling technology & additives, rice, grain, alfalfa/lucerne & other raw materials & their processing technology 

VICTAM STORAGE & HANDLING TECHNOLOGY 

Storage, handling and transportation systems, together with port un/loading facilities 

VICTAM BIOMASS TECHNOLOGY 

Systems & technology used in biomass processing, for use as alternative energy sources, including services and 

technology to facilitate organic waste re-cycling 

VICTAM EXPLOSION PREVENTION 

Systems & equipment used within industrial premises to monitor and maintain safety and prevent fire & explosions 

OPTIMIZE PROFIT THROUGH NUTRITION & TECHNOLOGY 

Organised by VICTAM INTERNATIONAL BV 

Netherlands: PO Box 197, 3860 AD Nijkerk, The Netherlands. 

T: ++31 (0)33 246 4404 F: ++31 (0)33 246 4706 E: Beaveldhuizen@victam.com 

UK: PO Box 411, Redhill, RH1 6WE, UK. 

T: ++44 (0)1737 763501 F: ++44 (0)1737 762996 E: Andrew.west733@ntlworld.com 

Or visit our website www.victam.com for your local sales consultant


WHAT’S NEW AT FEEDLINK 

Oak Bluff, Manitoba, 

Canada-based 

G. J. Vis Enterprises Inc., is the 

latest member of FeedLink. 

Vis plans and designs feed mills 

with projects ranging from 

20,000 to 400,000 tonnes per 

annum for mash and pelleted 

feeds. The company also 

manufactures a wide range of 

bulk storage bins, material 

handling equipment and processing 

equipment to industrial 

standards. 

See details of the services Vis 

has to offer as well as more about the company and details 

of their product range here: Vis on FeedLink. 

DRYER OPTIMIZATION 

Geelen Counterflow has recently performed a complete 

analysis of all dryers installed at a major European 

private label petfood producer. Engineers from the commissioning 

team visited six plants in four countries and 

analysed eight dryers (both horizontal and vertical) from 

four different suppliers. 

They performed a review of the mechanical condition of 

the dryers which were in some cases over 10 years old. 

Energy efficiency and moisture uniformity were measured, 

as well as air exhaust volumes. 

At the end of the tests, a detailed report was presented 

to the group's directors. Opportunities for improvement 

were identified and discussed. 

In total the potential savings in energy efficiency and 

moisture uniformity were calculated as in excess of €1 

million per year. That is excluding the financial impact of 

better product quality and lower cleaning and maintenance 

costs. 

A short list was prepared with a number of relatively 

small mechanical improvements to the dryers. 

As a follow up, the Geelen Counterflow team will be 

organising a set of seminars for the group's plant managers 

and operators to improve their understanding of the 

drying process. 

For more information contact Sander Geelen at 

sander.geelen@geelencounterflow.com 

ON-LINE RESOURCES 

Kansas State University 

Grain Science Library 

Most of these free-access 

feed production “bulletins” 

are far from new—but there 

is a wealth of useful technical 

information in these papers 

that withstand time: 

Avoiding Drug Carryover During 

Feed Processing and Delivery 

PDF 

Bagged Ingredient Storage 

PDF 

Bulk Ingredient Storage PDF 

Effects of Diet Particle Size on 

Animal Performance PDF 

Evaluating Feed Components and 

Finished Feeds PDF 

Evaluating Particle Size PDF 

Grain Grading Standards in Feed 

Manufacturing PDF 

Hammermills and Roller mills 

PDF 

Mycotoxins in Feed Grains and 

Ingredients PDF 

Portable Grinder Mixers PDF 

Premixing PDF 

Preventative Maintenance for 

Feed Processing Facilities and 

Equipment PDF 

Rotating Drum Mixers PDF 

Safety Measures in Handling 

Stored Grain PDF 

Sampling: Procedures for Feed 

PDF 

Sampling: Statistical and Economic 

Analysis PDF 

Statistical Process Control: Techniques 

for Feed Manufacturing 

PDF 

Testing Mixer Performance 

PDF 

Visit Kansas State 

University Grain Science 

Department


UPCOMING DATES FOR YOUR DIARY 

April 23-26, 2006 

Alltech's 22nd International Feed Industry Symposium 

Lexington, Kentucky, USA 

Delivering on the Nutrigenomics Promise:This year’s program 

brings together scientists and decision-makers from around the 

world to discuss the latest advances in animal feeding programs 

and their impact on animals and ultimately human health. 

More details 

April 13-16, 2006 

International Fair of Mill Machinery & Related Grain Technologies 

2006 

World Trade Center, Istanbul, Turkey 

Supported by Flour Industrialists Association and Turkish Grain 

Board, the first show, in 2005 was visited by 5500 professional 

visitors from 36 countries. More details 

April 26-28, 2006 

Food and Feed Extrusion New Zealand 

Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand 

The course covers the principles of extrusion, the design of extrusion 

processes, and the formulation of extruded products. It 

includes a practical demonstration of the principles learned using 

a twin screw extruder at the Institute of Food, Nutrition, 

and Human Health at Massey University. 

The program is relevant to both single and twin screw extrusion 

technology, and to the production of all types of extruded products 

- including expanded snacks and breakfast cereals, pastas 

and third generation snack pellets, pet foods and aquafeeds. 

More information 

May 2-4, 2006 

Food and Feed Extrusion Australia 

Roseworthy Campus of Adelaide University at Gawler in South 

Australia (See above) More information 

May 5, 2006 

Aquafeed Extrusion Workshop 

Roseworthy Campus of Adelaide University at Gawler in South 

Australia (See above) More Information 

June 12-16, 2006 

Feed Microscopy Short Course 

Manhattan, Kansas, USA 

This short course covers all aspects of feed microscopy from basic 

stereomicroscopy techniques to advanced compound microscopy. 

More information 

MORE DIARY DATES ON THE CALENDARS AT 

FeedLink.com and Aquafeed.com 

NEWS WATCH 

Escalating bird flu crisis 

jeopardizes global poultry 

trade prospects 

Reduced consumption is lowering 

poultry prices and import demand 

Recent avian influenza outbreaks 

in Europe, the Middle East and 

Africa have caused dramatic 

swings in poultry consumption, 

increased trade bans and sharp 

price declines, FAO said. 

Avian flu and global poultry 

markets 

FAO's avian influenza website 

US Cow Tests Positive for BSE 

The United States Department of 

Agriculture has confirmed that a 

non-ambulatory animal on a 

farm in Alabama has Bovine 

Spongiform Encephalopathy 

(BSE). The cow is believed to 

have been upwards of 10 years 

of age. This would indicate that 

this animal would have been 

born prior to the implementation 

of the Food and Drug Administration's 

1997 ruminant-toruminant 

feed ban. 

USDA APHIS BSE Home 

Page 

Protocol for monitoring of 

heavy metals in feed included 

in GMP+:2006 

Excess level of cadmium in zinc 

sulphate from China prompted 

Netherlands-based feed industry 

regulatory body, PDV to establish 

new controls. 

The protocol is part of Appendix 

4 “Minimum Requirements for 

Inspection and Control”. 

The content of the protocol 

is available here as a PDF


VICTAM ASIA A HUGE SUCCESS 

NEWS WATCH 

“More than exceeded our 

expectations” is just one 

quote from one of the many 

satisfied exhibitors at the 

recent Victam Asia 2006 

event held in Bangkok from 

the March 8-10, 2006. 

The general reaction to the 

event from visitors, conference 

delegates and exhibitors 

was that the overall 

event was a great success. 

Just on 4,000 visitors from 

many countries throughout 

Southeast Asia attended 

the trade show at which 

128 exhibitors from all over 

the world participated. 

The exhibition had for the 

first time included exhibition 

pavilions from both 

Thailand and the PRC. 

CONFERENCES 

The event was supported 

by a technical conference 

organized by the Thai 

Department of Livestock 

and Development and the 

Thai Tapioca Trade Board. 

Almost 180 delegates 

attended a series of technical 

papers presented by experts 

from the Thai feed 

industry. 

Aquafeed.com also held a 

one day workshop entitled 

“Optimize for Profit”. This 

workshop, devoted to aquaculture 

feed, attracted 153 

delegates from throughout 

the Asia/Pacific region. 

Sixth feedmill for Cargill in 

Viet Nam 

Cargill Vietnam has commenced 

construction of its sixth animal 

feed mill in Vietnam. 

The 150,000 tpa mill is being 

built in the Mekong delta province 

of Long An at a cost of 

US$12 million and will boost 

Cargill Vietnam's feed processing 

capacity to more than 700,000 

tpa. 

Cargill Vietnam General Director 

Scott Ainslie said that Viet Nam 

is a promising market for animal 

feed and that his company plans 

to build two or three more factories 

in the country by 2010. 

Mad cow disease on the wane 

worldwide says FAO 

Cases of Bovine Spongiform 

Encepalopathy (BSE) or “mad 

cow disease” worldwide are 

declining, according to the UN 

Food and Agriculture Organization 

(FAO). They have been 

dropping at the rate of some 50 

percent a year over the past 

three years. In 2005, just 474 

animals died of BSE around the 

world, compared with 878 in 

2004 and 1646 in 2003, and 

against a peak of several tens of 

thousands in 1992. 

Don’t be the one who didn’t 

see it coming 

Visit our news blog 

FEEDBACK

Abstracts of these papers 

can be obtained from 

Aquafeed.com. 

Dr. Chaweewan Leowijuk, 

Deputy Director General of 

the Thai Department of 

Livestock Development 

praised the many exhibitors 

for participating at the 

event in Bangkok and said 

that the organization of the 

event in Thailand supported 

the importance of Thailand’s 


agriculture industry not just 

as a major exporter but also 

as a centre of excellence for 

feed and food production. 

The next Victam Asia will be 

held again in Bangkok 

during the Spring of 2008. 

Visit Victam’s website 

for details. 

Work into replacing sulfur dioxide with environmentally friendly 

enzymes in corn earns recognition for scientist 

In February 2006 food technologist, 

David Johnston, 

was honored as the United 

States Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) Agriculture 

Research Service (ARS) 

"Outstanding Early Career 

Research Scientist" for the 

year 2005. 

David Johnston, a research 

food technologist with the 

ARS Crop Conversion 

Science and Engineering Research 

Unit in Wyndmoor, 

PA, USA, was one of eight 

"Early Career Scientists of 

the Year". He was awarded 

the highest of these honors, 

the Herbert L. Rothbart Outstanding 

Early Career Research 

Scientist of the Year. 

Johnston’s work has focused 

on developing novel, environmentally 

sustainable biochemical 

and engineering 

processes that are improving 

the way corn is processed 

into foods and fuels around 

the world. 

He started his efforts to 

replace sulfur dioxide with 

environmentally friendly 

enzymes in the corn wet 

milling process but realized 

that ethanol production could 

also benefit. 

The valuable co-products resulting 

from ethanol production 

using enzymes qualify as 

organic, contributing a valuable 

feed resource for organic 

feeds. 

In this video (6 minutes) 

Johnston describes his work. 

VIDEO (Windows Media 

Player required. If you don't 

have it, download it for free 

here 

More about Johnston's re 

search 

Johnston's projects


Slight decrease in EU feed 

production in 2005 

JOB OPPORTUNITIES 

European feed federation, 

FEFAC, members reported 

a total production of 143.6 

million tonnes (mt) of compound 

feed in 2005, representing 

a slight decrease of 

0.6% in total compound feed 

production compared to the 

previous year. 

The regression spanned 

evenly over all feed categories 

with the exception of 

milk replacers (+1.3%). 

Among the large feed producing 

countries Poland 

(+7.9%), Spain (+3.7%) and 

the Netherlands (+2.5%) 

booked significant production 

gains whereas Belgium (- 

5.6%), Hungary (-4.2%) and 

the UK (-3.2%) faced important 

losses. Spain has overtaken 

Germany as the second 

largest compound feed 

producing country in the EU. 

Impact of bird flu 

The media coverage on Avian 

Influenza led to an important 

slowdown of poultry production 

towards the end of 

2005. FEFAC industry experts 

estimated the potential AI 

knock-on effects for the calendar 

year 2006 a total reduction 

of 2.5 – 5 mt of the 

total EU poultry feed output, 

stressing that it was still very 

difficult to provide accurate 

estimates due to the very 

volatile market situation. 

France, Italy and Hungary 

may see the strongest negative 

impact given the relative 

importance of poultry feed 

production in these countries 

and persisting negative consumer 

sentiment towards 

poultry products. 

Since compensation effects 

between meat categories will 

be very limited, total EU 

compound feed output may 

therefore shrink by up to 3 – 

4% until the end of the year. 

FEFAC, the European Compound 

Feed Manufacturers 

Federation (FEFAC), represents 

22 national Associations 

in 21 EU Member 

States as well as Associations 

from Switzerland, Norway 

and Turkey with observer/ 

associate member status. 

The European compound 

feed industry produces more 

than 140 mt of compound 

feed employing over 100,000 

persons on more than 4,000 

production sites. 

Download the tables of 

compound feed production in 

FEFAC member countries 

On the Aquafeed.com 

JOB BOARD 

Animal Feed Mill Manager - 

Oman 

Qualified and experienced manager 

for a 960 tonne/day Buhler 

animal feedmill. The successful 

applicant will be responsible for 

overall production and management 

of the mill. View/Reply 

Director, Aquatic Feeds and 

Nutrition Department Oceanic 

Institute - Hawaii 

The Department’s objective is to 

support cost effective and sustainable 

aquaculture technology 

development by optimizing feeds 

and culture management practices 

in tropical and subtropical 

environments. View/Reply 

Logistics Manager - N. Africa 

Logistics Manager to manage a 

leading North African based food 

groups raw material and finished 

products transportation. This is a 

senior position with an excellent 

tax free ex-pat package. 

View/Reply 

Scientist Fish Nutrition - 

France 

DSM Nutritional Products invites 

applications for a position of 

Scientist in Fish Nutrition and 

Health Research View/Reply

FEED TECHNOLOGY UPDATE - AquaFeed.com

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