A background study on natural resources in the
A background study on natural resources in the A background study on natural resources in the
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Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s page 1<br />
SameOldStory<br />
A <str<strong>on</strong>g>background</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
A Report by Global Witness. June 2004
1 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
1 Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
THIS REPORT marks <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of an<br />
extensive project that will exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>natural</strong><br />
resource governance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic<br />
Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
Global Witness recommends that <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>or<br />
community and <strong>the</strong> United Nati<strong>on</strong>s should:<br />
● Ma<strong>in</strong>stream <strong>natural</strong> resource governance issues as an area<br />
of critical c<strong>on</strong>cern dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al period and for<br />
<strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g-term peace and development of <strong>the</strong> Democratic<br />
Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
The Internati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>or community should:<br />
● Realign and refocus aid programmes to make issues of<br />
<strong>natural</strong> resource governance high priority dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al government period and bey<strong>on</strong>d. The issue of<br />
<strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> cannot and must not be ignored <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
rush to rebuild and develop <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
● Develop and implement <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al and regulatory<br />
capacity with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC government’s civil service to<br />
ensure new laws and codes are adhered to, and revenues<br />
are managed transparently and resp<strong>on</strong>sibly.<br />
● Individual d<strong>on</strong>or countries and bodies should coord<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
activities and policies to streng<strong>the</strong>n activities aimed at<br />
improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>natural</strong> resource governance. Support for anticorrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives should be c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued and expanded.<br />
● Provide f<strong>in</strong>ancial and logisitcal support to local civil society<br />
movements <strong>in</strong> activities aimed at improv<strong>in</strong>g resource<br />
governance and transparency, and work with local groups<br />
to provide public educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> resource issues at a grassroots<br />
level.<br />
● Develop and deepen regi<strong>on</strong>al approaches to aid and<br />
development policies to ensure uniformity of approach<br />
across <strong>the</strong> Great Lakes regi<strong>on</strong>. Plans for <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic, political and social development should not be<br />
made <strong>in</strong> a vacuum: <strong>the</strong> politics and ec<strong>on</strong>omics of<br />
neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries are closely <strong>in</strong>terrelated with <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC.<br />
● Developmental, political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic analysis by<br />
countries look<strong>in</strong>g to assist <strong>the</strong> DRC should <strong>in</strong>corporate<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al characteristics of trade. For <strong>in</strong>stance, regi<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al organisati<strong>on</strong>s such as <strong>the</strong> African Uni<strong>on</strong> or<br />
COMESA have <strong>the</strong> potential to provide creative crossborder<br />
strategies for c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g trade, and smuggl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al F<strong>in</strong>ancial Instituti<strong>on</strong>s should:<br />
● Take <strong>on</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-ground realities <strong>in</strong>to account when build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and implement<strong>in</strong>g policies to generate revenues through<br />
resource extracti<strong>on</strong>. They must urgently reexam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
reliance <strong>on</strong> a purely fiscal approach to “kick-start<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
● Develop <strong>in</strong>novative immediate and l<strong>on</strong>g-term soluti<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
ensure <strong>the</strong> historical trajectory of misuse of <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC is ended. Given that <strong>the</strong> DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> wealth<br />
has been identified as a key to rapid ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth and<br />
post-war rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, close attenti<strong>on</strong> needs to be paid<br />
challenges of rec<strong>on</strong>cil<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> need for <strong>in</strong>vestment, reform<br />
and law enforcement with <strong>on</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-ground realities.<br />
● Actively support and participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> public<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> about <strong>the</strong> new m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and<br />
forestry codes, and guarantee that mean<strong>in</strong>gful<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>s take place with local communities across <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC <strong>on</strong> issues perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to resource and revenue<br />
management.<br />
The DRC Government of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Unity should:<br />
● Firmly commit to mak<strong>in</strong>g anti-corrupti<strong>on</strong>, transparency<br />
and accountability priority areas, and, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lead-up to<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al electi<strong>on</strong>s, all members of <strong>the</strong> new government<br />
should publicly declare <strong>the</strong>ir assets and bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong>terests.<br />
● Cooperate with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community and<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s to build <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
regulatory capacity.<br />
● Work to fully implement <strong>the</strong> Kimberley Process.<br />
The United Nati<strong>on</strong> Security Council should:<br />
● In <strong>the</strong> review scheduled for 30 July 2004, <strong>the</strong> Security<br />
Council should amend <strong>the</strong> mandate of <strong>the</strong> United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> Missi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go (MONUC) to <strong>in</strong>clude authority to m<strong>on</strong>itor and<br />
report <strong>on</strong> <strong>natural</strong> resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. This is<br />
especially important <strong>in</strong> Eastern DRC, where <strong>the</strong> traffick<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of arms is closely l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>natural</strong> resource exploitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
● Amend MONUC's mandate fur<strong>the</strong>r to <strong>in</strong>tensify regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> between African Uni<strong>on</strong> and UN Missi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Great Lakes, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those already <strong>in</strong> place <strong>in</strong><br />
Burundi, <strong>the</strong> Central African Republic, Sudan, Angola<br />
and Rwanda. All missi<strong>on</strong>s should ma<strong>in</strong>stream and work<br />
closely to m<strong>on</strong>itor l<strong>in</strong>ks between <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and<br />
<strong>in</strong>security <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Great Lakes regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
● C<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to work to br<strong>in</strong>g toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> DRC’s neighbours<br />
<strong>in</strong> dialogue to f<strong>in</strong>d cross-border soluti<strong>on</strong>s to resource<br />
governance. The Great Lakes c<strong>on</strong>ference is <strong>on</strong>e of several<br />
African mechanisms and organisati<strong>on</strong>s that could provide<br />
opportunities for develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>novative soluti<strong>on</strong>s to highly<br />
complex problems.<br />
● Streng<strong>the</strong>n enforcement of exist<strong>in</strong>g Security Council<br />
resoluti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> DRC and <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al law. Str<strong>in</strong>gent<br />
enforcement of targeted aviati<strong>on</strong>, commodity and arms<br />
embargoes, certificati<strong>on</strong> regimes, c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<strong>in</strong>g and bribery would significantly lessen<br />
opportunities for <strong>the</strong> illicit exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC and bey<strong>on</strong>d.<br />
● Adopt a def<strong>in</strong>iti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>resources</strong> and a permanent<br />
body attached to <strong>the</strong> UN Security Council with stand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capacity to <strong>in</strong>vestigate and sancti<strong>on</strong> malfeasance. Global<br />
Witness recommends <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>iti<strong>on</strong>: “Natural<br />
<strong>resources</strong> that have been traded <strong>in</strong> a way that drives violent<br />
armed c<strong>on</strong>flict or which threaten nati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
security.”
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 2<br />
SameOldStory<br />
A <str<strong>on</strong>g>background</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
1 Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s 1<br />
Abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s 3<br />
2 Executive Summary 4<br />
3 Introducti<strong>on</strong> 5<br />
Research methodology 5<br />
4 Historical c<strong>on</strong>text of <strong>natural</strong> resource extracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC 6<br />
4.1 Leopold II (1884 – 1907) & Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
rule (1908 – 1960) 6<br />
4.2 Methods of resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> 6<br />
4.3 Creati<strong>on</strong> of an <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy and societal<br />
changes 7<br />
4.4 Development of transport <strong>in</strong>frastructure 7<br />
4.5 Independence 7<br />
5 Mobutu (1965 – 1997) 8<br />
5.1 Natural resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> 8<br />
5.2 The growth of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy 8<br />
5.3 Clandest<strong>in</strong>e trade routes 8<br />
5.4 Decl<strong>in</strong>e of central c<strong>on</strong>trol 9<br />
5.5 Mobutu’s fall 9<br />
6 Laurent-Désiré Kabila (1997 – 2001) 10<br />
6.1 Natural resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> 10<br />
6.2 The sec<strong>on</strong>d war: 1998 – 2003 10<br />
6.3 Panel of Experts 11<br />
Major Armed Rebel Groups 12<br />
7 Joseph Kabila, <strong>the</strong> Inter-C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue and <strong>the</strong><br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong>al Government 15<br />
7.1 The Lusaka Agreement and <strong>the</strong> Inter-<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue 15<br />
7.2 Transiti<strong>on</strong>al government 15<br />
7.3 Internati<strong>on</strong>al F<strong>in</strong>ancial Instituti<strong>on</strong>al (IFI)<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement 16<br />
8 The DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> 17<br />
8.1 Overview 17<br />
8.2 Natural <strong>resources</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC 17<br />
8.3 The m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector 18<br />
9 Producti<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>trol and trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> 19<br />
9.1 Columbite-tantalite (Coltan) 19<br />
Uses of coltan • Market demand for coltan • Discovery<br />
of coltan • Ma<strong>in</strong> areas of extracti<strong>on</strong> • Extracti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
process<strong>in</strong>g • Trade routes • Trade statistics • Companies<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> coltan extracti<strong>on</strong> • Political c<strong>on</strong>trol •<br />
Cassiterite (t<strong>in</strong>)<br />
9.2 Copper and cobalt 23<br />
Historical development of copper/cobalt m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g •<br />
Centres of producti<strong>on</strong> and process<strong>in</strong>g • Trade routes •<br />
Trade statistics • Political c<strong>on</strong>trol • Copper/cobalt<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g outlook • Cadmium • Silver • Z<strong>in</strong>c • Uranium<br />
9.3 Diam<strong>on</strong>ds 28<br />
Historical development of DRC’s diam<strong>on</strong>d <strong>in</strong>dustry •<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>d deposits • Artisanal diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g •<br />
Commercial diam<strong>on</strong>d producti<strong>on</strong> and trade • DRC<br />
illicit and c<strong>on</strong>flict diam<strong>on</strong>ds • Internati<strong>on</strong>al trade routes<br />
• Trade statistics<br />
9.4 Gold 32<br />
Official trade statistics • Trade routes<br />
9.5 Oil and gas 34<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between c<strong>on</strong>flict and oil • Trade statistics •<br />
Gas<br />
9.6 Timber 35<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> System • The effect of war <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> timber<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry • Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict risks • The Nor<strong>the</strong>ast •<br />
Equateur Prov<strong>in</strong>ce and <strong>the</strong> Northwest • Nati<strong>on</strong>al parks:<br />
Virunga case <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> • Government-held territory •<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict timber <strong>in</strong> government-held areas – <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwe c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> • Trade statistics<br />
9.7 “M<strong>in</strong>or” Resources 39<br />
10 Transport 40<br />
Coal • Lead • Ir<strong>on</strong> Ore • Manganese<br />
10.1 Roads 40<br />
10.2 Rivers and lakes 40<br />
10.3 Air transport 40<br />
10.4 Tra<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es 41<br />
11 DRC Internati<strong>on</strong>al Trade Summary 42<br />
11.1 Note <strong>on</strong> statistics methodology 42<br />
11.2 DRC Exports 43<br />
12 C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> 45<br />
13 Citati<strong>on</strong>s 46<br />
14 Interviews 48<br />
15 List of organisati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>tacted 48<br />
Appendix 1: Airports and Aerodromes 49<br />
References 50
3 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
ALC Armée de Libérati<strong>on</strong> du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
ABIR Anglo-Belgian India-Rubber Company<br />
ADFL Alliance des Forces Democratiques pour la Liberati<strong>on</strong> du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
AIC Associati<strong>on</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>ale du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
AliR Armée de Libérati<strong>on</strong> du Rwanda<br />
BCK Compagnie du Chem<strong>in</strong> de Fer du Bas-C<strong>on</strong>go au Katanga<br />
CAR Central African Republic<br />
CEEC Centre for Evaluati<strong>on</strong>, Expert Analysis and Certificati<strong>on</strong> of Precious M<strong>in</strong>erals<br />
CFC Compagnie du chem<strong>in</strong> de fer du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
CFL Compagnie des Chem<strong>in</strong>s de Fer du C<strong>on</strong>go Superieur aux Grands Lacs Africa<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Coltan Columbite-tantalite<br />
CSK Comité special du Katanga<br />
DRC Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
FAC Forces Armées C<strong>on</strong>golaises<br />
FAPC People’s Armed Forces of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
FAR Rwandan Armed Forces<br />
FDD Forces de Defense pour la Démocratie<br />
FEC Fédérati<strong>on</strong> des Entreprises C<strong>on</strong>golaises<br />
Form<strong>in</strong>ière Société Internati<strong>on</strong>ale Forestière et M<strong>in</strong>ière du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es Générale des Carriers et des M<strong>in</strong>es<br />
IDI Internati<strong>on</strong>al Diam<strong>on</strong>d Industries<br />
IMF Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund<br />
IPIS Internati<strong>on</strong>al Peace Informati<strong>on</strong> Service<br />
IPR Internati<strong>on</strong>al Panorama Resources Corp<br />
KMC Kababankola M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Company<br />
KP Kimberley Process<br />
MLC Mouvement pour la Libérati<strong>on</strong> du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
MIBA La Société M<strong>in</strong>ière de Bakwanga<br />
MONUC United Nati<strong>on</strong>s Observer Missi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
NALU Nati<strong>on</strong>al Army for <strong>the</strong> Liberati<strong>on</strong> of Uganda<br />
NCP Nati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>tact Po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
NGO N<strong>on</strong>-Governmental Organisati<strong>on</strong><br />
OECD Organisati<strong>on</strong> for Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Co-operati<strong>on</strong> and Development<br />
OKIMO Office des M<strong>in</strong>es d’Or de Kilo-Moto<br />
OSLEG Operati<strong>on</strong> Sovereignty Legitimacy<br />
PUSIC Party for Unity and Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> Integrity of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
RCD Rassemblement C<strong>on</strong>golais pour la Démocratie<br />
RCD-Goma Rassemblement C<strong>on</strong>golais pour la Démocratie – Goma<br />
RCD-K-ML Rassemblement C<strong>on</strong>golais pour la Démocratie-Kisangani- Mouvement de Libérati<strong>on</strong><br />
RCD-ML Rassemblement C<strong>on</strong>golais pour la Démocratie-Mouvement de Libérati<strong>on</strong><br />
RCD-N Rassemblement C<strong>on</strong>golais pour la Démocratie-Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
RPA Rwandan Patriotic Army<br />
RPF Rwandan Patriotic Fr<strong>on</strong>t<br />
SADC Sou<strong>the</strong>rn African Development Community<br />
Sakima Société Aurifère du Kivu et du Maniema<br />
Sedico Société d’Evaluati<strong>on</strong> de Diamants au C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Sediza Société d’Evaluati<strong>on</strong> de Diamants au Zaire<br />
Sicobois Societe Industrielle Commerciale des Bois Negoce de Bois<br />
SIDC Société Internati<strong>on</strong>ale de Diamants C<strong>on</strong>golais<br />
SIFORCO Société Industrielle et Forestière du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
SMKK Société M<strong>in</strong>ière de Kabolela et Kipese<br />
SOCEBO Société C<strong>on</strong>golaise d’Exploitati<strong>on</strong> du Bois<br />
SOCIGAZ Société Internati<strong>on</strong>ale d’Exploitati<strong>on</strong>, de Transport et de Commercialisati<strong>on</strong> du Gaz Méthane du Lac Kivu<br />
SOCIR Société C<strong>on</strong>go-Italienne de Raff<strong>in</strong>age<br />
SOFORMA Société Forestière du Mayumbe<br />
SOZIR Société Zairo-Italienne de Raff<strong>in</strong>age<br />
SOMIGL Société M<strong>in</strong>ière des Grands Lacs<br />
SOMINKI Société M<strong>in</strong>ière et Industrielle du Kivu<br />
SPIAF Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Amenagament Forestiers<br />
STL Scories du Terril de Lubumbashi<br />
TSS Transiti<strong>on</strong>al Support Strategy<br />
UMHK Uni<strong>on</strong> M<strong>in</strong>ière du Haut-Katanga<br />
UN United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
UNITA União Naci<strong>on</strong>al para a Independência Total de Angola<br />
UPC Uni<strong>on</strong> des Patriotes C<strong>on</strong>golais<br />
UPDF Uganda People’s Defence Forces<br />
ZDF Zimbabwean Armed Forces
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 4<br />
2 Executive Summary<br />
THIS REPORT outl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong><br />
historical development of <strong>natural</strong><br />
resource extracti<strong>on</strong> patterns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong>s 5 and 6 of <strong>the</strong> report<br />
highlight how <strong>the</strong> DRC’s vast <strong>natural</strong> wealth was<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ally exploited for <strong>the</strong> commercial benefit of a<br />
small number of bus<strong>in</strong>ess and political elites at <strong>the</strong><br />
expense of <strong>the</strong> vast majority of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese people<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> late 1800s. In <strong>the</strong> wake of rapid<br />
decol<strong>on</strong>isati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1960s, Mobutu adopted<br />
ru<strong>in</strong>ous policies lead<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> corrupt<br />
mismanagement of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese ec<strong>on</strong>omy and<br />
<strong>natural</strong> resource sectors, depriv<strong>in</strong>g state coffers of <strong>the</strong><br />
billi<strong>on</strong>s needed to effectively run governmental<br />
<strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> a country <strong>the</strong> size of Western Europe.<br />
Encourag<strong>in</strong>g direct military c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>resources</strong><br />
and a “divide and rule” strategy, Mobutu’s policies<br />
also drove ord<strong>in</strong>ary C<strong>on</strong>golese to rely <strong>on</strong> smuggl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and illicit trade to survive.<br />
As secti<strong>on</strong>s 7 and 8 dem<strong>on</strong>strate, <strong>the</strong> patterns of<br />
<strong>natural</strong> resource extracti<strong>on</strong> established under Mobutu<br />
are still <strong>in</strong> evidence today <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
that operates <strong>in</strong> parallel to cross-border military<br />
networks that developed amidst <strong>the</strong> 1998 civil war.<br />
The DRC’s current turbulent trajectory must<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore be set firmly <strong>in</strong> historical, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and<br />
political c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
The DRC is <strong>in</strong>credibly rich <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> – and it has l<strong>on</strong>g been cursed by this<br />
wealth. Secti<strong>on</strong>s 9 and 10 offer more details about <strong>the</strong><br />
range of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> exploited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC, as<br />
well as <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>ant forms of resource extracti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> centres of producti<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>trol of <strong>resources</strong>,<br />
export routes, and c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between resource<br />
wealth and political power. Where appropriate,<br />
Global Witness has <strong>in</strong>cluded analysis of <strong>the</strong> role and<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence of neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries (particularly<br />
Uganda, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, CAR, Republic of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go) and has provided details of known trade<br />
routes. Global Witness has also compiled publicly<br />
available statistical <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> flows (volumes and<br />
values) about coltan, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, copper, cobalt,<br />
timber, oil, gold and o<strong>the</strong>r key <strong>resources</strong>.<br />
This report is predom<strong>in</strong>antly based <strong>on</strong> desk-based<br />
research. Global Witness was assisted <strong>in</strong> preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
of this report by an accountable grant from <strong>the</strong><br />
Department for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development (DFID).<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent of <strong>the</strong> report has been<br />
discussed with DFID, <strong>the</strong> views expressed <strong>in</strong> this<br />
report are those of Global Witness. The purpose of<br />
<strong>the</strong> accountable grant was to build understand<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
<strong>the</strong> historical c<strong>on</strong>text of <strong>natural</strong> resource extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
governance <strong>in</strong> DRC for DFID, o<strong>the</strong>r d<strong>on</strong>ors, <strong>the</strong><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al government and o<strong>the</strong>r stakeholders.<br />
Desk-based research <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC had <strong>in</strong>herent<br />
limitati<strong>on</strong>s, and Secti<strong>on</strong> 13 c<strong>on</strong>cludes with a list of<br />
recommended fur<strong>the</strong>r research.<br />
The current transiti<strong>on</strong>al government, and <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community look<strong>in</strong>g to assist end<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
devastat<strong>in</strong>g war <strong>in</strong> eastern C<strong>on</strong>go, face a daunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
task. The DRC is fragmented, extremely fragile, and<br />
its <strong>natural</strong> resource wealth would seem to be an<br />
obvious way to “kick-start” a failed ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
However, given that <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> have<br />
never been managed <strong>in</strong> a wholly accountable and<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able manner, <strong>the</strong> DRC government, <strong>the</strong><br />
private sector and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community<br />
should proceed with extreme cauti<strong>on</strong>. The C<strong>on</strong>golese<br />
people deserve to reap benefits from <strong>the</strong>ir country’s<br />
wealth – not to be held hostage to destructive<br />
exploitative patterns established decades ago.
5 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
3 Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
THE WAR <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go (DRC) has<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> deaths of 3.5 milli<strong>on</strong> people s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998. Ethnic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict, foreign military <strong>in</strong>terference and <strong>the</strong> lure of <strong>natural</strong><br />
resource wealth have comb<strong>in</strong>ed to result <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> most<br />
devastat<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>the</strong> world has ever seen. Despite<br />
numerous reports by UN Expert Panels, academics and n<strong>on</strong>-governmental<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong>s, no firm nati<strong>on</strong>al or <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al acti<strong>on</strong> has been taken to<br />
address <strong>the</strong> issue of resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. As <strong>the</strong> country moves<br />
slowly towards peace dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al government period, <strong>the</strong> fate of <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese people hangs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> balance. Ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> mistakes of <strong>the</strong> past will be<br />
repeated and <strong>the</strong> <strong>natural</strong> resource curse will c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to br<strong>in</strong>g misery, or<br />
<strong>resources</strong> could, at l<strong>on</strong>g last, be used for <strong>the</strong> benefit of all C<strong>on</strong>golese peoples.<br />
The C<strong>on</strong>golese deserve and need <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community to work with<br />
<strong>the</strong>m to stop militarised and corrupt c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go’s <strong>natural</strong> wealth.<br />
The plunder of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> that has been widely<br />
documented s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998 is not a new phenomen<strong>on</strong>. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> late 1800s <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese people have suffered at <strong>the</strong> hands of foreign and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>essmen and political leaders <strong>in</strong>tent <strong>on</strong> exploit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> DRC’s rubber, ivory,<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold, copper and cobalt, timber and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>resources</strong>. The DRC’s<br />
current political volatility and greedy competiti<strong>on</strong> over <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> must be<br />
put <strong>in</strong> this historical c<strong>on</strong>text. This report expla<strong>in</strong>s how <strong>the</strong> DRC’s turbulent<br />
trajectory of militarised and corrupt c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>resources</strong> is a c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
historical patterns of exploitati<strong>on</strong> established under Leopold II and Belgian<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ial rule. Just as <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>resources</strong> by Belgium brought virtually no<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic or social benefits to <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese people, c<strong>on</strong>temporary resource<br />
extracti<strong>on</strong> similarly yields little benefit to <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese people.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trary, militant competiti<strong>on</strong> over C<strong>on</strong>go’s <strong>natural</strong> wealth is a major<br />
reas<strong>on</strong> why <strong>the</strong> devastat<strong>in</strong>g 1998 c<strong>on</strong>flict c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ues to claim <strong>the</strong> lives of thousands<br />
of people liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>astern DRC.<br />
This report has been compiled to provide an overview of <strong>the</strong> resource<br />
governance issues fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> DRC today. The report beg<strong>in</strong>s by look<strong>in</strong>g back to <strong>the</strong><br />
late 1800s and trac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> development of resource extracti<strong>on</strong> patterns and<br />
<strong>in</strong>formal trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>resources</strong> through Leopold and Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ial rule, to<br />
Mobutu, and to Laurent and Joseph Kabila. After illustrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> historical,<br />
political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>text of resource exploitati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> report goes <strong>on</strong> to<br />
survey eighteen different <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC today: coltan,<br />
cassiterite, copper, cobalt, z<strong>in</strong>c, uranium, silver, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold, oil, gas, timber,<br />
coal, lead, ir<strong>on</strong> and manganese are all covered.<br />
To <strong>the</strong> extent possible, Global Witness has collected <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
centres of extracti<strong>on</strong>, producti<strong>on</strong> and process<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> trade routes,<br />
statistics <strong>on</strong> recorded trade, and summaries of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> commercial and military<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong>s reported to be <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> for each resource. The<br />
report goes <strong>on</strong> to outl<strong>in</strong>e how formal transport routes developed to facilitate<br />
resource extracti<strong>on</strong>, and <strong>the</strong>n provides a statistical summary of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s ma<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>natural</strong> resource exports.<br />
In this report, reference to illegal activities means activities or enterprises that<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>trary to <strong>the</strong> laws of <strong>the</strong> country. Illicit activities are activities or enterprises<br />
that are illegal if not licensed by <strong>the</strong> government. Official activities are activities or<br />
entities that have <strong>the</strong> approval or authorizati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> government of <strong>the</strong> country,<br />
<strong>in</strong> this case, <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa government.<br />
Informal activities refer to ec<strong>on</strong>omic activities that are not accurately recorded<br />
<strong>in</strong> government figures and account<strong>in</strong>g. The <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy, which is generally<br />
untaxed, comm<strong>on</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>cludes goods and services <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g black market<br />
exchanges. 1<br />
A major purpose of <strong>the</strong> report was to determ<strong>in</strong>e what research should be<br />
pursued to better <strong>in</strong>form domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al policy <strong>on</strong> <strong>natural</strong> resource<br />
governance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. Clearly, <strong>the</strong>re are daunt<strong>in</strong>g challenges faced by <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s new Government of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Unity and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>or<br />
community look<strong>in</strong>g to support <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese people. Despite numerous<br />
governmental, UN Expert Panel and NGO Reports document<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> tragedies of<br />
<strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go’s war, and <strong>the</strong> fundamental role of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> hostilities, little<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al acti<strong>on</strong> has been taken. Similarly, little has been d<strong>on</strong>e to prepare <strong>the</strong><br />
country for a tremendously difficult transiti<strong>on</strong> to last<strong>in</strong>g peace. Indeed, it is<br />
unlikely that durable peace will be established at all unless <strong>the</strong> issue of <strong>natural</strong><br />
resource governance is not firmly addressed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> next two years.<br />
Research methodology<br />
As this is a predom<strong>in</strong>antly desk-based research<br />
project, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this report<br />
came from academic journals, books, reports<br />
written by lead<strong>in</strong>g NGOs <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Amnesty<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al, IPIS and Human Rights Watch, as<br />
well as news media reports, British and Belgium<br />
governmental reports, and <strong>the</strong> United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Panel of Experts reports <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. Global<br />
Witness also went <strong>on</strong> a short research trip to<br />
<strong>the</strong> African Institute at <strong>the</strong> Royal Central<br />
African Museum <strong>in</strong> Brussels where several<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go experts were <strong>in</strong>terviewed and archive<br />
research was c<strong>on</strong>ducted.The report has<br />
benefited from Global Witness’ <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
knowledge <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict diam<strong>on</strong>ds and timber<br />
extracted from <strong>the</strong> DRC. Global Witness spent<br />
three weeks <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> late 2002 to build<br />
<strong>on</strong> work previously d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> Zimbabwe’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> 2001. Global<br />
Witness was aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> mid-2003<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g diam<strong>on</strong>ds as part of work <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kimberley Process.<br />
The predom<strong>in</strong>antly desk-based research<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted for this report uncovered significant<br />
quantities of <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a range of topics.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong>re are large gaps <strong>in</strong> some areas of<br />
our knowledge. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable variati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> amount of<br />
documentati<strong>on</strong> available <strong>on</strong> specific <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong>.There has been much written about<br />
<strong>resources</strong> such as coltan and diam<strong>on</strong>ds, yet<br />
very little <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> is available <strong>on</strong> <strong>resources</strong><br />
such as bauxite/alum<strong>in</strong>ium, coal, manganese, and<br />
z<strong>in</strong>c. Differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> amount and quality of<br />
<strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> available are reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
descripti<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> centres of producti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
methods of extracti<strong>on</strong> and trade routes <strong>in</strong><br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 10.<br />
The quantity and quality of official statistics<br />
<strong>on</strong> trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> also<br />
reflects <strong>the</strong> comparative importance of some<br />
<strong>resources</strong> over o<strong>the</strong>rs for <strong>the</strong> DRC’s formal<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy.This report provides statistics<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strat<strong>in</strong>g levels of cross-border trade and<br />
major trad<strong>in</strong>g partners for diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold,<br />
coltan, oil, timber, cobalt and coffee.Very little<br />
or no statistical data was found <strong>on</strong> cadmium,<br />
cassiterite (t<strong>in</strong> ore), coal, ir<strong>on</strong> ore, silver, uranium<br />
or z<strong>in</strong>c from 1998 to date.<br />
Outl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g major trade routes is a key<br />
feature of this report. However, a c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>t of<br />
desk-based research has been determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
extent to which c<strong>on</strong>temporary trade routes<br />
are “historical” or “<strong>natural</strong>.” Discussi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong><br />
patterns and locati<strong>on</strong>s of clandest<strong>in</strong>e trade <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> this report is based <strong>on</strong><br />
research c<strong>on</strong>ducted by o<strong>the</strong>r organisati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of Experts.This<br />
research has tended to focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
<strong>resources</strong> from specific regi<strong>on</strong>s, such as coltan.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r studies of <strong>the</strong> “<strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy” were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1990s. Field research will<br />
be required to present a more c<strong>on</strong>temporary<br />
and accurate map of trade routes used for <strong>the</strong><br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> by armed<br />
groups and crim<strong>in</strong>al networks.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 6<br />
4 Historical c<strong>on</strong>text of <strong>natural</strong> resource extracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
THROUGHOUT <strong>the</strong> past century,<br />
irrespective of <strong>the</strong> govern<strong>in</strong>g system<br />
or political pers<strong>on</strong>alities <strong>in</strong> power,<br />
<strong>the</strong> human and <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go have been systematically exploited for <strong>the</strong><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic benefit of a few at <strong>the</strong> expense of <strong>the</strong> vast<br />
majority of C<strong>on</strong>golese people. Political and military<br />
elites today repeat <strong>the</strong> patterns of <strong>the</strong> use of brutal<br />
force to plunder precious <strong>resources</strong> established by<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g Leopold II of Belgium <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century. Deprived of any tangible benefits from<br />
legitimate <strong>natural</strong> resource exploitati<strong>on</strong>, ord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese l<strong>on</strong>g ago established an “<strong>in</strong>formal<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy” to survive. A wide range of c<strong>on</strong>sumable<br />
commodities and <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> have been<br />
smuggled <strong>in</strong> and out of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go for decades, and<br />
<strong>in</strong>formal trade networks, frequently based <strong>on</strong> ethnic<br />
ties and rout<strong>in</strong>e bribery of local officials, were<br />
developed.<br />
The DRC’s turbulent trajectory of militarised<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> must <strong>the</strong>refore be seen<br />
as a c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> of historical patterns of exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
established under Leopold II and Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
rule. Just as <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>resources</strong> by Belgium<br />
brought virtually no ec<strong>on</strong>omic or social benefits to <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese people, c<strong>on</strong>temporary resource extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
similarly yields little benefit to <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese people. On <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trary, militant<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong> over C<strong>on</strong>go’s <strong>natural</strong> wealth has been a<br />
major c<strong>on</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g factor to <strong>the</strong> crippl<strong>in</strong>g war that has<br />
killed over three milli<strong>on</strong> people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past six years.<br />
Even though formal peace agreements have been<br />
reached, violent c<strong>on</strong>flict carries <strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> some areas.<br />
4.1 Leopold II (1884 – 1907) & Belgian<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ial rule (1908 – 1960)<br />
In 1879 K<strong>in</strong>g Leopold II of Belgium commissi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
Henry Mort<strong>on</strong> Stanley to establish <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>g’s<br />
authority over <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go bas<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> order to c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
strategic trade routes to <strong>the</strong> West and Central Africa<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go River. Although Leopold publicly<br />
used humanitarian and anti-slavery rhetoric to justify<br />
his <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go, he was primarily<br />
motivated by a desire to open up a vast trad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
territory. Stanley did so by <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g over 400 local<br />
chiefs to sign “treaties” transferr<strong>in</strong>g land ownership to<br />
<strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>g’s Associati<strong>on</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>ale du C<strong>on</strong>go (AIC).<br />
Stanley went <strong>on</strong> to establish trad<strong>in</strong>g centres al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go River from Boma to Kisangani. 2<br />
Leopold’s claim over <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go was formally<br />
recognised at <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>ference of Berl<strong>in</strong> (1884-85), and<br />
<strong>on</strong> 30 April 1885 Leopold signed an ord<strong>in</strong>ance<br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> “C<strong>on</strong>go Free State” – effectively<br />
establish<strong>in</strong>g formal legal c<strong>on</strong>trol over an enormous<br />
m<strong>on</strong>eymak<strong>in</strong>g venture.<br />
The 1885 ord<strong>in</strong>ance restricted <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples’<br />
access to land, and s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n local communities have<br />
had <strong>on</strong>ly a narrow band of property rights. Under<br />
Leopold and Belgium’s rule, <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong><br />
populati<strong>on</strong> could <strong>on</strong>ly enter short-term leases and<br />
were restricted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir ability to expand plots of land.<br />
The purpose of repressive land laws was to ensure<br />
that that <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>the</strong> rul<strong>in</strong>g elite and <strong>the</strong>ir associates had<br />
access to <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go’s vast <strong>natural</strong> resource reserves.<br />
4.2 Methods of resource exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
Initially, <strong>the</strong> rul<strong>in</strong>g elites of Leopold’s C<strong>on</strong>go Free<br />
State focused <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>go’s ivory,<br />
and subsequently rubber. 3 Later, when rubber from<br />
plantati<strong>on</strong>s worldwide reduced demand for<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese rubber, palm oil became <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> resource<br />
exported by Belgium from <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. Leopold used<br />
forced labour and a private mercenary army, <strong>the</strong> Force<br />
publique to c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go and to reap huge profits<br />
from <strong>the</strong> rubber trade. Later, Belgium reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
use of this army <strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go and<br />
Rwanda.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> late 1880s <strong>on</strong>wards, <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go was run<br />
as a bus<strong>in</strong>ess enterprise ra<strong>the</strong>r than a state: political<br />
and community relati<strong>on</strong>s were built <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> basis of<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ial capitalism. 4 The C<strong>on</strong>go was divided up <strong>in</strong>to<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ces centrally c<strong>on</strong>trolled from Leopoldville<br />
(K<strong>in</strong>shasa), and large c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s were given to<br />
foreign m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g companies to m<strong>in</strong>e gold, copper and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> eastern C<strong>on</strong>go, and rubber, cott<strong>on</strong><br />
and palm oil entrepreneurs were generally given<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kasais, Bandundu and nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go. The most well known private companies<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>go’s rubber were<br />
<strong>the</strong> Anglo-Belgian India-Rubber Company (ABIR)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Compagnie du Kasai. 5 C<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s allocated to<br />
<strong>the</strong> ABIR and o<strong>the</strong>rs gave <strong>the</strong>m full rights to exploit<br />
all forest products as well <strong>the</strong> right to police and<br />
“bodily” deta<strong>in</strong> people liv<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> exchange for shar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir profits with <strong>the</strong> state. 6<br />
Rubber was first extracted from v<strong>in</strong>es, particularly<br />
from abundant supplies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kasais. Brutal force<br />
was used to ensure local communities satisfied high<br />
rubber quotas set by local Force publique commanders<br />
and <strong>the</strong>ir bus<strong>in</strong>ess associates. Rubber was transported<br />
by porters to <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go and Ubagni Rivers and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
tributaries <strong>on</strong> steam barges to Stanley Pool and<br />
Leopoldville (K<strong>in</strong>shasa), and <strong>the</strong>n by tra<strong>in</strong> to <strong>the</strong> river<br />
port of Matadi. From <strong>the</strong>re <strong>the</strong> rubber was shipped<br />
to Europe and <strong>the</strong> United States from <strong>the</strong> early 1890s<br />
until <strong>the</strong> 1930s. 7<br />
Seek<strong>in</strong>g alternative sources of revenue and<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> after a steep fall <strong>in</strong> rubber producti<strong>on</strong><br />
from <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go between 1900 and 1905, several<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g companies were established to exploit m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
<strong>resources</strong> located by geological surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> late 1890s. These <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>the</strong> giant Uni<strong>on</strong> M<strong>in</strong>ière<br />
du Haut-Katanga (UMHK) (established <strong>in</strong> 1906), and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Compagnie du Katanga (established <strong>in</strong> 1891), which<br />
became <strong>the</strong> Comité special du Katanga (CSK) <strong>in</strong> 1900.<br />
The CSK al<strong>on</strong>e c<strong>on</strong>trolled a m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong><br />
encompass<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong>e-third of <strong>the</strong> Katanga prov<strong>in</strong>ce. 8<br />
Palm oil also became an important source of revenue,<br />
and companies such as <strong>the</strong> Lever Bro<strong>the</strong>r’s run Société<br />
des Huileries du C<strong>on</strong>go Belge expropriated large amounts<br />
of oil palms from local communities. 9 These and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r companies exported <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
commodities to Belgium and America.
7 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
4.3 Creati<strong>on</strong> of an <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy and<br />
societal changes<br />
Leopold sold <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go Free State to Belgium <strong>in</strong> 1907,<br />
but little changed <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> ground: large parastatal and<br />
private c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> companies c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to exercise<br />
trad<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>on</strong>opolies over wide geographical areas.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> of patterns of brutal c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
over commercial producti<strong>on</strong> of palm oil, rubber, cott<strong>on</strong><br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>resources</strong> led to <strong>the</strong> development of an<br />
extensive <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
After 1907 local people c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to be compelled to<br />
work <strong>in</strong> plantati<strong>on</strong>s, m<strong>in</strong>es and <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omically vital roads and railways. To avoid forced<br />
labour and <strong>the</strong> payment of agricultural taxes, people<br />
frequently fled <strong>in</strong>to neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries and began<br />
operat<strong>in</strong>g alternative (smuggl<strong>in</strong>g) routes for trade <strong>in</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumable goods. It is likely that pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial trade<br />
routes were used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se movements. 10 This is<br />
especially likely given that <strong>the</strong> pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial K<strong>on</strong>go<br />
k<strong>in</strong>gdom (previously centred around Bas-C<strong>on</strong>go) and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Luba empire (previously based <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kasai-<br />
Katanga regi<strong>on</strong>) <strong>on</strong>ce had prosperous ec<strong>on</strong>omies built<br />
around agriculture and l<strong>on</strong>g-distance trade. 11 Fur<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re were well-established pre-col<strong>on</strong>ial networks<br />
between Katanga prov<strong>in</strong>ce and Angola <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> trade of<br />
commodities <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g ivory, cloth, copper, salt and<br />
beads. 12<br />
Aside from <strong>the</strong> development of a large <strong>in</strong>formal<br />
“sec<strong>on</strong>d” ec<strong>on</strong>omy, ano<strong>the</strong>r major c<strong>on</strong>sequence of <strong>the</strong><br />
plunder of human and <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> was <strong>the</strong><br />
transformati<strong>on</strong> of African societies. George Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-<br />
Ntalaja expla<strong>in</strong>s:<br />
Peasant producti<strong>on</strong> was progressively subord<strong>in</strong>ated to <strong>the</strong><br />
export requirements of m<strong>on</strong>opoly capital for agricultural raw<br />
materials. The traditi<strong>on</strong>al rul<strong>in</strong>g class… was <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>the</strong> authority structure of <strong>the</strong> col<strong>on</strong>ial state to facilitate <strong>the</strong><br />
extractive and repressive tasks… Artisanal or simple<br />
commodity producti<strong>on</strong> lost much of its <strong>in</strong>digenous character,<br />
becom<strong>in</strong>g an appendage to <strong>the</strong> capitalist commodity market<br />
and service sector… 13<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g col<strong>on</strong>ial rule Belgium manipulated <strong>the</strong> preexist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
political ec<strong>on</strong>omy and social relati<strong>on</strong>ships to<br />
maximise productivity and profits. For example,<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al tribal leaders were ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>the</strong><br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrators of social welfare, law and order, as well<br />
as becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> local ec<strong>on</strong>omic agents of <strong>the</strong> col<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong>. Supported and rewarded for <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
loyalty by <strong>the</strong> Belgians, traditi<strong>on</strong>al leaders survived<br />
despite <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>filtrati<strong>on</strong> of capitalist modes of producti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>to rural communities. By <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g and c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
local leaders, Belgian adm<strong>in</strong>istrators and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>aires had access to a cheap and huge<br />
workforce to assist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> extracti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>resources</strong>, and to<br />
build roads and railways. 14 Traditi<strong>on</strong>al societal<br />
structures have c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to be shaped by political elites<br />
over <strong>the</strong> past six decades. One important change was<br />
that illicit trade networks came to be c<strong>on</strong>trolled by<br />
specific ethnic communities. 15<br />
4.4 Development of transport<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
Railway c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> late 1800s and early<br />
1900s was primarily driven by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>centive to export<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go’s rich agricultural and m<strong>in</strong>eral <strong>resources</strong>. 16 The<br />
Lower C<strong>on</strong>go railway c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g Leopoldville<br />
(K<strong>in</strong>shasa) with Matadi was completed by <strong>the</strong> Compagnie<br />
du chem<strong>in</strong> de fer du C<strong>on</strong>go (CFC) <strong>in</strong> 1898 – open<strong>in</strong>g up an<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omically crucial trade c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> ocean for<br />
<strong>the</strong> export of goods to Europe and America. 17 The<br />
Compagnie du chem<strong>in</strong> de fer du Bas-C<strong>on</strong>go au Katanga (BCK)<br />
built fur<strong>the</strong>r rail networks c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral-rich<br />
Katanga (or Shaba) regi<strong>on</strong> with ports <strong>in</strong> Matadi<br />
(C<strong>on</strong>go), to Benguela (Angola) via Dilolo, and through<br />
Portuguese and Rhodesian rail systems to Beira<br />
(Mozambique) from Sakania <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1900s. The<br />
BCK also developed transport and commercial<br />
networks al<strong>on</strong>g 1,820 kilometres of l<strong>in</strong>e from Ilebo to<br />
Sakania, and 520 kilometres from Tenke to Dilolo. 18<br />
The build<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong>se railways complimented <strong>the</strong><br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g historical trade network al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go River<br />
and its tributaries. By <strong>the</strong> 1920s <strong>the</strong>re were three wellestablished<br />
trad<strong>in</strong>g capitals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go:<br />
Boma/Leopoldville (K<strong>in</strong>shasa), Elizabethville<br />
(Lubumbashi) and Stanleyville (Kisangani). 19 O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
important trad<strong>in</strong>g towns <strong>in</strong>cluded Buta, Bukavu,<br />
Goma, Isiro, Kalemie, K<strong>in</strong>du, Likasi, Moba, and<br />
Uvira. Under Belgian adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong>, a road network<br />
c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se and o<strong>the</strong>r towns <strong>in</strong> Haut-C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
(present-day Ituri), <strong>the</strong> Kivus and Maniema was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structed. 20 The aim was to open up access to<br />
<strong>resources</strong>, and to make <strong>the</strong> export of commodities<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g gold, coffee and sugar more efficient. Roads<br />
and railways also provided avenues for generat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
revenues from taxes and tariffs <strong>on</strong> commodities. This, <strong>in</strong><br />
turn, sometimes made rail l<strong>in</strong>es and m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g equipment<br />
<strong>the</strong> targets of sabotage by people participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
rebelli<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Katanga and Kasai <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1940s. 21<br />
4.5 Independence<br />
Years of <strong>in</strong>termittent rebelli<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>in</strong>surrecti<strong>on</strong>, political<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>s and worker strikes aga<strong>in</strong>st systems of<br />
forced labour, brutal oppressi<strong>on</strong>, and negative social<br />
and ec<strong>on</strong>omic exploitati<strong>on</strong> ga<strong>in</strong>ed impetus with<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al anti-col<strong>on</strong>ial fervour of <strong>the</strong> 1950s. A<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go-wide <strong>in</strong>dependence movement and nati<strong>on</strong>alism<br />
reached full momentum, and after a rebelli<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> 4<br />
January 1959 <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa, Belgium decided to grant <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go <strong>in</strong>dependence. The C<strong>on</strong>go became<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependent <strong>on</strong> 30 June 1960, with militant nati<strong>on</strong>alist<br />
Patrice Lumumba as Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister. However, rapid<br />
Belgian departure from <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go deprived Lumumba<br />
of any effective means of adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong>: <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
virtually no suitably tra<strong>in</strong>ed C<strong>on</strong>golese civil servants to<br />
lead <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong> of government departments.<br />
Just two weeks after <strong>in</strong>dependence, Lumumba was<br />
faced with a nati<strong>on</strong>wide mut<strong>in</strong>y by <strong>the</strong> army and a<br />
Western-backed secessi<strong>on</strong>ist movements <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral-rich<br />
Katanga and South Kasai.<br />
The “C<strong>on</strong>go crisis” of 1960 – 1965 was<br />
characterised by war and political <strong>in</strong>stability. Transport<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r public services suffered as a result of<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrative c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong>, disorganisati<strong>on</strong> and multiple<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-mak<strong>in</strong>g centres, lead<strong>in</strong>g to degradati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure. 22 Opportunities to develop a unified state<br />
and stable nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy to equitably distribute <strong>the</strong><br />
benefits of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go’s vast human and <strong>natural</strong><br />
resource wealth were missed. Instead of assist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
newly <strong>in</strong>dependent state to stabilise and establish solid<br />
structures of governance, Belgium and <strong>the</strong> United<br />
States covertly <strong>in</strong>terfered <strong>in</strong> embry<strong>on</strong>ic political<br />
structures. Lumumba was dismissed by C<strong>on</strong>golese<br />
President Kasavabu <strong>in</strong> 1960 and later replaced by<br />
Moise Tshombe (<strong>the</strong> leader of <strong>the</strong> Katangan secessi<strong>on</strong><br />
movement) as Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister. Lumumba was<br />
murdered <strong>in</strong> 1961.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 8<br />
5 Mobutu (1965 – 1997)<br />
MOBUTU SESE SEKO came to<br />
power <strong>in</strong> a US and Belgiumbacked<br />
military coup <strong>in</strong> 1965,<br />
oust<strong>in</strong>g Kasavubu and<br />
Tshombe. Like Leopold and<br />
Belgium before him, Mobutu ruled <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
(renamed “Zaire” <strong>in</strong> 1971) as a pers<strong>on</strong>al bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
enterprise. He extended absolute political c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese territory through<br />
repressive methods of suppress<strong>in</strong>g political<br />
oppositi<strong>on</strong>, and <strong>the</strong> patrim<strong>on</strong>ial distributi<strong>on</strong> of access<br />
to Zaire’s <strong>natural</strong> wealth. 23 His rule was characterised<br />
by brutality, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, patrim<strong>on</strong>y, gross ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
mismanagement, and an appall<strong>in</strong>g absence of<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong>to public services. Zaire’s <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> were essentially exploited for <strong>the</strong> exclusive<br />
benefit of Mobutu and his cr<strong>on</strong>ies while <strong>the</strong> vast<br />
majority of C<strong>on</strong>golese languished <strong>in</strong> desperate<br />
poverty. There is no clearer example of <strong>the</strong> “paradox<br />
of plenty” than Zaire under Mobutu.<br />
5.1 Natural resource exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
Mobutu squandered and embezzled billi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
dollars earned through <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> state’s<br />
copper, cobalt, diam<strong>on</strong>ds and coffee. As his<br />
government was backed by <strong>the</strong> United States and its<br />
allies throughout <strong>the</strong> Cold War, <strong>the</strong> West turned a<br />
bl<strong>in</strong>d eye to Mobutu’s mismanagement and brutality.<br />
Sheltered from outside scrut<strong>in</strong>y, Mobutu used<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s and patrim<strong>on</strong>y to exploit Zaire’s<br />
vast <strong>natural</strong> wealth and extend political c<strong>on</strong>trol over<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire country. Local str<strong>on</strong>gmen were brought<br />
<strong>in</strong>to Mobutu’s network through commercial<br />
enterprises – a strategy similar to that used by<br />
Belgium <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir c<strong>on</strong>trol of traditi<strong>on</strong>al community<br />
leaders. 24<br />
Mobutu <strong>in</strong>itially reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> “c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>aire”<br />
system created by <strong>the</strong> Belgians, but <strong>in</strong> 1966 changed<br />
<strong>the</strong> law so that <strong>the</strong> state owned all land and m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
rights <strong>in</strong> Zaire – effectively pull<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rug from under<br />
<strong>the</strong> foreign m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g companies that had c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
operate after 1960. In 1967, Mobutu nati<strong>on</strong>alised <strong>the</strong><br />
Belgian private m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g giant UMHK (menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
above) and created a state-owned m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g enterprise,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Générale des carriers et des m<strong>in</strong>es, or Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. 25<br />
This was followed <strong>in</strong> 1973 by <strong>the</strong> “Zairianizati<strong>on</strong>” of<br />
all foreign-owned commercial, <strong>in</strong>dustrial and<br />
agricultural enterprises. This fur<strong>the</strong>r augmented <strong>the</strong><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic power of <strong>the</strong> rul<strong>in</strong>g class, as Mobutu<br />
redistributed management and c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong>se<br />
enterprises am<strong>on</strong>gst his friends and <strong>the</strong>ir families –<br />
most of who had no bus<strong>in</strong>ess expertise and paid no<br />
taxes. 26 In <strong>the</strong> late 1970s, Mobutu <strong>in</strong>vited foreigners to<br />
run state-owned m<strong>in</strong>es as a means of more effectively<br />
utilis<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>eral wealth, but state funds c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
be squandered. 27<br />
Under Mobutu, <strong>the</strong> form of militarised c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
over <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and trade routes begun by <strong>the</strong><br />
Force publique was perpetuated. Us<strong>in</strong>g a divide and rule<br />
strategy to prevent co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated resistance, Mobutu<br />
encouraged competiti<strong>on</strong> between rival entrepreneurs<br />
and military units by allow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m to guard <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own territory and develop <strong>the</strong>ir own commercial<br />
opportunities centred around diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold, coffee,<br />
timber, cobalt and arms. 28 C<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> also became more decentralised as military<br />
leaders were given aut<strong>on</strong>omy to exploit and trade<br />
<strong>resources</strong>.<br />
5.2 The growth of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
Over twenty-five years of corrupt f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
mismanagement of government departments and<br />
parastatal companies led to ec<strong>on</strong>omic collapse and<br />
state failure <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-to-late 1980s. Predati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
diversi<strong>on</strong> of huge sums from state coffers meant that<br />
<strong>the</strong>re was virtually no productive <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong>to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g essential public services or transport<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure. To survive, many people excluded<br />
from <strong>the</strong> state m<strong>on</strong>eymak<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>anza <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
turned <strong>in</strong>stead to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy that had<br />
been established dur<strong>in</strong>g Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ial rule. Indeed,<br />
a major c<strong>on</strong>sequence of Mobutu’s failures was <strong>the</strong><br />
entrenchment of extensive clandest<strong>in</strong>e nati<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al trade networks. In particular, <strong>the</strong> coffee<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g and gold regi<strong>on</strong>s of North and South Kivu,<br />
Haut C<strong>on</strong>go (Orientale), Bas C<strong>on</strong>go, and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d regi<strong>on</strong> of Kasai Oriental, saw <strong>the</strong><br />
development of relatively sophisticated sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy enterprises.<br />
Recognis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> threat <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
posed to <strong>the</strong>ir own wealth, <strong>the</strong> government<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced measures to curb smuggl<strong>in</strong>g. In 1982 <strong>the</strong><br />
prices of foodstuffs were liberalised, and gold and<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d bus<strong>in</strong>esses deregulated. But as <strong>the</strong> state had<br />
<strong>the</strong> m<strong>on</strong>opoly over <strong>the</strong> sale and export of gold and<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds, smuggl<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued unabated – especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> remote regi<strong>on</strong>s where <strong>the</strong> unemployed work force<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and agricultural regi<strong>on</strong>s became<br />
frantically <strong>in</strong>volved. 29 The problem was exacerbated<br />
by self-<strong>in</strong>terested and corrupt bureaucrats who<br />
ignored laws requir<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> impositi<strong>on</strong> of penalties <strong>on</strong><br />
any<strong>on</strong>e found smuggl<strong>in</strong>g commodities out of Zaire. 30<br />
The deteriorati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al transport<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>creased smuggl<strong>in</strong>g activities,<br />
as Mobutu <strong>in</strong>sisted <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>in</strong>efficient <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
rail, road and river networks to transport m<strong>in</strong>erals<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r commodities to Zaire’s own port for<br />
export. 31<br />
Government policies at <strong>the</strong> time also reveal how<br />
out of touch policies to reign <strong>in</strong> smuggl<strong>in</strong>g were with<br />
reality. Coffee provides a good illustrati<strong>on</strong>: <strong>in</strong> 1985 <strong>the</strong><br />
state-run Office Zairois de Café paid farmers 7 cents per<br />
kilogram of coffee, whereas smugglers paid 42 cents. 32<br />
5.3 Clandest<strong>in</strong>e trade routes<br />
A number of academic studies <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zairian<br />
<strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1980s and<br />
1990s. 33 Resources smuggled out of Zaire <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
sugar, cook<strong>in</strong>g oil, maize, cloth, stolen cars and fuel.<br />
These studies show that smugglers <strong>in</strong> Zaire used<br />
roads, railways, <strong>the</strong> Lufra, Luvua and Lualaba Rivers,<br />
and Lake Tanganyika to transport <strong>the</strong>ir goods with<strong>in</strong><br />
and across nati<strong>on</strong>al borders. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> Katanga<br />
(sou<strong>the</strong>rn Zaire) ivory was smuggled from <strong>the</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
centre of Lubumbashi to Moba or Kalemie <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
shores of Lake Tanganyika, across <strong>the</strong> lake and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
<strong>on</strong> to Lusaka, Dar es Salaam or Johannesburg for sale
9 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
<strong>in</strong> H<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>g. Copper and cobalt were taken from<br />
Kolwezi to Sakania and <strong>the</strong>n across <strong>the</strong> Zambian<br />
border by trucks to <strong>the</strong> nearby Zambian city of<br />
Ndola before be<strong>in</strong>g transported down to South Africa<br />
by tra<strong>in</strong>.<br />
The Kivus (now c<strong>on</strong>sist<strong>in</strong>g of Maniema, North<br />
Kivu and South Kivu), rich <strong>in</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and close to<br />
<strong>the</strong> borders of Rwanda and Burundi, were ideally<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>ed for unrecorded cross-border commercial<br />
activities. The geographical positi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> Kivus<br />
provided a degree of political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
aut<strong>on</strong>omy from K<strong>in</strong>shasa, re<strong>in</strong>forced by <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
historic role as a transit-z<strong>on</strong>e for regi<strong>on</strong>al trade. 34 One<br />
major trade route l<strong>in</strong>ked nor<strong>the</strong>astern Zaire to<br />
Uganda via Beni and Butembo – two major<br />
commercial trade centres. From Beni and Butembo<br />
goods such as ivory, palm oil, gold and coffee were<br />
brought to <strong>the</strong> town of Kas<strong>in</strong>di near <strong>the</strong><br />
Zaire/Ugandan border. Agricultural and<br />
manufactured commodities, as well as gold and ivory<br />
were brought al<strong>on</strong>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d major route between<br />
Bukavu and Kampala via Goma and Rutshuru. 35<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r major trad<strong>in</strong>g route was between Uvira and<br />
Bujumbura (<strong>the</strong> capital city of Burundi) across Lake<br />
Tanganyika. 36<br />
In Haut Zaire (Prov<strong>in</strong>ce Orientale), <strong>the</strong> towns of<br />
Aba, Base and Liwara <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zaire/Sudan border<br />
received gold, coffee and ivory from Isiro that were<br />
<strong>the</strong>n sent across <strong>the</strong> border and <strong>on</strong> to Europe, India<br />
and Saudi Arabia. 37 In Equateur, Z<strong>on</strong>go is a<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al exit and entry po<strong>in</strong>t of trade with <strong>the</strong><br />
Central African Republic’s capital city, Bangui.<br />
Similarly, <strong>the</strong> close proximity of K<strong>in</strong>shasa and<br />
Brazzaville makes <strong>the</strong>ir river ports obvious trad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts for official and unrecorded trade.<br />
Limits of this short desk-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> make it<br />
difficult to accurately determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> degree to which<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al or “historical” trade routes were relied <strong>on</strong><br />
to move commodities through <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g Mobutu’s rule. The pervasiveness of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> at all levels of government would suggest<br />
that official border c<strong>on</strong>trol patrols at roads, ports and<br />
railways, where <strong>the</strong>y existed, could have been bypassed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> payment of bribes or commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sale of illicit commodities. Secti<strong>on</strong> 11 discusses<br />
transport and trade <strong>in</strong> more detail.<br />
5.4 Decl<strong>in</strong>e of central c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
From <strong>the</strong> small amount of data available <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy that developed from <strong>the</strong> 1970s, <strong>the</strong><br />
results are strik<strong>in</strong>g: dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> late 1980s is estimated<br />
that 40% of coffee from Haut C<strong>on</strong>go (Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Orientale) was smuggled via roads through Uganda.<br />
In Katanga, cobalt and copper was stolen from<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and smuggled by road to Zambia and<br />
South Africa. In 1988, gold and diam<strong>on</strong>ds smuggled<br />
from Zaire accounted for almost 94% of Belgian<br />
imports from Burundi and 88% of imports from<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go Brazzaville. 38 More than half of locally<br />
produced papaya, tea and c<strong>in</strong>ch<strong>on</strong>a exported through<br />
Goma Internati<strong>on</strong>al Airport <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1980s were<br />
reportedly sold through <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy. 39<br />
Table 1 illustrates recorded trade statistics of<br />
m<strong>in</strong>erals and diam<strong>on</strong>ds orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from Zaire <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
six years from 1989. However, given <strong>the</strong> extensive<br />
<strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy operat<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> same time, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> wholly corrupt nature of <strong>the</strong> Zairian government,<br />
it is likely that <strong>the</strong>se figures illustrate <strong>on</strong>ly a small<br />
Table 1: Recorded Trade Orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from C<strong>on</strong>go (Zaire), 1989-<br />
1995 (<strong>in</strong> US$ milli<strong>on</strong>s)<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> total revenues raised through<br />
resource extracti<strong>on</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g this period.<br />
The end of <strong>the</strong> Cold War brought with it an end to<br />
overt US support of Mobutu, as well as impatient<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al creditors, hyper<strong>in</strong>flati<strong>on</strong> and <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
political oppositi<strong>on</strong>. In 1990 Mobutu was forced to<br />
announce that a multi-party system of government<br />
would be <strong>in</strong>troduced. However, he c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
generate new commercial opportunities us<strong>in</strong>g state<br />
regulatory power, such as m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<strong>in</strong>g, passport<br />
sales, and drug traffick<strong>in</strong>g. To c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>the</strong> privatisati<strong>on</strong><br />
process of parastatal companies encouraged by<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s and to keep his<br />
network under his c<strong>on</strong>trol, Mobutu <strong>in</strong>tensified<br />
reliance <strong>on</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g political authority through<br />
market c<strong>on</strong>trol. However, this exercise of c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
crossed previously <strong>in</strong>dependent local authorities, who<br />
used illicit trade to protect <strong>the</strong>mselves aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong><br />
collapse of <strong>the</strong> Zairian state. By 1992 Mobutu no<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger exercised c<strong>on</strong>trol over Zaire. 40<br />
5.5 Mobutu’s fall<br />
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995<br />
Cobalt $404.0 $418.0 $218.0 $125.0 $54.0 $120.0 $160.0<br />
Coffee $692.0 $548.0 $483.0 $487.0 $330.0 $432.0 $450.0<br />
Copper $813.0 $892.0 $525.0 $302.0 $136.0 $120.0 $150.0<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>ds $400.0 $320.0 $220.0 $200.0 $289.0 $296.0 $376.0<br />
Oil $167.0 $148.0 $165.0 $40.0 $130.0 $156.0 $160.0<br />
T<strong>in</strong> $16.4 $14.2 $8.2 $5.3 $3.9 $5.0 $5.5<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c $82.0 $79.0 $59.0 $28.0 $0.0 $0.0 $12.0<br />
Overseas $634.0 $823.0 $494.0 $262.0 $178.0 $235.0 N/a<br />
development<br />
assistance<br />
Total $3,208.4 $3,242.2 $2,172.2 $1,449.3 $1,121.9 $1,364.0 $1,323.5<br />
Source: Reno, Warlord Politics, 156.<br />
Between 1990 and 1993 Zaire was characterised by<br />
<strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>sistent ec<strong>on</strong>omic policies, social unrest and<br />
political chaos. Between 1990 and 1992 violent attacks<br />
forced several foreign companies, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Chevr<strong>on</strong><br />
Oil, to aband<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> country. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> revenue earners for <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy – copper and<br />
cobalt m<strong>in</strong>es – were <strong>in</strong> radical decl<strong>in</strong>e as <strong>the</strong>re was no<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance or upgrad<strong>in</strong>g of mach<strong>in</strong>ery. C<strong>on</strong>duct<strong>in</strong>g<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> Zaire was rendered virtually impossible<br />
when bank<strong>in</strong>g services collapsed. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic collapse<br />
and decades of corrupti<strong>on</strong> by senior military officers<br />
left ord<strong>in</strong>ary soldiers unpaid, and without adequate<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g or equipment.<br />
On 18 June 1994, two weeks after Kendo wa<br />
D<strong>on</strong>do became Mobutu’s appo<strong>in</strong>ted Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister<br />
of a transiti<strong>on</strong>al government, <strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> Rwandan<br />
Hutu refugees came to Goma. This <strong>in</strong>flux heightened<br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g ethnic tensi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> North and South Kivu as<br />
local politicians used <strong>the</strong> refugees to exploit rivalries<br />
between C<strong>on</strong>golese Tutsis (<strong>the</strong> Banyanrwanda and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Banyamulenge) and o<strong>the</strong>r C<strong>on</strong>golese ethnic<br />
groups. The follow<strong>in</strong>g year, <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
parliament <strong>in</strong>troduced a law deny<strong>in</strong>g C<strong>on</strong>golese of
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 10<br />
Tutsi orig<strong>in</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese nati<strong>on</strong>ality. The<br />
Banyanrwanda protected <strong>the</strong>ir lands with <strong>the</strong> help of<br />
Tutsi soldiers from Rwanda. In do<strong>in</strong>g so, <strong>the</strong> new<br />
Tutsi-dom<strong>in</strong>ated Rwandan government sought to<br />
protect <strong>the</strong>mselves aga<strong>in</strong>st Hutu extremist Interahamwe<br />
and ex-FAR troops who had perpetrated <strong>the</strong><br />
genocide and had taken refuge across <strong>the</strong> border<br />
where <strong>the</strong>y were organis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>mselves aga<strong>in</strong>. In <strong>the</strong><br />
meantime, Mobutu’s transiti<strong>on</strong>al government<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to fight a los<strong>in</strong>g battle aga<strong>in</strong>st ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
collapse. The Ec<strong>on</strong>omist Intelligence Unit described<br />
<strong>the</strong> situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> early 1995 thus:<br />
Zaire’s current ec<strong>on</strong>omic and political situati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
<strong>the</strong> result of <strong>the</strong> collapse of <strong>the</strong> Zairian state. Several<br />
ethnic groups are at war with each o<strong>the</strong>r. The army is<br />
split <strong>in</strong>to several facti<strong>on</strong>s, while private militias<br />
abound. There is no effective nati<strong>on</strong>al government<br />
and no <strong>in</strong>tegrated ec<strong>on</strong>omy. The formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy has<br />
wi<strong>the</strong>red to noth<strong>in</strong>g compared with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy. 41<br />
The <strong>in</strong>flux of this volatile mix of groups <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> complete failure of <strong>the</strong><br />
Zairian state, were <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al catalysts for Mobutu’s<br />
demise. Neighbour<strong>in</strong>g states, threatened by <strong>the</strong><br />
presence of rebels operat<strong>in</strong>g from Zaire now had firm<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s to <strong>in</strong>tervene and precipitate Mobutu’s fall. In<br />
1996, <strong>the</strong> former guerrilla leader turned gold and<br />
ivory trader, Laurent-Désiré Kabila, (tra<strong>in</strong>ed and<br />
f<strong>in</strong>anced by Rwanda and Uganda) seized Goma and<br />
eastern parts of Zaire. On 17 May 1997, <strong>the</strong> Alliance<br />
of Democratic Forces for <strong>the</strong> Liberati<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>go-<br />
Zaire (ADFL) entered K<strong>in</strong>shasa with little resistance<br />
from government forces. Kabila proclaimed himself<br />
President of <strong>the</strong> renamed Democratic Republic of<br />
<strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go; Mobutu fled, and died later that year <strong>in</strong><br />
Morocco.<br />
Mobutu left beh<strong>in</strong>d a deeply divided and<br />
desperately poor country <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> verge of ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
and social collapse. As was <strong>the</strong> case at <strong>the</strong> end of<br />
Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ial rule, ord<strong>in</strong>ary C<strong>on</strong>golese had not<br />
reaped any benefits from <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Zaire’s<br />
<strong>natural</strong> riches by Mobutu’s predatory military and<br />
political elite network. He had also firmly set Zaire <strong>on</strong><br />
a dangerous trajectory where militarised predatory<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> had become<br />
entrenched and corrupti<strong>on</strong> at all levels of<br />
government endemic. C<strong>on</strong>golese society was more<br />
fragmented and stratified than it had ever been as a<br />
result of divide-and-rule policies, and <strong>the</strong><br />
legitimisati<strong>on</strong> of violence as means of ec<strong>on</strong>omic,<br />
social and political c<strong>on</strong>trol. 42<br />
6 Laurent-Désiré Kabila (1997 – 2001)<br />
RWANDA AND UGANDA’S choice<br />
for leader of <strong>the</strong> ADFL was also<br />
<strong>in</strong>itially enthusiastically welcomed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> United States and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
states. Not <strong>the</strong> least of <strong>the</strong>se was<br />
Angola whose rebel group, União Naci<strong>on</strong>al para a<br />
Independência Total de Angola (UNITA), had for<br />
years been given support by Mobutu. As he took over<br />
<strong>the</strong> Presidency and renamed Zaire <strong>the</strong> Democratic<br />
Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go, Laurent-Désiré Kabila<br />
promised to restore democracy and ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
viability. However, despite his avowed oppositi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
Mobutu’s regime, Kabila’s rule was not dramatically<br />
different. Although he did manage to stabilise <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s currency and began a number of public works<br />
programmes, Kabila exercised Mobutu-style<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>alised c<strong>on</strong>trol over State <strong>resources</strong>, and<br />
replicated his predecessor’s reliance <strong>on</strong> patr<strong>on</strong>age and<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>solidate power.<br />
6.1 Natural resource exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g his first year as President, Laurent Kabila<br />
generated revenues quickly by strik<strong>in</strong>g deals grant<strong>in</strong>g<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and timber c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong>discrim<strong>in</strong>ately.<br />
Some of <strong>the</strong>se c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s had already been allocated<br />
under Mobutu’s government to different companies.<br />
Understandably, anger and c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> prevailed.<br />
Mismanagement of <strong>the</strong> country’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued as <strong>the</strong> government exercised virtually no<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol over public enterprises and parastatals such as<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and La Société M<strong>in</strong>ière de Bakwanga<br />
(MIBA). 43<br />
6.2 The sec<strong>on</strong>d war: 1998 – 2003<br />
In July 1998, distrustful of his former allies Uganda<br />
and Rwanda, Kabila formally requested Presidents<br />
Kagame and Museveni to withdraw <strong>the</strong>ir troops.<br />
They complied with <strong>the</strong> request, but weeks later <strong>the</strong><br />
Rwandans returned as <strong>in</strong>vaders and even managed to<br />
capture <strong>the</strong> Kit<strong>on</strong>a military base at <strong>the</strong> mouth of <strong>the</strong><br />
river C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
Kabila appealed for assistance from member<br />
countries of <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn African Development<br />
Community (SADC). Zimbabwe and Namibia sent<br />
troops to secure K<strong>in</strong>shasa airport, and Angola,<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> str<strong>on</strong>gest and most experienced army <strong>in</strong><br />
central Africa, sent forces that stopped Rwandan and<br />
Ugandan <strong>in</strong>cursi<strong>on</strong>s near K<strong>in</strong>shasa. Angola,<br />
calculat<strong>in</strong>g Kabila would rema<strong>in</strong> anti-UNITA<br />
persuaded Kabila that Rwanda had developed an<br />
alliance with Mobutu’s former army – a <strong>on</strong>e-time<br />
supporter of UNITA.<br />
The war so<strong>on</strong> turned <strong>in</strong>to <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> most<br />
complex <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al wars ever be<strong>in</strong>g both a civil<br />
war and an <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>on</strong>e. It became known as<br />
Africa’s first World War. By late 1998, troops from<br />
Zimbabwe, Angola, Chad and Namibia were fight<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with <strong>the</strong>ir ADLF allies aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> rebels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> east<br />
and soldiers from Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi.<br />
Rwanda and Uganda supported <strong>the</strong> rebel groups<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Rassemblement C<strong>on</strong>golais pour la Démocratie<br />
(RCD). By early 1999, Rwandan and Ugandan forces,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese rebels <strong>the</strong>y supported and armed,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled over <strong>on</strong>e-third of <strong>the</strong> DRC. Foreign<br />
occupati<strong>on</strong> was not welcomed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> east: C<strong>on</strong>golese<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> occupied territories took up arms aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong><br />
Rwandan and Ugandan presence, us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al term Mai-Mai (or Mayi-Mayi) to describe
11 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir status as local defence units.<br />
In late 1999 fractures began to emerge <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Uganda-Rwanda alliance. Their different approaches<br />
and agendas turned <strong>the</strong>m to support different and<br />
compet<strong>in</strong>g C<strong>on</strong>golese rebel groups. This was when<br />
<strong>the</strong> MLC was formed and tra<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> Ugandans.<br />
The MLC developed close ties with <strong>the</strong> Central<br />
African Republic and C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville –<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships that were important for trade <strong>in</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>resources</strong>. Both countries and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir rebel groups began to compete for c<strong>on</strong>trol over<br />
<strong>resources</strong>. These factors led direct c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between Rwandan and Ugandan military forces.<br />
A great deal has been written elsewhere about <strong>the</strong><br />
causes, major players and c<strong>on</strong>sequences of <strong>the</strong> 1998<br />
war <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC, as well as <strong>the</strong> role <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong><br />
have played <strong>in</strong> prol<strong>on</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict. The war has<br />
been characterised by highly fluid alliances: s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1998 rebel groups have frequently spl<strong>in</strong>tered, changed<br />
allegiances and attacked former allies. The landscape<br />
of <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict has changed regularly, and accurately<br />
mapp<strong>in</strong>g a full cast of leaders of various armed<br />
groups, <strong>the</strong>ir supporters, ethnicity and sources of<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g is difficult and time c<strong>on</strong>sum<strong>in</strong>g. Never<strong>the</strong>less,<br />
some trends have been identified by reports of <strong>the</strong><br />
UN Security Council Panel of Experts and o<strong>the</strong>rs. As<br />
a first step to appreciat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tricacies of <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict, <strong>the</strong> diagram <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g page illustrates<br />
some of <strong>the</strong> major armed groups and <strong>the</strong>ir allies.<br />
6.3 Panel of Experts<br />
In June 2000, <strong>the</strong> President of <strong>the</strong> UN Security<br />
Council requested <strong>the</strong> UN Secretary General to<br />
establish a Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> illegal exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r forms of wealth of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. The Panel<br />
was asked to look <strong>in</strong>to all illegal exploitati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r forms of wealth, and to<br />
research <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks between <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> and <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict. Four<br />
Panel of Experts reports have been published, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> majority of f<strong>in</strong>al report be<strong>in</strong>g made public <strong>on</strong> 23<br />
October 2003. 44 A fur<strong>the</strong>r c<strong>on</strong>fidential secti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
later passed <strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> UN Security Council. The<br />
Panel was disbanded so<strong>on</strong> after <strong>the</strong> release of <strong>the</strong><br />
report, and some of <strong>the</strong> materials uncovered by <strong>the</strong><br />
Panel over <strong>the</strong> past three years have now been<br />
archived for 25 years by <strong>the</strong> United Nati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The first three Panel reports provided an<br />
<strong>in</strong>valuable <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> <strong>natural</strong> resource-c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
nexus of <strong>the</strong> 1998 war, and some of <strong>the</strong>ir f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
have been c<strong>on</strong>firmed by numerous reports by<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependent research and human rights<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong>s. These reports documented how <strong>the</strong><br />
strategies and patterns of resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> differ<br />
between different groups and <strong>the</strong>ir allies. To clarify<br />
differences between rebel groups, Table 1 (below)<br />
provides an overview of <strong>the</strong> leadership and genesis of<br />
<strong>the</strong> MLC, <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma, <strong>the</strong> RCD-K-ML and <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD-N.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> case of Uganda, for example, <strong>the</strong> pattern of<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> is characterised by a<br />
decentralized and loosely hierarchical network, at <strong>the</strong><br />
centre of which is a core group of Ugandan army<br />
officers and bus<strong>in</strong>essmen. The key figures <strong>in</strong> this<br />
group are <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> President: retired<br />
General and former Deputy Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister Salim<br />
Saleh, and Major-General James Kaz<strong>in</strong>i, former<br />
head of <strong>the</strong> Ugandan army. Much of its activities are<br />
carried out through C<strong>on</strong>golese proxies, such Jean-<br />
Pierre Bemba, leader of <strong>the</strong> MLC, Adele Lotsove, <strong>the</strong><br />
Hema governor of Ituri District (<strong>in</strong> Orientale<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce) and Roger Lumbala, leader of <strong>the</strong> RCD-<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al (RCD-N). 45<br />
The Ugandan network was reported to generate<br />
<strong>in</strong>come by export<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> DRC’s coltan, diam<strong>on</strong>ds,<br />
timber and gold as well as through m<strong>on</strong>opolies over<br />
<strong>the</strong> import of c<strong>on</strong>sumables. It uses armed<br />
<strong>in</strong>timidati<strong>on</strong> by both <strong>the</strong> Ugandan army and aligned<br />
militias: a façade of legitimacy provided by friendly<br />
rebel adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong>s and currency fraud facilitates its<br />
activities.<br />
The Panel of Experts report published <strong>in</strong> October<br />
2002 was c<strong>on</strong>troversial <strong>in</strong> illustrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between rebel groups, <strong>the</strong>ir regi<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al and political and commercial associates;<br />
and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nam<strong>in</strong>g of 85 <strong>in</strong>dividuals and companies<br />
as c<strong>on</strong>traven<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> OECD Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for<br />
Mult<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>al Enterprises. 46 The October 2002 report<br />
also named over 70 o<strong>the</strong>r companies and <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
that it alleged had violated <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
ethical standards. Companies and <strong>in</strong>dividuals named<br />
were <strong>in</strong>vited to send <strong>the</strong>ir reacti<strong>on</strong>s to <strong>the</strong> Panel, and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir replies were published <strong>in</strong> an addendum to <strong>the</strong><br />
October 2002 report <strong>on</strong> 20 June 2003.<br />
The f<strong>in</strong>al report published <strong>in</strong> October 2003 was<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ctly different from <strong>the</strong> first three reports. The<br />
Panel acknowledges <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> report that exploitati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>resources</strong> “rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> sources of<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g for groups <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> perpetuat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict.” 47 However, ra<strong>the</strong>r than provid<strong>in</strong>g a detailed<br />
analysis of l<strong>in</strong>ks between <strong>the</strong> illicit exploitati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>flict, <strong>the</strong> Panel devoted<br />
most of its attenti<strong>on</strong> to reacti<strong>on</strong>s to <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>troversial<br />
October 2002 report. The Panel divided <strong>the</strong><br />
companies named <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> October 2002 report as<br />
c<strong>on</strong>traven<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> OECD Guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>to five<br />
categories: “resolved,” “resolved cases subject to<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>tact Po<strong>in</strong>t (NCP) m<strong>on</strong>itor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
compliance,” “unresolved cases referred to NCP,”<br />
“pend<strong>in</strong>g cases with Governments,” and “Parties that<br />
did not react to <strong>the</strong> Panel’s report.” Thus, <strong>the</strong> Panel<br />
effectively have shifted <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>us for fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigati<strong>on</strong>, verificati<strong>on</strong> and acti<strong>on</strong> to governments,<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipally through <strong>the</strong>ir OECD Guidel<strong>in</strong>es Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tact Po<strong>in</strong>ts (NCPs).<br />
The Panel’s <strong>in</strong>vocati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> OECD Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
as a benchmark for ethnic and acceptable bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC dem<strong>on</strong>strate that <strong>the</strong>re is a tool,<br />
albeit a hi<strong>the</strong>rto untested and voluntary <strong>on</strong>e, for<br />
governments to hold <strong>in</strong>dividuals and companies<br />
accountable for <strong>the</strong>ir activities. However, despite clear<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ks between some bus<strong>in</strong>esses and <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and<br />
<strong>the</strong> perpetuati<strong>on</strong> of bloody c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC,<br />
governments have been slow to <strong>in</strong>vestigate and verify<br />
<strong>the</strong> Panel’s f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs, and to end corporate misc<strong>on</strong>duct<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
As is discussed elsewhere <strong>in</strong> this report, <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>or community is now beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
provide <strong>the</strong> DRC with substantial foreign aid to assist<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rebuild<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> country. Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, d<strong>on</strong>ors and <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al government, have also identified <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s vast <strong>natural</strong> wealth as essential to “kickstart<strong>in</strong>g”<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Susta<strong>in</strong>ed and<br />
committed <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al assistance to <strong>the</strong> DRC is to
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 12<br />
be applauded and encouraged. However, it seems<br />
illogical for foreign governments to funnel vast<br />
amounts of aid <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> very same war-torn country<br />
where bus<strong>in</strong>esses registered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
been accused of be<strong>in</strong>g complicit <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> perpetuati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>the</strong> war. For foreign aid to have maximum impact,<br />
governments <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC’s rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
should ensure that <strong>the</strong>ir d<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s and programmes<br />
are <strong>in</strong>-l<strong>in</strong>e with firm commitments to call <strong>in</strong>to<br />
account companies and <strong>in</strong>dividuals l<strong>in</strong>ked with <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> of illicit resource exploitati<strong>on</strong> and <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> DRC c<strong>on</strong>flict. It is n<strong>on</strong>sensical to<br />
bl<strong>in</strong>dly focus <strong>on</strong> future <strong>in</strong>vestments, aid and<br />
development without first address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> less<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
<strong>the</strong> past, and <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks between c<strong>on</strong>flict,<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess and <strong>natural</strong> resource extracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
Major Armed Rebel Groups<br />
Name:<br />
Movement for <strong>the</strong> Liberati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go (MLC)<br />
Date founded: October 1998<br />
Leader:<br />
Jean-Pierre Bemba<br />
Allies:<br />
Uganda, RCD-Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Area c<strong>on</strong>trolled:<br />
Equateur Prov<strong>in</strong>ce, some of Orientale Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Commodities c<strong>on</strong>trolled: Gold, Diam<strong>on</strong>ds,Timber<br />
The MLC first made itself known when it attacked and routed a large Chadian force near Aketi, <strong>in</strong> Equateur Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong>in</strong> November 1998. Led by <strong>the</strong> milli<strong>on</strong>aire bus<strong>in</strong>essmen Jean-Pierre Bemba, a Mobutist and <strong>the</strong> s<strong>on</strong> of Bemba Saol<strong>on</strong>a,<br />
a prom<strong>in</strong>ent bus<strong>in</strong>essman who was close to Mobutu, <strong>the</strong> MLC was tra<strong>in</strong>ed and funded by Uganda as an alternative to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rwandan-dom<strong>in</strong>ated RCD. As it was not plagued by <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong>ternal rivalries as <strong>the</strong> RCD, it was so<strong>on</strong> able to set<br />
itself up as <strong>the</strong> most organised and successful rebel group.The MLC signed a peace agreement at Sun City with <strong>the</strong><br />
Kabila government <strong>in</strong> April 2002 – a deal accepted by all parties except <strong>the</strong> RCD.<br />
Name:<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese Rally for Democracy (RCD).<br />
Later known as C<strong>on</strong>golese Rally for Democracy – Goma (RCD-G)<br />
Date founded: 1 August 1998<br />
Leaders:<br />
1 Aug 1998 – 19 May 1999: Professor Ernest Wamba dia Wamba<br />
19 May 1999 – 29 Oct 2000: General Emile Ilunga<br />
29 Oct 2000 – 16 June 2003: General Adolphe Onusumba<br />
16 June 2003 – present: General Azarias Ruberwa<br />
Allies:<br />
Rwanda, Burundi, Uni<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>golese Patriots (UPC)<br />
Area c<strong>on</strong>trolled:<br />
Large parts of North and South Kivu, areas of Maniema, Orientale and<br />
Katanga<br />
Commodities c<strong>on</strong>trolled: Diam<strong>on</strong>ds, Gold,Timber, Coltan, Cassiterite<br />
The RCD was <strong>the</strong> rebel movement that launched <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial war aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> Kabila regime <strong>in</strong> August 1998, backed by<br />
Rwanda and Uganda. It was an ad-hoc coaliti<strong>on</strong> of anti-Kabila forces that were brought toge<strong>the</strong>r for <strong>the</strong> sole purpose<br />
of overthrow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> regime. It was comprised of three ma<strong>in</strong> forces: <strong>the</strong> supporters of Professor Ernest Wamba dia<br />
Wamba, a professor of History at Dar Es Salaam University and a critic of Mobutu; former members of <strong>the</strong> AFDL, <strong>the</strong><br />
oppositi<strong>on</strong> group that Kabila used to get <strong>in</strong>to power <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial war aga<strong>in</strong>st President Mobutu; and former Mobutists<br />
under <strong>the</strong> leadership of Lunda Bululu, a prime m<strong>in</strong>ister under <strong>the</strong> dictator.<br />
With str<strong>on</strong>g back<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> Rwandan Patriotic Army, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial RCD thrust succeeded <strong>in</strong> ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>trol of a<br />
huge swa<strong>the</strong> of country as <strong>the</strong>y advanced across <strong>the</strong> border from Rwanda and Uganda. However, after <strong>the</strong> RPA had<br />
been thwarted <strong>in</strong> its attack <strong>on</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa by Angolan troops, <strong>the</strong> advance began to stall, and <strong>the</strong> RCD began to spl<strong>in</strong>ter.<br />
The RCD was put toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> Kigali ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go, and did not ga<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> support of <strong>the</strong> local<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>, be<strong>in</strong>g a coaliti<strong>on</strong> of self-<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong>dividuals ra<strong>the</strong>r than a popular movement. In resp<strong>on</strong>se to this, a shortlived<br />
group called <strong>the</strong> New-RCD emerged <strong>in</strong> Nov 1998, which challenged <strong>the</strong> movement over its <strong>in</strong>ability to mobilise<br />
<strong>the</strong> people of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
A coup led to Professor Wamba dia Wamba be<strong>in</strong>g removed as leader, and be<strong>in</strong>g replaced by <strong>the</strong> head of <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD army and a former general <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zairian army, Emile Ilunga.Wamba retreated to Kisangani to form a spl<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
group: <strong>the</strong> RCD – Kisangani/Liberati<strong>on</strong> Movement.This led to <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al RCD be<strong>in</strong>g referred to as <strong>the</strong> RCD<br />
(Goma).<br />
The RCD-Goma is a significant part of <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al government, with <strong>on</strong>e vice-president a quarter of <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>istries.<br />
Name:<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese Rally for Democracy – Kisangani / C<strong>on</strong>golese Rally for<br />
Democracy – Liberati<strong>on</strong> Movement (RCD-K / RCD-K-ML)<br />
Date founded:<br />
May 1999. Refounded September 1999 as RCD-ML<br />
Leaders:<br />
19 May 1999 – 19 Nov 2001: Professor Ernest Wamba dia Wamba<br />
19 Nov 2001 – present: Mbusa Nyamwisi<br />
Allies:<br />
Uganda, MLC, K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
Area c<strong>on</strong>trolled:<br />
Nor<strong>the</strong>rn North Kivu, Ituri, parts of Orientale<br />
Commodities c<strong>on</strong>trolled: Coltan, Gold
13 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Professor Wamba dia Wamba and his supporters retreated from Goma to Kisangani after his leadership of <strong>the</strong> RCD<br />
was disputed.There he founded <strong>the</strong> RCD – Kisangani.Wamba was supported by <strong>the</strong> Ugandans, who c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
believe <strong>in</strong> his desirability as a rebel leader. However, tensi<strong>on</strong> between Rwanda and Uganda, partly caused by Uganda’s<br />
support for <strong>the</strong> RCD-K, led to <strong>the</strong> August 1999 battle for Kisangani between <strong>the</strong> two erstwhile allies.Wamba and his<br />
allies were expelled aga<strong>in</strong>, this time to <strong>the</strong> town of Bunia.<br />
Wamba flew to Kampala and founded <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML, appo<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g as his deputies Mbusa Nyamwisi and Tibasima<br />
Ateenyi.They built up <strong>the</strong>ir own power bases: Nyamwisi <strong>in</strong> his hometown of Beni <strong>in</strong> North Kivu, and Tibasima<br />
am<strong>on</strong>gst his fellow Hema <strong>in</strong> Bunia. As <strong>the</strong> two deputies began to develop <strong>the</strong>ir own adm<strong>in</strong>istrative structures, so <strong>the</strong>y<br />
began to try to remove Wamba did Wamba as head of <strong>the</strong> movement.This came to a head <strong>in</strong> March 2000, when<br />
Wamba attempted to check <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g power of Nyamwisi and Tibasima.<br />
The Nyamwisi/Tibasima facti<strong>on</strong> was <strong>in</strong> almost c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ual rebelli<strong>on</strong> aga<strong>in</strong>st Wamba until <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML was absorbed<br />
<strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> Ugandan-backed Fr<strong>on</strong>t de libérati<strong>on</strong> du C<strong>on</strong>go (FLC) which is supported by <strong>the</strong> Ugandan army <strong>in</strong> January<br />
2001. By June 2001 clashes were reported between forces bel<strong>on</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g to Bemba and Nyamwisi as a result of<br />
Nyamwisi’s defecti<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> alliance.Talks <strong>in</strong> August to end <strong>the</strong> fight<strong>in</strong>g were significant, as Wamba dia Wamba was<br />
deliberately excluded – Uganda had accepted that it was Nyamwisi who was <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> force beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML. 48<br />
Ugandan efforts at rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> were never<strong>the</strong>less unsuccessful, and so<strong>on</strong> after <strong>the</strong> MLC retreated from Ituri, <strong>the</strong><br />
FLC hav<strong>in</strong>g irrevocably broken up after Tibasima broke ranks with Bemba and jo<strong>in</strong>ed with Nyamwisi to def<strong>in</strong>itively<br />
overthrow Wamba and establish <strong>the</strong>ir own leadership of <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML. 49 However, fight<strong>in</strong>g between <strong>the</strong> MLC and <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD-ML c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued.<br />
After his triumph over Wamba, Nyamwisi began to foster greater ties with <strong>the</strong> Lendu, ethnic cous<strong>in</strong>s of his own<br />
tribe, <strong>the</strong> Nande, partly to limit <strong>the</strong> power of Thomas Lubanga, his M<strong>in</strong>ister of Defence and a Hema. In early 2002 he<br />
appo<strong>in</strong>ted Jean-Pierre Lomp<strong>on</strong>do, an outsider, as governor of Ituri prov<strong>in</strong>ce and replaced <strong>the</strong> Hema Catholic<br />
Archbishop of Bunia to be replaced with a Nande, moves which fur<strong>the</strong>r alienated his supporters am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>the</strong> Hema.<br />
The grow<strong>in</strong>g rift between Nyamwisi and Lubanga culm<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> assass<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of Nyamwisi’s bodyguard by<br />
Lubanga, and <strong>the</strong> ensu<strong>in</strong>g skirmishes between <strong>the</strong> APC (Popular C<strong>on</strong>golese Army, <strong>the</strong> military w<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML,)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> newly created UPC.This fur<strong>the</strong>r streng<strong>the</strong>ned <strong>the</strong> ties between <strong>the</strong> Lendu and <strong>the</strong> APC. 50<br />
Whilst Uganda <strong>in</strong>itially c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to support Nyamwisi, even arrest<strong>in</strong>g Lubanga and send<strong>in</strong>g him to K<strong>in</strong>shasa, but<br />
<strong>the</strong>y later changed sides and helped <strong>the</strong> UPC and MLC drive <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML out of Bunia to Beni <strong>in</strong> August 2002.This<br />
brought about a realignment of rebel groups, with <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML receiv<strong>in</strong>g support from <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa government.<br />
This realignment turned all <strong>the</strong> rebel groups aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML, with <strong>the</strong> RCD-N, <strong>the</strong> UPC, <strong>the</strong> MLC and <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD-Goma all at <strong>on</strong>e po<strong>in</strong>t or ano<strong>the</strong>r attack<strong>in</strong>g Nyamwisi’s followers <strong>in</strong> an attempt to ga<strong>in</strong> more territory before<br />
<strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>alis<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> peace agreement and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al government.The RCD-ML was reduced to<br />
a rump group that c<strong>on</strong>trolled very little territory. Never<strong>the</strong>less, it was awarded two m<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> new government:<br />
Nyamwisi became M<strong>in</strong>ister for Regi<strong>on</strong>al Cooperati<strong>on</strong>, and Tibasima Ateenyi M<strong>in</strong>ister for Hous<strong>in</strong>g and Urban<br />
Development. It also received <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> ten newly created military regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Name:<br />
RCD-Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Date founded: June 2000<br />
Leader:<br />
Roger Lumbala<br />
Allies:<br />
Uganda, MLC<br />
Area c<strong>on</strong>trolled:<br />
Around Bafwasende and Isiro, Orientale Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Commodities c<strong>on</strong>trolled: Gold, Diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
The RCD-Nati<strong>on</strong>al was founded by Roger Lumbala, a defector from <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma to <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML, who hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
been posted as a mobilizati<strong>on</strong> officer <strong>in</strong> Bafwasende, proceeded to organise <strong>the</strong> militia <strong>the</strong>re <strong>in</strong>to his own rebel<br />
group. 51 This group rema<strong>in</strong>ed loyal to Uganda, and <strong>the</strong>re were no immediate clashes between <strong>the</strong> RCD-N and <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD-ML.<br />
In January 2001 <strong>the</strong> RCD-N was <strong>in</strong>cluded with <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML and <strong>the</strong> MLC under <strong>the</strong> FLC, a Ugandan-devised<br />
umbrella group, and Lumbala was appo<strong>in</strong>ted nati<strong>on</strong>al secretary for mobilizati<strong>on</strong> and propaganda.When <strong>the</strong> FLC broke<br />
down <strong>in</strong> June, <strong>the</strong> RCD-N allied with <strong>the</strong> MLC, and succeeded <strong>in</strong> captur<strong>in</strong>g a significant number of towns from <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD-ML, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Isiro and Bafwasende.This fight<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued until December 2002, when a peace deal was agreed<br />
between <strong>the</strong> three warr<strong>in</strong>g parties, as <strong>the</strong> RCD-N and MLC were advanc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> Nyamwisi’s base <strong>in</strong> Beni 52 However, it<br />
is unclear whe<strong>the</strong>r this peace deal held. It is also debatable whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> RCD-Nati<strong>on</strong>al can be counted as a viable<br />
military force, or if it is merely a fr<strong>on</strong>t for <strong>the</strong> forces of <strong>the</strong> MLC. 53 In <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al government, <strong>the</strong> RCD-N<br />
received <strong>on</strong>e m<strong>in</strong>isterial post, that of external trade relati<strong>on</strong>s, but no military districts.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong>se ma<strong>in</strong> groups, a fur<strong>the</strong>r significant armed group is <strong>the</strong> Uni<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>golese Patriots (UPC).The UPC began<br />
as a breakaway group from <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML.The UPC is led by Thomas Lubanga, a Gegere Hema, who was m<strong>in</strong>ister of defence<br />
under Mbusa Nyamwisi. He spoke out aga<strong>in</strong>st Nyamwisi’s grow<strong>in</strong>g reliance <strong>on</strong> his own Nande ethnic group, and <strong>the</strong>ir ethnic<br />
cous<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> Lendu, and as a result was removed from his post. He formed <strong>the</strong> UPC <strong>in</strong> June 2002, ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g much support<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Ugandan commander James Kaz<strong>in</strong>i. On 6 September 2002, Uganda signed <strong>the</strong> Luanda Agreement, <strong>in</strong> which it<br />
agreed to withdraw from <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go.The agreement also proposed <strong>the</strong> establishment of an Ituri Pacificati<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> downgrad<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> role of <strong>the</strong> UPC to that of any militia or civil society delegati<strong>on</strong>. However, <strong>the</strong> UPC refused to sign a<br />
ceasefire agreement <strong>in</strong> December 2002 and <strong>in</strong>stead became allied with <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma and Rwanda. 54 In additi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong><br />
February 2003 former UPC member Chief Kahwa formed <strong>the</strong> Party for Unity and Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> Integrity of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
(PUSIC) with o<strong>the</strong>r Hema dissatisfied with <strong>the</strong> UPC.Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Human Rights watch, PUSIC appears to have close l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
with Ugandan authorities. 55<br />
The <strong>in</strong>volvement of Rwanda, Uganda and Zimbabwe <strong>in</strong> support of numerous armed groups is illustrated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> chart <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g page.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 14
15 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
7 Joseph Kabila, <strong>the</strong> Inter-C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue and <strong>the</strong><br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong>al Government<br />
LAURENT KABILA was assass<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
<strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa <strong>on</strong> 16 January 2001, and<br />
his s<strong>on</strong> and Army Chief, Joseph<br />
Kabila, acceded as President. Joseph<br />
Kabila has appeared to work to end<br />
<strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC, and has cooperated with<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> reform<strong>in</strong>g laws<br />
govern<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and forestry. However, it rema<strong>in</strong>s to<br />
be seen whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se reforms will be sufficient to<br />
change entrenched methods of patrim<strong>on</strong>ial and<br />
corrupt <strong>natural</strong> resource governance.<br />
7.1 The Lusaka Agreement and <strong>the</strong> Inter-<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue<br />
Movement towards peace negotiati<strong>on</strong>s began <strong>in</strong> 1999<br />
after a stalemate between government forces, <strong>the</strong><br />
Ugandan-backed MLC and Rwandan-backed RCD-<br />
Goma. In July 1999, an agreement was proposed <strong>in</strong><br />
Lusaka, Zambia, which all parties had signed by <strong>the</strong><br />
end of August. The Lusaka Accord called for a ceasefire,<br />
<strong>the</strong> deployment of a UN peacekeep<strong>in</strong>g operati<strong>on</strong><br />
(MONUC), <strong>the</strong> withdrawal of foreign troops, and<br />
voluntary disarmament and repatriati<strong>on</strong> of all foreign<br />
armed groups, and <strong>the</strong> launch<strong>in</strong>g of an “Inter-<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue” to form a transiti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
government lead<strong>in</strong>g to electi<strong>on</strong>s. 56 However, <strong>the</strong><br />
Lusaka Accord failed to secure any last<strong>in</strong>g peace as<br />
warr<strong>in</strong>g facti<strong>on</strong>s did not implement <strong>the</strong> Accord’s<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
After <strong>the</strong> death of his fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> 2001, Joseph<br />
Kabila re-opened <strong>the</strong> Inter-C<strong>on</strong>golese Dialogue. Slow<br />
progress was made until February 2002 when <strong>the</strong><br />
dialogue rec<strong>on</strong>vened <strong>in</strong> South Africa. These talks <strong>in</strong><br />
Sun City <strong>in</strong>cluded representatives from <strong>the</strong><br />
government, rebel and armed groups, political<br />
oppositi<strong>on</strong> and civil society. In April 2002 <strong>the</strong><br />
dialogue almost collapsed when Joseph Kabila and<br />
<strong>the</strong> MLC signed a power-shar<strong>in</strong>g agreement that left<br />
<strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma without any executive power. 57<br />
Separately, but still under <strong>the</strong> Lusaka Agreement,<br />
agreements were reached between <strong>the</strong> DRC and<br />
Rwanda, and <strong>the</strong> DRC and Uganda <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
withdrawal of <strong>the</strong>ir forces from DRC.<br />
A comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of regi<strong>on</strong>al and <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
pressure facilitated a return to <strong>the</strong> negotiat<strong>in</strong>g table<br />
and by September 2002 talks <strong>in</strong> South Africa with <strong>the</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> rebel groups began aga<strong>in</strong>. 58 From September<br />
2002 to March 2003 talks between facti<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
fraught with difficulty. The RCD-N, a smaller rebel<br />
group associated with <strong>the</strong> MLC, withdrew from <strong>the</strong><br />
talks <strong>in</strong> November. RCD-K-ML, ano<strong>the</strong>r small group<br />
supported by <strong>the</strong> Kabila government, also pulled out,<br />
compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g that it had become marg<strong>in</strong>alized. 59<br />
These two smaller groups resumed fight<strong>in</strong>g each<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> North Kivu <strong>in</strong> December 2002. 60<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>in</strong> November 2002, <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
government and rebel groups met <strong>in</strong> Pretoria to<br />
negotiate a multi-party transiti<strong>on</strong>al government that<br />
would share power until electi<strong>on</strong>s were held <strong>in</strong> two<br />
years time. Negotiators f<strong>in</strong>ally reached agreement <strong>in</strong><br />
March 2003 and agreed to draft a c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
discuss military matters, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
rebel militia <strong>in</strong>to a nati<strong>on</strong>al army. President Kabila<br />
signed <strong>the</strong> new c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> April 2003, and fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
agreements <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong> armed forces were<br />
reached <strong>in</strong> June 2003. This paved <strong>the</strong> way for <strong>the</strong><br />
nam<strong>in</strong>g of representatives of a new transiti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
government.<br />
7.2 Transiti<strong>on</strong>al government<br />
The transiti<strong>on</strong>al government was sworn <strong>in</strong>to power<br />
between July and September 2003. The government<br />
is made up of Kabila government officials, <strong>the</strong><br />
political oppositi<strong>on</strong>, representatives from <strong>the</strong> RCD-<br />
Goma, MLC, civil society organisati<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>the</strong><br />
government-backed Mayi-Mayi. Under <strong>the</strong> new<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>, Kabila will rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> head of<br />
government until 2005, when electi<strong>on</strong>s will be held.<br />
There are four Vice-Presidents: Yerodia Abdoulaye<br />
Ndombasi (government), Jean-Pierre Bemba (MLC),<br />
Ar<strong>the</strong>r Zahidi Ngoma (political oppositi<strong>on</strong> and civil<br />
society) and Azarias Ruberwa Manywa (RCD-<br />
Goma).<br />
Thirty-six cab<strong>in</strong>et m<strong>in</strong>istries are similarly divided<br />
<strong>in</strong>to four groups, and are supported by 25 deputy<br />
m<strong>in</strong>isters. The Kabila adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong> heads <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>istries of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terior, decentralisati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
security, f<strong>in</strong>ance, energy and <strong>in</strong>dustry. The RCD-<br />
Goma has <strong>the</strong> defence, demobilisati<strong>on</strong> and war<br />
veterans, ec<strong>on</strong>omy, parastatals and<br />
telecommunicati<strong>on</strong>s m<strong>in</strong>istries, and <strong>the</strong> MLC has<br />
foreign affairs and <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g and budget. A 500-member Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Assembly and 120-member Senate complete <strong>the</strong> new<br />
government.<br />
The transiti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> requires <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>stallati<strong>on</strong> of a High Council of Defence that<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong> president as commander-<strong>in</strong>-chief of <strong>the</strong><br />
armed forces and representatives from <strong>the</strong> various<br />
former belligerent parties. On 5 September 2003, <strong>the</strong><br />
new heads of <strong>the</strong> newly unified nati<strong>on</strong>al army were<br />
sworn <strong>in</strong>, with 30 new officers from <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma,<br />
MLC, RCD-K/-ML and Mayi-Mayi pledg<strong>in</strong>g not to<br />
participate <strong>in</strong> any unsancti<strong>on</strong>ed military or political<br />
activities and to defend <strong>the</strong> territorial <strong>in</strong>tegrity of <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC. Lt-Gen Liwanga Mata Nyamunyobo, of <strong>the</strong><br />
armed forces of <strong>the</strong> former K<strong>in</strong>shasa government,<br />
was named chief of staff. He will be assisted by four<br />
deputies, two of whom are Brigadier General<br />
Bahuma Ambamba of <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma, who will be<br />
head of operati<strong>on</strong>s, and Brigadier General Malik<br />
Kijege of <strong>the</strong> MLC, who will be head of logistics.<br />
Major General Sylva<strong>in</strong> Mbuki of <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma is<br />
head of ground forces, MLC’s Major General<br />
Dieud<strong>on</strong>ne Amuli Bahigwa head of <strong>the</strong> navy, and<br />
Major General John Numbi of <strong>the</strong> former K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
government head of <strong>the</strong> air force. 61<br />
It rema<strong>in</strong>s to be seen how <strong>the</strong> establishment of a<br />
unified nati<strong>on</strong>al army and <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
government will be managed and what effect this will<br />
have <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. In particular, it is as yet unclear<br />
where effective political c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and forestry sectors rests. Fur<strong>the</strong>r detailed<br />
research <strong>in</strong>to this issue is highly recommended.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 16<br />
7.3 Internati<strong>on</strong>al F<strong>in</strong>ancial Instituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
(IFI) <strong>in</strong>volvement<br />
The World Bank reopened its office <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa <strong>in</strong><br />
December 2001, follow<strong>in</strong>g its suspensi<strong>on</strong> of f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
assistance to <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> 1993. The World Bank has<br />
made it clear that greater d<strong>on</strong>or <strong>in</strong>volvement is<br />
essential to ensure that progress with <strong>the</strong> peace<br />
process is accompanied by improvements to day-today<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The World Bank and <strong>the</strong> IMF<br />
are <strong>the</strong> most suitable agencies to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> necessary<br />
reforms and rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> about, but experience<br />
elsewhere <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world illustrates <strong>the</strong> risks <strong>in</strong>herent <strong>in</strong><br />
not heed<strong>in</strong>g past less<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 2001 some of <strong>the</strong> Bank’s ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiatives<br />
have been:<br />
● A US$214 milli<strong>on</strong> “emergency ec<strong>on</strong>omic and<br />
social reunificati<strong>on</strong> support” compris<strong>in</strong>g a grant of<br />
US$164 milli<strong>on</strong> and a US$50-milli<strong>on</strong> loan. The<br />
loan is repayable <strong>in</strong> 40 years but <strong>the</strong> payments do<br />
not commence until 2013.<br />
● The provisi<strong>on</strong> of technical advice <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> design of<br />
new m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, forestry, and <strong>in</strong>vestment codes, as well<br />
as debt management, public expenditures review,<br />
public enterprises reform, and <strong>the</strong> fight aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
● The Transiti<strong>on</strong>al Support Strategy (TSS), which<br />
supports ec<strong>on</strong>omic reforms, rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> works<br />
and provides policy advice.<br />
● On 28 July 2003 <strong>the</strong> Bank and <strong>the</strong> IMF<br />
announced that <strong>the</strong> DRC qualified for US$10<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> debt relief under <strong>the</strong> enhanced HPIC<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiative, and that <strong>the</strong> IDA and <strong>the</strong> IMF would<br />
provide approximately US$1.2 billi<strong>on</strong> of this, <strong>the</strong><br />
rest to be split am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>r creditors.<br />
● A US$450 milli<strong>on</strong> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Recovery Credit,<br />
approved <strong>on</strong> 13 June 2002, to support ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
reforms.<br />
● A US$454 milli<strong>on</strong> Emergency Multi-Sector<br />
Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> and Rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> Project<br />
(EMRRP), approved by <strong>the</strong> Board <strong>in</strong> July 2002.<br />
The EMRRP is part of a broader US$1.74 billi<strong>on</strong><br />
priority program, designed with Bank assistance<br />
and supported by a broad range of d<strong>on</strong>ors. It<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> transport, energy, water,<br />
urban and rural development, agriculture, health,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, and social protecti<strong>on</strong> sectors.<br />
● A US$50 milli<strong>on</strong> grant from IDA, approved by <strong>the</strong><br />
Board <strong>in</strong> July 2001, and now fully committed. The<br />
grant provided <strong>the</strong> <strong>resources</strong> needed to pave <strong>the</strong><br />
way for fur<strong>the</strong>r assistance, streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g capacity<br />
<strong>in</strong> key areas, <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g urgent rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> works,<br />
and help<strong>in</strong>g to tackle <strong>the</strong> HIV/AIDS epidemics.<br />
● IDA provid<strong>in</strong>g US$120 milli<strong>on</strong> for a DRC<br />
Demobilizati<strong>on</strong>, Repatriati<strong>on</strong>, Resettlement and<br />
Re<strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong> program supported by <strong>the</strong> UN and<br />
IDA. 62<br />
● Support<strong>in</strong>g severance pay for Gécam<strong>in</strong>es workers<br />
to avoid c<strong>on</strong>flict, <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Sector<br />
float<strong>in</strong>g tranche. 62<br />
● Private Sector Development and Competitiveness<br />
Project (PSDC) scheduled to be submitted to<br />
board 31 July 2003 to support capacity build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
government to enforce a m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g code, and to assist<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>go<strong>in</strong>g restructur<strong>in</strong>g of Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. 62<br />
The Bank has also been closely <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
formulati<strong>on</strong> and revisi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Forestry<br />
Codes. In <strong>the</strong> case of forestry <strong>the</strong> Bank has played a<br />
positive role <strong>in</strong> encourag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> government to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease various forest-related taxes <strong>in</strong> a bid to deter<br />
speculators, <strong>in</strong> favour of legitimate forest <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />
(see forest secti<strong>on</strong>). Much of <strong>the</strong> Bank’s efforts <strong>in</strong><br />
rebuild<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy have focused <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
parastatal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g company Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and its<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Katanga prov<strong>in</strong>ce.<br />
The World Bank and IMF have a particularly<br />
important role to play <strong>in</strong> promot<strong>in</strong>g revenue<br />
transparency because of <strong>the</strong>ir technical expertise and<br />
central role <strong>in</strong> macroec<strong>on</strong>omic restructur<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
World Bank not <strong>on</strong>ly disburses development<br />
assistance directly but it is also <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> direct<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> extractives sector. An <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> World Bank Group’s performance<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> extractives sector <strong>in</strong> January 2003, subsequently<br />
passed to Global Witness, highlights <strong>the</strong> failure of <strong>the</strong><br />
Bank’s current engagement with <strong>the</strong> sector. It states<br />
that due to <strong>the</strong> “l<strong>in</strong>ks between poverty and poor<br />
governance … <strong>in</strong>creased EI [extractive <strong>in</strong>dustry]<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment is likely to lead to bad development<br />
outcomes for many if not most of <strong>the</strong> Bank’s clients<br />
[orig<strong>in</strong>al emphasis]”. 63 The report calls for “a<br />
fundamental reorientati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> Bank’s work …<br />
away from prioritis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> attracti<strong>on</strong> of new<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment and toward capacity build<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
technical assistance focused <strong>on</strong> streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
government’s capacity to maximize <strong>the</strong> benefits and<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imize <strong>the</strong> risks of exist<strong>in</strong>g EI <strong>in</strong>vestment”. 64<br />
Whilst World Bank and IMF engagement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC is essential, it is vital that agreed targets and<br />
benchmarks are adhered to, and that <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly carried out <strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with improvements <strong>in</strong> regulatory and enforcement<br />
capacity. It is recommended that fur<strong>the</strong>r research be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> challenges of rec<strong>on</strong>cil<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> need<br />
for <strong>in</strong>vestment, reform and law enforcement with <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong>-ground<br />
realities.
17 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
8 The DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong><br />
8.1 Overview<br />
This <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> looks at <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC:<br />
● Coltan and cassiterite<br />
● Copper, cobalt, uranium, z<strong>in</strong>c and silver<br />
● Diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
● Gold<br />
● Oil and gas<br />
● Manganese<br />
● Lead<br />
● Coal<br />
● Timber<br />
8.2 Natural <strong>resources</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC<br />
MANY COMMENTATORS<br />
have remarked that c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC has been partly driven<br />
by <strong>the</strong> trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong>. The UN Expert<br />
Panel reports <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> illegal exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> April and November 2001,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> May and October 2002, all came to <strong>the</strong> clear<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that greed over <strong>the</strong> DRC’s <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> has played a significant role <strong>in</strong> prol<strong>on</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict. The first Panel report stated:<br />
This map illustrates <strong>the</strong> locati<strong>on</strong><br />
of larger deposits of copper and<br />
cobalt (Co and Cu), z<strong>in</strong>c (Zn),<br />
gold (Au), and diam<strong>on</strong>ds (Dm).<br />
Cassiterite (t<strong>in</strong>) deposits are<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated by (Sn). Individual<br />
<strong>resources</strong> and more precise<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong>ir locati<strong>on</strong><br />
follow <strong>in</strong> secti<strong>on</strong>s devoted<br />
specifically to each resource.<br />
Source: United States Geological Service, 2001.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 18<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go has<br />
become ma<strong>in</strong>ly about access, c<strong>on</strong>trol and trade of five key<br />
m<strong>in</strong>eral <strong>resources</strong>: coltan, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, copper, cobalt and<br />
gold. The wealth of <strong>the</strong> country is appeal<strong>in</strong>g and hard to<br />
resist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text of lawlessness and <strong>the</strong> weakness of <strong>the</strong><br />
central authority. 65<br />
While this is true, it is important to place <strong>the</strong><br />
plunder of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> historical,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic, political and social c<strong>on</strong>text. Particularly <strong>in</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>ast DRC, <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omics of c<strong>on</strong>flict are<br />
<strong>in</strong>tertw<strong>in</strong>ed with tribal and ethnic hatred, disputes<br />
over access to land, profound social dis<strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
high unemployment and poverty, as well as <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement of different foreign rebel groups and<br />
armies from Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda. As such,<br />
it is more accurate to describe <strong>the</strong> violence <strong>in</strong> eastern<br />
DRC as be<strong>in</strong>g motivated by a mixture of security and<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic anxiety. 66<br />
The <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy that developed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1970s<br />
and 1980s, particularly <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC, became<br />
crucial to <strong>the</strong> survival of local communities after <strong>the</strong><br />
commencement of c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> 1998. Trade networks<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g communities and towns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> east with <strong>the</strong><br />
rest of Africa also served as highly c<strong>on</strong>venient<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duits for f<strong>in</strong>ance by local armed groups and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
foreign supporters. 67<br />
Belligerents <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC c<strong>on</strong>flict have used<br />
different ec<strong>on</strong>omic strategies to generate revenue<br />
from <strong>the</strong> various accessible <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong>. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>the</strong> DRC government has raised m<strong>on</strong>ey for<br />
its war effort through <strong>the</strong> sale of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and forestry<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s, usually <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of jo<strong>in</strong>t venture<br />
agreements between parastatal and foreign<br />
companies. The MLC, <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, has raised<br />
revenues through establish<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>on</strong>opolies over <strong>the</strong><br />
producti<strong>on</strong> and trade <strong>in</strong> commodities from its<br />
territory, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold and coffee.<br />
Foreign and local armed groups have particularly<br />
targeted alluvial diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold and coltan to raise<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey. All three are easily exploited by artisanal<br />
methods, have high weight-to-value ratios, can be<br />
easily c<strong>on</strong>cealed and smuggled, and are quickly<br />
absorbed <strong>in</strong>to <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al markets – buoyed by high<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer demand <strong>in</strong> Europe, America and South<br />
East Asia. 68 The lack of effective border c<strong>on</strong>trols and<br />
an absence of <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally effective commodity<br />
track<strong>in</strong>g regimes and enforcement mechanisms for<br />
gold, coltan and timber also make <strong>the</strong>se <strong>resources</strong><br />
easy targets.<br />
Natural <strong>resources</strong> provide revenues both from <strong>the</strong><br />
sale and trade of <strong>the</strong> commodities to buyers with<strong>in</strong><br />
and outside <strong>the</strong> DRC. Resources are traded for<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey, arms, equipment or o<strong>the</strong>r supplies. C<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
over <strong>resources</strong> also presents opportunities for rais<strong>in</strong>g<br />
revenues through customs and tax revenues. A direct<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequence of this is that fight<strong>in</strong>g has tended to<br />
focus around ec<strong>on</strong>omically strategic trad<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts. In<br />
May 2002 <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of Experts reported that:<br />
Battles have been fought over c<strong>on</strong>trol of Buta, Isiro, Watsa,<br />
Bafwasende and Bunia, all endowed <strong>in</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g degrees with<br />
deposits of gold, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, coltan or cassiterite as well as<br />
stands of timber. Butembo, a major import and distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
centre where <strong>the</strong> country’s sec<strong>on</strong>d largest customs post is<br />
located, was also attacked repeatedly… Over <strong>the</strong> course of<br />
<strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict, various military groups clashed over <strong>the</strong>se<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omically strategic areas, trad<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>trol back and forth<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m. 69<br />
8.3 The m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector<br />
It is widely acknowledged that <strong>the</strong> DRC possesses<br />
Africa’s richest m<strong>in</strong>eral deposits of copper and<br />
cobalt, as well as abundant reserves of gold,<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds, and coltan. However, decades of<br />
patrim<strong>on</strong>y, endemic corrupti<strong>on</strong>, war, under<strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
<strong>in</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al transport and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure have fundamentally underm<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
potential of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s formal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to state-run (parastatal) and private<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g company operati<strong>on</strong>s, c<strong>on</strong>siderable artisanal<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities take place throughout <strong>the</strong> country.<br />
Gold, diam<strong>on</strong>d, coltan and o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>erals extracted<br />
by small-scale and artisanal operators are traded and<br />
exported through <strong>in</strong>formal circuits. As such, <strong>the</strong> trade<br />
and producti<strong>on</strong> statistics provided are not wholly<br />
representative of real levels of producti<strong>on</strong> and trade<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector. In particular, post-1998<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict-driven trade <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>erals and timber has<br />
skewed official trade records.<br />
The DRC’s m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector underwent significant<br />
changes under pressure from <strong>the</strong> World Bank and<br />
IMF <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early to mid-1990s. Dur<strong>in</strong>g 1996 and 1997<br />
several foreign m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and explorati<strong>on</strong> companies<br />
signed jo<strong>in</strong>t venture agreements with <strong>the</strong> state-owned<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g company Gécam<strong>in</strong>es to rehabilitate 20<br />
copper-cobalt and z<strong>in</strong>c m<strong>in</strong>es and process<strong>in</strong>g<br />
facilities. O<strong>the</strong>r parastatals targeted for jo<strong>in</strong>t ventures<br />
and privatisati<strong>on</strong> were <strong>the</strong> gold-t<strong>in</strong> producer Société<br />
M<strong>in</strong>ière et Industrielle du Kivu (SOMINKI), <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
producer Société M<strong>in</strong>ière de Bakwanga (MIBA), and gold<br />
producer Office des M<strong>in</strong>es d’Or de Kilo-Moto (Okimo).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> United States Geological Service, by<br />
<strong>the</strong> end of 1997, over 100 prelim<strong>in</strong>ary jo<strong>in</strong>t venture<br />
and privatisati<strong>on</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g agreements were signed and<br />
200 were pend<strong>in</strong>g. 70<br />
Many of <strong>the</strong> prelim<strong>in</strong>ary agreements were<br />
negotiated with <strong>the</strong> Mobutu government. After <strong>the</strong><br />
accessi<strong>on</strong> of Laurent Kabila as President, several of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se c<strong>on</strong>tracts were reviewed. Some of <strong>the</strong> foreign<br />
companies which were affected <strong>in</strong>cluded Ashanti<br />
Goldfields Company Limited (over an agreement<br />
with Okimo), Banro Resource Corporati<strong>on</strong> (over gold<br />
and diam<strong>on</strong>d c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> South Kivu and<br />
Maniema), American M<strong>in</strong>eral Fields (over a coppercobalt<br />
tail<strong>in</strong>gs project <strong>in</strong> Katanga), and De Beers<br />
Centenary AG (relat<strong>in</strong>g to a c<strong>on</strong>tract signed for <strong>the</strong><br />
exclusive sale of diam<strong>on</strong>ds with MIBA).<br />
The primary reas<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong> review of agreements<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1998 was to quickly boost revenues by sell<strong>in</strong>g off<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wake of <strong>the</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
rebelli<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> August that year. Additi<strong>on</strong>al research <strong>in</strong>to<br />
how and why <strong>the</strong>se c<strong>on</strong>tracts were reviewed, who<br />
benefited from <strong>the</strong> subsequent re-allocati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s and o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g rights is recommended.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>r research should also be c<strong>on</strong>ducted to<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>the</strong> new World Bank-sp<strong>on</strong>sored<br />
M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Code and Regulati<strong>on</strong>s has <strong>on</strong> past and future<br />
allocati<strong>on</strong> of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s and exploratory<br />
rights.<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 9 provides more specific details of <strong>the</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> centres of producti<strong>on</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong>.
19 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
9 Producti<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>trol and trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong><br />
THIS SECTION provides <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> about <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> centres of producti<strong>on</strong>, process<strong>in</strong>g, trade<br />
routes, and c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong>: coltan, cobalt/copper, diam<strong>on</strong>ds,<br />
gold, oil and timber. Statistical data from official trade records from <strong>the</strong> DRC and its ma<strong>in</strong><br />
trad<strong>in</strong>g partners and neighbours are also provided for each resource.<br />
The secti<strong>on</strong> also provides brief summaries of <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> found <strong>on</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> that have<br />
received little or no attenti<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of Experts, academics, NGOs, <strong>in</strong>dustry and media sources.<br />
Their lack of trade statistics <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>resources</strong> suggests very low volumes of trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>resources</strong>, perhaps<br />
an <strong>in</strong>dicati<strong>on</strong> of low volumes of extracti<strong>on</strong>, export or value <strong>in</strong> comparis<strong>on</strong> to o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>resources</strong>. These <strong>resources</strong><br />
are: bauxite, cadmium, cassiterite, coal, coffee, lead, ir<strong>on</strong> ore, manganese, silver, z<strong>in</strong>c, and uranium.<br />
Summaries about cadmium, z<strong>in</strong>c, silver and uranium are c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> del<strong>in</strong>eated boxes <strong>in</strong> secti<strong>on</strong> 10.2 (copper<br />
and cobalt), and cassiterite is outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> secti<strong>on</strong> 10.1 (coltan) as <strong>the</strong>se <strong>resources</strong> tend to be found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same<br />
areas. Details of all <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r “m<strong>in</strong>or” <strong>resources</strong> follow <strong>in</strong> secti<strong>on</strong> 10.7.<br />
9.1 Columbite-tantalite (Coltan)<br />
Coltan is a m<strong>in</strong>eral from which <strong>the</strong> precious metals<br />
tantalum (Ta) and columbium (Cb) – also known as<br />
niobium (Nb) – are extracted.<br />
Uses of coltan (see chart right)<br />
Market demand for coltan<br />
Global c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> surged dramatically <strong>in</strong> 2000 to<br />
approximately 5,000,000 lb, a 38% <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
previous year, pr<strong>in</strong>cipally driven by <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ics sector, such as <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>in</strong> sales of mobile<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>es and laptops. Prices reached <strong>the</strong>ir peak <strong>in</strong><br />
November 2000 at US$365 per pound of tantalum<br />
and <strong>the</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> of Kivu, <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC, was<br />
suddenly dragged <strong>in</strong>to an unprecedented “gold rush<br />
for coltan” 71 . However, <strong>the</strong> coltan boom was shortlived<br />
and it so<strong>on</strong> became evident that <strong>the</strong> pace of<br />
growth witnessed <strong>in</strong> 2000 could not be susta<strong>in</strong>ed as<br />
<strong>the</strong> global ec<strong>on</strong>omy started to slow down. Despite<br />
this, future growth expectati<strong>on</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong> between 10<br />
and 20% per annum and additi<strong>on</strong>al raw material<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> capacity will be required to meet such<br />
demand.<br />
Discovery of coltan<br />
Coltan was first discovered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kivu regi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC <strong>in</strong> 1910 by Compagnie des Chem<strong>in</strong>s de Fer du C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Superieur aux Grands Lacs Africa<strong>in</strong>s (CFL) whilst <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>du-K<strong>on</strong>golo railway l<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
However, coltan, which is often found al<strong>on</strong>gside<br />
cassiterite deposits, was extracted and traded as a<br />
relatively <strong>in</strong>significant by-product of cassiterite until<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1990s, when technological advances helped<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease global demand for <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral. 72<br />
Although Australia is currently <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
producer of tantalum, it is thought that <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
holds <strong>the</strong> world’s largest reserves. An estimated 80%<br />
of <strong>the</strong> world’s known coltan supply is <strong>in</strong> Africa, and<br />
80% of this is believed to be located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
Many people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry believe that <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
will become <strong>the</strong> world’s lead<strong>in</strong>g supplier of coltan<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce improvements have been made to <strong>the</strong> security<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Niobium (Nb)<br />
also known as Columbium (Cb)<br />
Alloy<strong>in</strong>g element used to streng<strong>the</strong>n<br />
steels; used to build automobiles and high<br />
pressure gas transmissi<strong>on</strong> pipel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Columbite-Tantalite (Coltan)<br />
(locally known as mangano)<br />
Massive <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> demand <strong>in</strong> 2000<br />
because <strong>in</strong>creased demand for smaller<br />
mobile ph<strong>on</strong>es and new model game<br />
c<strong>on</strong>soles<br />
Tantalum (Ta)<br />
Used <strong>in</strong><br />
manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
capacitors which<br />
regulate voltage and<br />
store energy <strong>in</strong><br />
mobile teleph<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al digital<br />
assistants, o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ic devices<br />
such as games<br />
c<strong>on</strong>soles<br />
Unaffected by<br />
body fluids, and<br />
causes no adverse<br />
tissue reacti<strong>on</strong>s, so<br />
used <strong>in</strong> dental and<br />
surgical <strong>in</strong>struments
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 20<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> areas of extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
Coltan is found <strong>in</strong> abundance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highlands near<br />
rivers and riverbeds, or <strong>in</strong> a hidden form throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> two Kivu and Maniema prov<strong>in</strong>ces, <strong>in</strong> Eastern<br />
DRC. The “coltan belt” extends from Bunia to<br />
Goma, Bukavu and K<strong>in</strong>du, with Bukavu serv<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g centre for <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral. In South<br />
Kivu prov<strong>in</strong>ce, coltan is mostly exploited <strong>in</strong> forests<br />
that c<strong>on</strong>stitute critical habitats for biodiversity<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and communities’ welfare, whereas <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> North Kivu a larger number of deposits have<br />
been recorded <strong>on</strong> unprotected land. 73 Coltan has<br />
been m<strong>in</strong>ed for a number of years <strong>in</strong> Bunia, Kalima<br />
and Lugushwa and more recently deposits have been<br />
discovered <strong>in</strong> Masisi (North Kivu).<br />
Under Mobutu’s rule, coltan was be<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
North Kivu and South Kivu but producti<strong>on</strong> waned<br />
with Mobutu’s loss of c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong> eastern<br />
territories. By <strong>the</strong> time of <strong>the</strong> Rwandan genocide <strong>in</strong><br />
1994 and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>flux of over <strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> refugees,<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g producti<strong>on</strong> had virtually ceased. 74<br />
Although <strong>the</strong>re have been reported sight<strong>in</strong>gs over<br />
<strong>the</strong> past few years of English-speak<strong>in</strong>g white people<br />
with sophisticated <strong>in</strong>struments of measurement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kivu prov<strong>in</strong>ces, so far no big company has yet<br />
ventured <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong>se areas with its own people and<br />
<strong>in</strong>struments for extensive <strong>in</strong>dustrial exploitati<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
however may change with <strong>the</strong> current peace process.<br />
Extracti<strong>on</strong> and process<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Coltan is generally surface m<strong>in</strong>ed, mostly <strong>in</strong><br />
aband<strong>on</strong>ed t<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>es where <strong>the</strong> coltan can be found<br />
amidst t<strong>in</strong> slag. Kivu coltan is believed to be of high<br />
quality and easily accessible, while not requir<strong>in</strong>g<br />
specialised <strong>in</strong>struments for its extracti<strong>on</strong>. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong><br />
outbreak of war <strong>in</strong> 1998, exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustrial m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s have been turned over to <strong>in</strong>formal or<br />
artisanal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Coltan is m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC through a fairly<br />
primitive process similar to that used to m<strong>in</strong>e gold <strong>in</strong><br />
California dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1800s. Dozens of men work<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r, digg<strong>in</strong>g large craters <strong>in</strong> streambeds, scrap<strong>in</strong>g<br />
away dirt from <strong>the</strong> surface <strong>in</strong> order to get to <strong>the</strong><br />
coltan underground. The workers <strong>the</strong>n slosh water<br />
and mud around <strong>in</strong> large washtubs, allow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
coltan to settle <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom due to its heavy weight.<br />
A worker can produce up to <strong>on</strong>e kilogram of coltan a<br />
day. 75<br />
The average C<strong>on</strong>golese worker earns US$10 a<br />
m<strong>on</strong>th, while a coltan m<strong>in</strong>er can make anywhere<br />
from US$10 to US$50 a week. 76 As a result of this,<br />
<strong>the</strong> past five years have seen an exodus of people<br />
towards <strong>the</strong> coltan m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas. Many C<strong>on</strong>golese<br />
have aband<strong>on</strong>ed agricultural and pastoral activities <strong>in</strong><br />
favour of artisanal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and children have been<br />
dropp<strong>in</strong>g out of school to become coltan m<strong>in</strong>ers.<br />
Large areas that used to grow food crops, such as<br />
Ituri and <strong>the</strong> Kivus, are now uncultivated.<br />
Trade routes<br />
From 1998 to 2003, coltan was transported ma<strong>in</strong>ly by<br />
air, us<strong>in</strong>g Russian Ant<strong>on</strong>ovs that can carry up to 20<br />
t<strong>on</strong>s. Kavumu airport <strong>in</strong> South Kivu was occupied by<br />
small planes, which flew several times a day to <strong>the</strong><br />
coltan-rich districts of Walikale and Mwenga <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terior, <strong>in</strong>accessible by road. 77<br />
Prices of C<strong>on</strong>golese coltan are fixed <strong>in</strong> Kigali and<br />
Kampala. The materials are <strong>the</strong>n flown to<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialised countries through Belgium and Dubai.<br />
The Belgium airl<strong>in</strong>e Sabena suspended <strong>the</strong><br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> of coltan shortly after <strong>the</strong> release of<br />
<strong>the</strong> first UN report <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> plunder of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
<strong>resources</strong> but a Dutch company, Mart<strong>in</strong>air,<br />
subsequently replaced Sabena and was last reported<br />
to be operat<strong>in</strong>g twice a week between Kigali and<br />
Amsterdam 78 .<br />
Trade statistics<br />
Raw tantalum ores and c<strong>on</strong>centrates orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC, and sold by Rwandans, Ugandans and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir affiliated rebel groups have been shipped to<br />
Malaysia, Germany, Switzerland, <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands,<br />
Belgium, <strong>the</strong> United K<strong>in</strong>gdom, India, Pakistan, <strong>the</strong><br />
United States and Russia. 79 Throughout <strong>the</strong> 1990s <strong>the</strong><br />
United States government and US companies<br />
imported a significant amount of tantalum from<br />
Central Africa and until 2002, <strong>the</strong> US was <strong>the</strong><br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipal dest<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong> DRC’s coltan exports.<br />
However, <strong>in</strong> 2002 Ch<strong>in</strong>a became <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> buyer of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese coltan (see below).<br />
As C<strong>on</strong>golese coltan producti<strong>on</strong> has been<br />
m<strong>on</strong>opolized by Rwanda, <strong>the</strong>re is a str<strong>on</strong>g possibility<br />
that tantalum listed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> US and Western Europe as<br />
imports from Rwanda is <strong>in</strong> fact C<strong>on</strong>golese tantalum.<br />
Table 2: DR C<strong>on</strong>go – share <strong>in</strong> exports of coltan from Central<br />
Africa<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Rwanda 4 4 8 13 6<br />
DR C<strong>on</strong>go 0.8 0 5 0.7 2<br />
Zimbabwe 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 3<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go 3 2 0.0 2 0<br />
Burundi 2 0 3 0.0 0<br />
Zambia 0 0 0 0.0 0.6<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.8<br />
This table dem<strong>on</strong>strates a substantial <strong>in</strong>crease, both<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms of weight and value, <strong>in</strong> coltan exports from<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> 2000 – dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> “coltan boom” –<br />
which <strong>the</strong>n decreased dramatically <strong>in</strong> 2001. However,<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2001 and 2002 Rwanda experienced a sharp<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> exports of coltan. Given <strong>the</strong> RPA’s c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
over coltan exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC over this<br />
period, fur<strong>the</strong>r research is needed to ascerta<strong>in</strong><br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r any of <strong>the</strong> coltan listed <strong>in</strong> Rwanda’s export<br />
figures orig<strong>in</strong>ated from <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
Weight (t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
Rwanda 256 162 261 378 349<br />
DR C<strong>on</strong>go 131 0 173 13 63<br />
Zimbabwe 10 28 5 14 95<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go 175 81 1 53 0<br />
Burundi 62 13 23 0 0<br />
Zambia 0 0 0 0 38<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 18 33 26 0 34<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity codes – 261590* and 26209020<br />
Note 2: statistics given to <strong>on</strong>e decimal place (value) or <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number (weight)
21 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Table 3: DRC – coltan exports<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>a<br />
USA 1.0 3.6 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.0 4.7 0.5 0.0<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 2.2<br />
Germany 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
Weight (t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
USA 70 208 48 10 32 13 36 10 0 166 4 0<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a 0 0 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 9 63<br />
Germany 0 0 0 0 440 0 0 121 0 0 0 0<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity codes – 261590* and 26209020<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: statistics given to <strong>on</strong>e decimal place (value) or <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number (weight)<br />
From this table, it can be seen that <strong>the</strong> USA was <strong>the</strong><br />
key importer of C<strong>on</strong>golese coltan up until 2001, when<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir imports dropped dramatically and <strong>in</strong> 2002,<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a was <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly recorded importer of coltan<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from eastern DRC.<br />
Bus<strong>in</strong>esses <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> coltan extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
In <strong>the</strong> coltan exploitati<strong>on</strong> cycle, some critics have<br />
suggested that mult<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>al companies are <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> illicit access to coltan <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC provide<br />
<strong>in</strong>struments at Stages 1, 2 and 5 of <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
cycle illustrated below. 80<br />
Stage 1: Explorati<strong>on</strong><br />
Stage 2: Detecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Stage 3: Extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
Stage 4: Transportati<strong>on</strong><br />
Stage 5: Treatment (transformati<strong>on</strong>commercialisati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
In recent years, many <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al corporati<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
imported coltan from <strong>the</strong> DRC via Rwanda for use <strong>in</strong><br />
Europe, Asia and <strong>the</strong> United States. Once <strong>the</strong> coltan<br />
is sold <strong>on</strong>to <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al markets it is impossible to<br />
trace it from <strong>the</strong> end product back to <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
From 1976, m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC were<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by <strong>the</strong> state-owned Societe M<strong>in</strong>iere et<br />
Industrielle de Kivu (Som<strong>in</strong>ki), but <strong>the</strong> crisis of <strong>the</strong><br />
Zairian ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1980s <strong>in</strong>duced Som<strong>in</strong>ki to<br />
close many of its <strong>in</strong>dustrial operati<strong>on</strong>s and allow<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals to engage <strong>in</strong> artisanal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> its<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s. This move is <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> of artisanal<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g that characterises coltan exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC today. 81<br />
Until 1995, <strong>the</strong> artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers operated <strong>in</strong> a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled envir<strong>on</strong>ment, but this changed with <strong>the</strong><br />
withdrawal of Belgian capital from Som<strong>in</strong>ki and <strong>the</strong><br />
collapse of <strong>the</strong> state <strong>in</strong> eastern Zaire 82 . Som<strong>in</strong>ki was<br />
<strong>the</strong>n sold to <strong>the</strong> US firm Cluff M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Canadian<br />
company Banro Corporati<strong>on</strong>. In 996, Banro bought<br />
out Cluff M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g’s shares and <strong>the</strong>n created <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese subsidiary, Sakima 83 .<br />
In 1998, though, Laurent Kabila annulled Banro’s<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tract, <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> grounds that it had been created<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g Mobutu’s rule, and created a new m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
company called Société M<strong>in</strong>ière du C<strong>on</strong>go (Somico).<br />
Sakima’s assets, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g its office <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa, were<br />
<strong>the</strong>n seized by Kabila’s government <strong>on</strong> behalf of<br />
Somico <strong>on</strong> 31 July 84 .<br />
However, <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2 August 1998, an RCD rebelli<strong>on</strong><br />
was launched and <strong>the</strong> rebel group, with <strong>the</strong> support<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Sakima directors, took c<strong>on</strong>trol of Som<strong>in</strong>ki’s<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s and requisiti<strong>on</strong>ed a stock of 312 t<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
coltan and 190 t<strong>on</strong>s of cassiterite 85 . Three m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
later, Rwandan forces and <strong>the</strong>ir RCD allies organised<br />
<strong>the</strong> removal and transport of Som<strong>in</strong>ki’s stocks to<br />
Kigali. Depend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> sources, between 2000 and<br />
3000 t<strong>on</strong>s of cassiterite were removed between<br />
November 1998 and April 1999. 86<br />
A number of Ugandan and Rwandan companies<br />
have been created to facilitate <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. On <strong>the</strong> Rwandan side, most<br />
companies deal<strong>in</strong>g with C<strong>on</strong>golese coltan (such as<br />
Rwandan Metals) are owned ei<strong>the</strong>r by <strong>the</strong><br />
government, or by <strong>in</strong>dividuals very close to <strong>the</strong><br />
government. 87<br />
Political c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce late 1998, South Kivu and part of North Kivu<br />
have been under <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol of <strong>the</strong> RCD and <strong>the</strong><br />
Rwandan army. The Ugandan army has c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
<strong>the</strong> rest of North Kivu. Both Rwanda and Uganda<br />
have been back<strong>in</strong>g various facti<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> RCD and<br />
MLC throughout <strong>the</strong> period. 88<br />
Over <strong>the</strong> past five years, <strong>the</strong> system has worked <strong>in</strong><br />
a way that <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly role assigned to C<strong>on</strong>golese people<br />
is extracti<strong>on</strong> and hand<strong>in</strong>g over to Rwandese (and<br />
sometimes Ugandan) brokers. Rwandese do not<br />
usually allow any direct deal<strong>in</strong>gs between C<strong>on</strong>golese<br />
and foreign buyers. The exploitati<strong>on</strong> and taxati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
organised centrally from an adm<strong>in</strong>istrative entity<br />
known as <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go Desk, located <strong>in</strong> a cell of<br />
Rwanda’s M<strong>in</strong>istry of Defence. 89 Throughout <strong>the</strong><br />
war, Rwanda has been benefit<strong>in</strong>g directly from coltan<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC and it has been<br />
suggested that between late 1999 and late 2000 <strong>the</strong><br />
Rwandan army al<strong>on</strong>e reaped revenues of at least<br />
US$20 milli<strong>on</strong> a m<strong>on</strong>th. 90<br />
When <strong>the</strong> RCD seized power <strong>in</strong> Kivu <strong>in</strong> August<br />
1998, <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector was a complete shambles.<br />
However, <strong>in</strong>stead of restructur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
and look<strong>in</strong>g for new viable management for <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir territory, <strong>the</strong> RCD leadership quickly<br />
started loot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g stocks of coltan and<br />
cassiterite with <strong>the</strong>ir Rwandan partners. Shortly after,<br />
<strong>the</strong> newly <strong>in</strong>stated rebel government decided to<br />
collect its own taxes <strong>on</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral exports, us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong>herited from <strong>the</strong> Mobutu era. 91<br />
From 1998 to 2000, <strong>the</strong> RCD obliged every
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 22<br />
trad<strong>in</strong>g post or comptoir operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> its territory to<br />
pay US$15,000 for a license that was valid for a 12-<br />
m<strong>on</strong>th period. In additi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> licensed comptoirs had<br />
to pay a tax estimated at 8% of <strong>the</strong> total value of<br />
exports. SONEX was founded <strong>in</strong> March 1999 <strong>in</strong><br />
Kigali by RCD-Goma and headed by Emmanuel<br />
Kamanzi, to serve as <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial arm of <strong>the</strong><br />
organisati<strong>on</strong> and to establish a pattern for <strong>the</strong> transfer<br />
of <strong>resources</strong> – primarily coltan and cassiterite – from<br />
<strong>the</strong> RCD to Kigali. 92 Despite <strong>the</strong>se developments, <strong>the</strong><br />
RCD still rema<strong>in</strong>ed highly dependent <strong>on</strong> its Rwandan<br />
backers to f<strong>in</strong>ance its military deployment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This changed <strong>on</strong> 20 November 2000 with <strong>the</strong><br />
establishment of <strong>the</strong> company SOMIGL, to which<br />
RCD-Goma granted a m<strong>on</strong>opoly <strong>on</strong> all coltan<br />
exports from rebel held territories. The m<strong>on</strong>opoly<br />
was set up to f<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>the</strong> war effort of <strong>the</strong> RCD-<br />
Goma and was a direct reacti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> steep rise <strong>in</strong><br />
coltan prices.<br />
Erik Kennes describes how <strong>the</strong> boom <strong>in</strong> coltan<br />
prices at <strong>the</strong> end of 2000, caused by a bottleneck <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> world market, led foreign companies to do deals<br />
with <strong>the</strong> rebel groups <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC:<br />
A temporary shortage of colombo-tantalite had to be filled<br />
by any means, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g buy<strong>in</strong>g coltan from <strong>the</strong> network of<br />
artisanal diggers c<strong>on</strong>trolled by armed forces. Whenever <strong>the</strong><br />
companies had <strong>the</strong> opportunity for a regular and steady flow<br />
of producti<strong>on</strong> elsewhere, <strong>the</strong>y turned away from <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go. 93<br />
SOMIGL allowed <strong>the</strong> RCD to f<strong>in</strong>ance its own<br />
military for <strong>the</strong> first time. Under <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
Nestor Kiyimbi, <strong>the</strong> RCD m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>ister, coltan<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey was used to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a<br />
40,000-str<strong>on</strong>g RCD army. However, prices fell<br />
drastically at <strong>the</strong> end of March 2001 (bottom<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
<strong>in</strong> October 2001, at less than a third of <strong>the</strong>ir peak)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> RCD-leadership decided to aband<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Somigl m<strong>on</strong>opoly, <strong>on</strong>ce aga<strong>in</strong> liberalis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
market. 94<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to this c<strong>on</strong>trol of coltan exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
by <strong>the</strong> Rwandan army and <strong>the</strong> RCD, <strong>the</strong>re have also<br />
been reports of Mai-Mai groups collect<strong>in</strong>g taxes from<br />
coltan diggers <strong>in</strong> areas such as Ntoto <strong>in</strong> Masisi z<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
North Kivu. 95<br />
Cassiterite (t<strong>in</strong>)<br />
T<strong>in</strong> is an important commodity <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
trade, but can <strong>on</strong>ly be m<strong>in</strong>ed as t<strong>in</strong> ore, not as <strong>the</strong><br />
metal. By far <strong>the</strong> most important t<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral is<br />
cassiterite, a <strong>natural</strong>ly occurr<strong>in</strong>g oxide of t<strong>in</strong>. 96<br />
Although most t<strong>in</strong> is obta<strong>in</strong>ed from m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g t<strong>in</strong> ores,<br />
cassiterite is also found <strong>in</strong> associati<strong>on</strong> with ores of<br />
tungsten, tantalum and lead, and m<strong>in</strong>imal quantities<br />
of t<strong>in</strong> are recovered as by-products of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se<br />
metals. Compared with commercially viable deposits<br />
of copper, lead, z<strong>in</strong>c, nickel and bauxite, t<strong>in</strong> deposits<br />
are generally small. In <strong>the</strong> DRC, cassiterite is most<br />
frequently associated with coltan ore.<br />
T<strong>in</strong> is used to coat o<strong>the</strong>r metals to prevent<br />
corrosi<strong>on</strong> (for example, t<strong>in</strong> cans are made from t<strong>in</strong><br />
coated steel) and its major uses are <strong>in</strong> food packag<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
cul<strong>in</strong>ary equipment, jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g electr<strong>on</strong>ic comp<strong>on</strong>ents,<br />
plumb<strong>in</strong>g, dental fill<strong>in</strong>gs and fire retardants.<br />
Most of <strong>the</strong> world’s supply of t<strong>in</strong> comes from<br />
Malaysia, Ind<strong>on</strong>esia, Thailand, Brazil and Bolivia,<br />
but a significant quantity has come from <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> past. Cassiterite is a l<strong>on</strong>g-time Kivutian product<br />
and has been m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> eastern DRC s<strong>in</strong>ce col<strong>on</strong>ial<br />
times. Cassiterite, like coltan, was first discovered <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Kivu regi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> 1910 by Compagnie des<br />
Chem<strong>in</strong>s de Fer du C<strong>on</strong>go Superieur aux Grands Lacs Africa<strong>in</strong>s<br />
(CFL) whilst <strong>the</strong>y were build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>du-K<strong>on</strong>golo<br />
railway l<strong>in</strong>e. Cassiterite, al<strong>on</strong>gside coltan, is found <strong>in</strong><br />
many parts of eastern DRC, <strong>in</strong> North Kivu, South<br />
Kivu, Katanga and Maniema prov<strong>in</strong>ces. Numerous<br />
t<strong>in</strong>-rich pegmatites have been identified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kivu<br />
and Maniema regi<strong>on</strong>s, although not all of <strong>the</strong>m have<br />
seen <strong>in</strong>dustrial exploitati<strong>on</strong> to date. 97<br />
In <strong>the</strong> mid-1940s, <strong>the</strong> DRC was <strong>the</strong> world’s sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
largest producer of t<strong>in</strong> after Bolivia and <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
focus of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> post-col<strong>on</strong>ial DRC<br />
until <strong>the</strong> mid-1990s was <strong>on</strong> cassiterite m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
east of <strong>the</strong> country. 98 However, s<strong>in</strong>ce 1989 <strong>the</strong><br />
producti<strong>on</strong> of cassiterite <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC has been <strong>in</strong><br />
clear decl<strong>in</strong>e, largely due to <strong>the</strong> collapse <strong>in</strong> world t<strong>in</strong><br />
prices and expensive and time-c<strong>on</strong>sum<strong>in</strong>g transport<br />
from <strong>the</strong> remote locati<strong>on</strong>s where it is m<strong>in</strong>ed. 99<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally, most of <strong>the</strong> extensive m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Eastern C<strong>on</strong>go were owned by<br />
Som<strong>in</strong>ki, which was formed <strong>in</strong> 1976 as a result of a<br />
merger between several Belgian m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g firms.<br />
Som<strong>in</strong>ki’s activities c<strong>on</strong>sisted of 80% gold m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
and 20% cassiterite and coltan. When Som<strong>in</strong>ki shut<br />
down many of its <strong>in</strong>dustrial m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g operati<strong>on</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> crisis of <strong>the</strong> Zairian ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1980s,<br />
cassiterite, as with coltan, began to be m<strong>in</strong>ed through<br />
artisanal means. However, dur<strong>in</strong>g this period <strong>the</strong><br />
Zaire T<strong>in</strong> Company (Compagnie Zaireta<strong>in</strong>) rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for carry<strong>in</strong>g out open-pit operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Shaba Regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> outbreak of war <strong>in</strong> August 1998, most of<br />
<strong>the</strong> cassiterite c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s have reportedly sold <strong>on</strong> by<br />
RCD-Goma to Rwandese <strong>in</strong>terests and a similar, but<br />
less well organised, relati<strong>on</strong>ship has developed <strong>in</strong><br />
North Kivu between RCD-ML and Ugandan<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests. The vast majority of cassiterite appears to<br />
have been exported, al<strong>on</strong>gside coltan, via Uganda<br />
and Burundi and most comm<strong>on</strong>ly, via Rwanda. A<br />
highly efficient network has been set up by RCD-<br />
Goma and <strong>the</strong> Rwandan army to transport <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> by planes and trucks from eastern DRC to<br />
Kigali. As Rwanda is also a producer of cassiterite,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>re it is easily “lost” am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>the</strong> country’s<br />
own supplies. The 2001 Expert Panel report identified<br />
Belgian, German, Malaysian, Canadian, Tanzanian,<br />
Dutch, Russian and Indian companies as <strong>the</strong> key<br />
importers of cassiterite from <strong>the</strong> DRC via Rwanda. 100<br />
Pierre Baracyetse, a m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g civil eng<strong>in</strong>eer, alleges<br />
that up until <strong>the</strong> mid-1980s, when <strong>the</strong> price of t<strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> world market fell, cassiterite was smuggled by<br />
Burundian, C<strong>on</strong>golese and Uganda smugglers, via<br />
Kampala and Bujumbura. 101 However, <strong>in</strong> 1985 <strong>the</strong>se<br />
smugglers moved away from cassiterite and turned<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir attenti<strong>on</strong> towards more profitable gold m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
activities.<br />
In April 2001 <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of Experts estimated<br />
that between 1998 and 2000, about 1,800 trucks<br />
carry<strong>in</strong>g cassiterite, timber and coffee, am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs, transited through Uganda. 102 The cassiterite is<br />
often <strong>the</strong>n shipped from Mombasa and Dar es-<br />
Salaam to Europe.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> mid 1990s, cassiterite has become a less<br />
significant resource and with <strong>the</strong> value of coltan<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dramatically with developments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ics sector, it has been treated very much as a<br />
less valuable by-product of coltan. 103
23 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
9.2 Copper and cobalt<br />
The DRC has vast reserves of copper (Cu) and cobalt<br />
(Co) found <strong>in</strong> sedimentary copper deposits al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
Central African copperbelt which stretches al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC/Zambia and DRC/Angola borders <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Katanga. The copperbelt c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s 34% of <strong>the</strong> world’s<br />
cobalt reserves and 10% of <strong>the</strong> world’s copper<br />
reserves. 104 The Katanga copperbelt also has deposits<br />
of m<strong>in</strong>erals associated with copper, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g z<strong>in</strong>c,<br />
silver, uranium, lead and germanium. Copper and<br />
cobalt and associated m<strong>in</strong>erals are generally extracted<br />
from large opencast <strong>in</strong>dustrial m<strong>in</strong>es or quarries, or<br />
from <strong>in</strong>dustrial tail<strong>in</strong>gs dams c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g copper and<br />
cobalt residues that have been accumulated over years<br />
of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Cobalt is identified as a major potential source of<br />
revenue for <strong>the</strong> DRC. Cobalt is a metal used <strong>in</strong> a<br />
range of diverse <strong>in</strong>dustrial and military applicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The most significant use is <strong>in</strong> superalloys, which are<br />
used to make gas turb<strong>in</strong>e eng<strong>in</strong>es. 105 Cobalt is<br />
extracted from copper by a process of roast<strong>in</strong>g copper<br />
ores, followed by <strong>the</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> of an acidic soluti<strong>on</strong><br />
and <strong>the</strong>n electrolysis.<br />
Historical development of copper/cobalt m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Copper was first produced <strong>in</strong> 1911 <strong>in</strong> Katanga by <strong>the</strong><br />
UMHK, which by 1923 was <strong>the</strong> third largest producer<br />
of copper <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world. 106 From <strong>the</strong> 1920s <strong>on</strong>wards,<br />
copper was <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> chief export earners for both<br />
<strong>the</strong> Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ial government and Mobutu. In<br />
1967, after <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troducti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> “nati<strong>on</strong>alisati<strong>on</strong>”<br />
programme, Gécam<strong>in</strong>es was created. Gécam<strong>in</strong>es took<br />
over <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>es previously run by <strong>the</strong> UMHK under<br />
Mobutu’s nati<strong>on</strong>alisati<strong>on</strong> policy. Thereafter,<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es c<strong>on</strong>tributed significantly to <strong>the</strong> state<br />
budget. 107<br />
From <strong>the</strong> 1970s <strong>on</strong>wards, Gécam<strong>in</strong>es has operated<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> three ma<strong>in</strong> areas of m<strong>in</strong>eral deposits <strong>in</strong><br />
Katanga (South, Central and West). Aside from<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly o<strong>the</strong>r major copper producer<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g Mobutu’s rule was Sodimco. However, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
early 1990s Sodimco experienced a major drop <strong>in</strong><br />
producti<strong>on</strong>. 108<br />
Prior to 1978, <strong>the</strong> world’s supply of cobalt was<br />
almost exclusively provided by Zaire and Zambia as a<br />
by-product of copper. 109 However, a sharp rise <strong>in</strong><br />
cobalt prices <strong>in</strong> 1978 (driven by fears of supply<br />
disrupti<strong>on</strong>s) led to buyers f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g substitutes and a<br />
subsequent drop <strong>in</strong> demand. Demand recovered <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> early 1990s when cobalt started to be used <strong>in</strong><br />
specialist applicati<strong>on</strong>s. 110 However, by this stage <strong>the</strong><br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> of cobalt supplied by Zaire and Zambia<br />
had decl<strong>in</strong>ed as more state suppliers became<br />
established. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> DRC rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top<br />
five producers of cobalt worldwide, beh<strong>in</strong>d Zambia,<br />
Australia, Canada and Russia.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g cadmium, z<strong>in</strong>c and silver<br />
were extracted from Katanga from <strong>the</strong> late 1950s<br />
<strong>on</strong>wards.<br />
Centres of producti<strong>on</strong> and process<strong>in</strong>g<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> centres of producti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
copper and cobalt. The majority of <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
m<strong>in</strong>es and deposits rema<strong>in</strong> under <strong>the</strong> part or whole<br />
ownership of Gécam<strong>in</strong>es:<br />
● The Big Hill (or Scories du Terril de Lubumbashi (STL))<br />
copper-cobalt tail<strong>in</strong>gs and smelter project near<br />
Lubumbashi is run as a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture between US<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g giant OMG, Groupe George Forrest (GGF)<br />
and Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. Copper-cobalt is shipped to<br />
OMG’s cobalt process<strong>in</strong>g plant <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. This<br />
m<strong>in</strong>e is also <strong>the</strong> source of <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral germanium,<br />
a rare metal used <strong>in</strong> optical fibres, <strong>in</strong>frared lenses<br />
and telecommunicati<strong>on</strong> satellites.<br />
● C<strong>on</strong>go Stars’ copper-cobalt artisanal m<strong>in</strong>e at Etoile<br />
near Lubumbashi and Kansuki copper-cobalt<br />
deposit east of Kolwezi, where artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
have been recruited to select high-grade oxides<br />
(heterogenite) for direct shipp<strong>in</strong>g to process<strong>in</strong>g<br />
plants <strong>in</strong> South Africa.<br />
● The Kabolela copper-cobalt m<strong>in</strong>e and Kipese<br />
cobalt-gold m<strong>in</strong>es near Likasi, are owned by La<br />
Société M<strong>in</strong>ière de Kabolela et Kipese (SMKK, a jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
venture between Gécam<strong>in</strong>es (40%) and Melkior<br />
Resources Inc. (60%)). Kabolela was m<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es’ predecessor, UMHK, between 1939<br />
and 1945. 111 However, because of limited capital<br />
<strong>resources</strong>, <strong>the</strong> project has been suspended s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
2000.<br />
● The Kakanda and Kambove copper-cobalt tail<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
reprocess<strong>in</strong>g project was operated by a jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
venture between Internati<strong>on</strong>al Panorama<br />
Resources Corp (IPR) of Canada and Gécam<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Operati<strong>on</strong>s were downscaled due to security<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns <strong>in</strong> 2000.<br />
● The Kamfundwa copper-cobalt deposit was due to<br />
be developed by a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture between<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>the</strong> Harambee M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Corp and Swiss<br />
Sogem<strong>in</strong>, but operati<strong>on</strong>s have been suspended<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1999 because of security c<strong>on</strong>cerns.<br />
● The underground Kamoto copper-cobalt m<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and <strong>on</strong>-site process<strong>in</strong>g plants near Kolwezi have<br />
been <strong>the</strong> subject of recent c<strong>on</strong>troversy. In 2003 a<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>t venture agreement was signed between<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and K<strong>in</strong>ross-Forrest to refurbish <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>e, despite a pre-exist<strong>in</strong>g agreement be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
place between Kumba Natural Resources Ltd and<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC government. 112 At <strong>the</strong> time of writ<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong><br />
dispute between Kumba, <strong>the</strong> DRC government<br />
and K<strong>in</strong>ross-Forrest has not been resolved.<br />
● The Kipushi copper-z<strong>in</strong>c m<strong>in</strong>e near Lubumbashi<br />
was previously operated profitably from 1925 to<br />
1993 (by Gécam<strong>in</strong>es), but was placed <strong>on</strong> care-andma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
because of a shortage of foreign<br />
currency needed to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>s. 113 A jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
venture between American M<strong>in</strong>eral Fields<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al and Z<strong>in</strong>c Corp. of South Africa are<br />
negotiat<strong>in</strong>g with Gécam<strong>in</strong>es, and a feasibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
for an <strong>in</strong>itial small-scale development project is<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>ducted. 114<br />
● The Kolwezi copper-cobalt tail<strong>in</strong>gs deposit is <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of <strong>the</strong> world’s most significant cobalt-copper<br />
tail<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>resources</strong> and has been <strong>the</strong> focus of several<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>t venture developments with Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. In<br />
July 2003 American M<strong>in</strong>eral Fields negotiated <strong>the</strong><br />
a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture agreement with Gécam<strong>in</strong>es, and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tract was ratified by <strong>the</strong> DRC cab<strong>in</strong>et <strong>in</strong><br />
November 2003. 115 It is expected that <strong>on</strong>ce f<strong>in</strong>al<br />
feasibility studies have been carried out, <strong>the</strong><br />
treatment and reclamati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> tail<strong>in</strong>gs will<br />
commence <strong>in</strong> 2005. 116
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 24<br />
● The Kov copper m<strong>in</strong>e rema<strong>in</strong>s wholly owned by<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. High-grade ores from this m<strong>in</strong>e was<br />
processed at Kolwezi from 1952 <strong>on</strong>wards.<br />
● The L<strong>on</strong>shi copper m<strong>in</strong>e is owned by First<br />
Quantum M<strong>in</strong>erals Ltd.<br />
● The K<strong>in</strong>dsenda and Musoshi copper-cobalt m<strong>in</strong>es<br />
are owned by Sodimco.<br />
● The Luiswishi cobalt m<strong>in</strong>e is owned by Gécam<strong>in</strong>es<br />
and L’Enterprise Generale Malta Forrest, a<br />
subsidiary of privately held George Forrest<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al. The m<strong>in</strong>e has operated at full<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce May 2003, and has an exclusive<br />
supply agreement with OMG who processes <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>e’s cobalt <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
● The Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe copper-cobalt m<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Katanga<br />
is also rich <strong>in</strong> uranium and germanium. See<br />
secti<strong>on</strong> 10.2.10 for fur<strong>the</strong>r discussi<strong>on</strong> of uranium.<br />
● The Tenke and Fungurume copper-cobalt deposit<br />
is <strong>on</strong>e of Katanga’s largest potential m<strong>in</strong>e sites. In<br />
May 2001, Phelps Dodge Corp. jo<strong>in</strong>ed BHP World<br />
Explorati<strong>on</strong> Inc. <strong>in</strong> an opti<strong>on</strong> agreement with<br />
Tenke M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Corp and Gécam<strong>in</strong>es to develop <strong>the</strong><br />
deposits. 117<br />
There are a small number of copper-cobalt process<strong>in</strong>g<br />
centres <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> country. These <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
● The Kabwe copper and cobalt process<strong>in</strong>g plant<br />
which was operated by Ori<strong>on</strong> M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and<br />
Explorati<strong>on</strong> Ltd until 2002, when falls <strong>in</strong> copper<br />
and cobalt prices led to <strong>the</strong> plant’s closure.<br />
● The EXACO cobalt carb<strong>on</strong>ate process<strong>in</strong>g plant at<br />
Lubumbashi. EXACO also holds a 55% <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Kalumbwe-Myunga copper ore deposit <strong>in</strong><br />
Kolwezi. 118<br />
● The Shituri copper-cobalt c<strong>on</strong>centrates ref<strong>in</strong>ery at<br />
Likasi is owned by Gécam<strong>in</strong>es but is leased to<br />
KMC, a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture company created by<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and Tremalt Ltd.<br />
Trade routes<br />
Most m<strong>in</strong>es are situated around Lubumbashi, Likasi<br />
and Kolwezi. 119 Copper and o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>erals extracted<br />
from <strong>the</strong>se m<strong>in</strong>es are ma<strong>in</strong>ly transported <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Katanga-based tra<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> secti<strong>on</strong> 11.4.<br />
Alternatively, m<strong>in</strong>erals are also transported from<br />
m<strong>in</strong>es via trucks to Zambia and bey<strong>on</strong>d through <strong>the</strong><br />
town of Sakania near <strong>the</strong> DRC/Zambian border.<br />
Studies <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy c<strong>on</strong>ducted dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> late 1990 also revealed that cobalt and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
commodities were smuggled out of Zaire <strong>in</strong>to Zambia<br />
through Sakania. 120<br />
The DRC exports <strong>the</strong> majority of its unprocessed<br />
copper and cobalt. Most copper and cobalt has<br />
historically been transported al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong><br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g three routes:<br />
● The Voie Nati<strong>on</strong>ale, <strong>the</strong> road-rail-water route from<br />
<strong>the</strong> copperbelt to Matadi.<br />
● The eastern route through Zambia <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tazara<br />
railroad to Dar es Salaam <strong>in</strong> Tanzania.<br />
● The sou<strong>the</strong>rn route through Zambia <strong>on</strong> tra<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g to South African ports. 121<br />
Trade statistics<br />
Statistics show that producti<strong>on</strong> of copper and cobalt<br />
has c<strong>on</strong>sistently outstripped o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>erals found <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> copperbelt s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> 1960s. However, <strong>the</strong>re was a<br />
dramatic fall <strong>in</strong> levels of producti<strong>on</strong> of copper, cobalt<br />
and z<strong>in</strong>c s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> early 1990s – a c<strong>on</strong>sequence of <strong>the</strong><br />
political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic crisis experienced dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Mobutu’s f<strong>in</strong>al years as President and <strong>the</strong><br />
mismanagement of state copper and cobalt m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s. Graph 1 (below) illustrates <strong>the</strong> dramatic<br />
fall <strong>in</strong> copper, cobalt and z<strong>in</strong>c producti<strong>on</strong> that took<br />
place after a boom <strong>in</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-1980s.<br />
Graph 1: Evoluti<strong>on</strong> of m<strong>in</strong>e producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Katanga <strong>in</strong> t<strong>on</strong>nes (t)<br />
Source: Groupe d’<strong>in</strong>tellectuels de Kolwezi (1996) La Gécam<strong>in</strong>es: Quel Avenir Reflexi<strong>on</strong>s sur la privatisati<strong>on</strong>,p.43<br />
20,000<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong> of various m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> Katanga<br />
18,000<br />
16,000<br />
14,000<br />
12,000<br />
10,000<br />
8,000<br />
6,000<br />
4,000<br />
2,000<br />
0<br />
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995<br />
Cobalt (t)<br />
Copper (t x 100)<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c (t x 10)<br />
Cadmium (t / 10)<br />
Silver (t / 10)
25 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Table 4 shows that after 1995 cobalt producti<strong>on</strong><br />
recovered slightly, with noticeable rises occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
1997 and 1998 – co<strong>in</strong>cid<strong>in</strong>g with Laurent Kabila’s<br />
accessi<strong>on</strong> as President.<br />
Table 4: DRC Cobalt m<strong>in</strong>e producti<strong>on</strong><br />
Year<br />
Cobalt produced<br />
(metric t<strong>on</strong>s, estimate)<br />
1994 2,000<br />
1995 1,650<br />
1996 2,000<br />
1997 3,500<br />
1998 5,000<br />
1999 6,000<br />
2000 7,000<br />
2001 4,700<br />
2002 4,000<br />
Source: Shedd, K. (2002) “Cobalt – 2002.” United States Geological Service, p. 20.17,<br />
Table 8.<br />
In 2001 <strong>the</strong> DRC had <strong>the</strong> capacity to ref<strong>in</strong>e 17,000<br />
metric t<strong>on</strong>s of cobalt per annum – <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
capacity of any country. (Compare: F<strong>in</strong>land (10,000<br />
metric t<strong>on</strong>s), Zambia (9,000 metric t<strong>on</strong>s), Russia<br />
(8,000 metric t<strong>on</strong>s).) 122 However, as Table 5<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strates, <strong>the</strong> DRC’s level of ref<strong>in</strong>ed cobalt<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> is well below capacity.<br />
Table 5: DRC Cobalt ref<strong>in</strong>ery producti<strong>on</strong><br />
Year<br />
Ref<strong>in</strong>ed cobalt metals<br />
(metric t<strong>on</strong>s; excludes producti<strong>on</strong><br />
cobalt <strong>in</strong> white alloy, matte, and slag<br />
that would require fur<strong>the</strong>r ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g)<br />
1997 2,808<br />
1998 4,490<br />
1999 5,180<br />
2000 4,320<br />
2001 4,071<br />
2002<br />
2003 N/a<br />
Source: Shedd, K (2002) “Cobalt – 2001.” United States Geological Service, p.20.18,<br />
Table 9.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> end of 2001 through most of 2002 cobalt<br />
prices were stuck at a general level of US$6-7/lb –<br />
<strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> worst ever years for cobalt. Prices have<br />
recovered slightly <strong>in</strong> 2003, and are currently at <strong>the</strong><br />
US$8 – 9/lb range.<br />
The DRC’s output of cobalt <strong>in</strong> terms of volume<br />
has rema<strong>in</strong>ed steady over <strong>the</strong> four years s<strong>in</strong>ce 1999.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> unit price of cobalt has fallen s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
2000, and with it <strong>the</strong> level of revenue earned by <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC has decl<strong>in</strong>ed. However, as at June 2003, <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s copper and cobalt output was stagnant at just<br />
1,095 t<strong>on</strong>s and 400 t<strong>on</strong>s per m<strong>on</strong>th. 123 Table 6: Cobalt– exports from Central Africa <strong>in</strong><br />
2002 (value and weight, by supply<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Export<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
Despite comparatively low levels of producti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
ref<strong>in</strong>ed copper, <strong>the</strong> DRC rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>d largest<br />
supplier of copper from Africa after Zambia.<br />
Table 7: Copper (ref<strong>in</strong>ed) – exports from Central<br />
Africa <strong>in</strong> 2002<br />
Export<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas<br />
Note 1: HS commodity code – 7403<br />
Note 2: statistics given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number<br />
of<br />
n/a<br />
1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Zambia 125 96 79 70<br />
DRC 84 87 56 35<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go (Bz) 33 90 30 10<br />
Tanzania 4 6 6 9<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 1 7 6 7<br />
Weight (thousand t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
Zambia 3.9 3.5 4.1 4.5<br />
DRC 3.1 3.8 3.2 3.3<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go (Bz) 1.2 3.6 1.8 0.7<br />
Tanzania 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.5<br />
Unit price (US$/kg, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Zambia 32 28 19 16<br />
DRC 27 23 17 11<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go (Bz) 28 25 16 14<br />
Tanzania 28 26 20 15<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 31 26 21 15<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbook of import<br />
statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity code – 8105<br />
Note 2: statistics given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number<br />
1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Zambia 192 200 222 189<br />
DRC 4 5 17 10<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go (Bz) 8 7 3 5<br />
Tanzania 7 12 4 2<br />
Zimbabwe 12 4 4 1<br />
Weight (thousand t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
Zambia 121 108 128 115<br />
DRC 10 3 10 7<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go (Bz) 8 4 2 4<br />
Tanzania 5 6 2 1<br />
Zimbabwe 8 2 2 1
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 26<br />
Table 8: DR C<strong>on</strong>go – ref<strong>in</strong>ed copper exports<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Belgium 328 244 51 7 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 1<br />
Italy 37 20 3 3 6 1 7 2 1 3 9 4<br />
USA 2 5 30 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0<br />
Germany 87 16 5 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 24 16 11 16 16 15 7 4 1 1 5 7<br />
Weight (thousand t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
Belgium 142 108 27 4 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1<br />
Italy 14 9 11 1 2 0 3 1 0 2 5 2<br />
USA 1 2 15 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 2 0<br />
Germany 37 7 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 10 8 5 7 5 6 3 3 1 1 3 6<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity code – 7403<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: statistics given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number<br />
Belgium and Italy are currently <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> importers of<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC’s ref<strong>in</strong>ed copper, as Table 8 illustrates. The<br />
table also shows clearly <strong>the</strong> dramatic fall <strong>in</strong> volumes<br />
of copper exported after 1992. In 1991 Belgium<br />
imported 142,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes of ref<strong>in</strong>ed copper. By 1993<br />
<strong>the</strong> volume dropped to 27,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes, and <strong>in</strong> 1994 a<br />
mere 4,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes were imported. Between 1996 and<br />
1998, and 2000 and 2001 Belgium imported no DRC<br />
copper.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 1996, <strong>the</strong> total average c.i.f value of imports<br />
of DRC ref<strong>in</strong>ed copper has been approximately<br />
US$8.5 milli<strong>on</strong> per year. This is a small fracti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>the</strong> total value <strong>in</strong> 1991 of US$478 milli<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These statistics <strong>in</strong>dicate that, with appropriate<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment and fiscal c<strong>on</strong>trols, and if <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al market developments, <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
copper/cobalt sector has <strong>the</strong> potential to be a large<br />
export m<strong>on</strong>ey-earner for <strong>the</strong> DRC government.<br />
Political c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
The Katanga copperbelt has rema<strong>in</strong>ed under<br />
government c<strong>on</strong>trol throughout <strong>the</strong> current c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
However, accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Expert Panel reports,<br />
Zimbabwe has benefited from preferential treatment<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> allocati<strong>on</strong> of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>esses opportunities <strong>in</strong> Katanga as payment for<br />
<strong>the</strong> military assistance Zimbabwe provided <strong>the</strong><br />
government from 1998. 124 From 1998 until 2001, <strong>the</strong><br />
majority of Zimbabwean troops were located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Katanga and Kasai regi<strong>on</strong>s. 125<br />
Zimbabwean <strong>in</strong>fluence has also been prom<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> management of Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwean bus<strong>in</strong>essman Billy Rautenbach was<br />
appo<strong>in</strong>ted Manag<strong>in</strong>g Director of Gécam<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> 1998<br />
at <strong>the</strong> request of President Laurent Kabila. 126 The<br />
UN Panel reported that dur<strong>in</strong>g Mr Rautenbach’s<br />
tenure Gécam<strong>in</strong>es paid b<strong>on</strong>uses to Zimbabwean<br />
military forces. 127 In resp<strong>on</strong>se, however, Mr.<br />
Rautenbach has denied any <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
payment of Zimbabwean soldiers. 128<br />
Mr Rautenbach was replaced by Belgian<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>essman George Forrest as Manag<strong>in</strong>g Director of<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> November 1999 (until August 2001). Mr<br />
Rautenbach has c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to play a role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector s<strong>in</strong>ce leav<strong>in</strong>g Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. In<br />
2001 Mr Rautenbach’s company, Ridgepo<strong>in</strong>te<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al, was granted m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g rights to<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s at Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe. 129<br />
The first UN Expert Panel reported that Mr<br />
Rautenbach was l<strong>in</strong>ked to Mr John Bredenkamp. 130<br />
The Panel stated that <strong>in</strong> 2001 Mr Rautenbach, Mr<br />
Bredenkamp and <strong>the</strong> Speaker of <strong>the</strong> House of<br />
Zimbabwe and chairman of Zanu-PF, Mr<br />
Munangwana, met with President Laurent Kabila to<br />
negotiate a c<strong>on</strong>tract over <strong>the</strong> Kambove-Kakanda<br />
copper-cobalt Gécam<strong>in</strong>es c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Katanga two<br />
weeks before <strong>the</strong> President was assass<strong>in</strong>ated. 131<br />
However, Mr Rautenbach has stated that <strong>the</strong><br />
Government of Zimbabwe has never had any <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
or benefit from <strong>the</strong> activities of Ridgepo<strong>in</strong>te <strong>in</strong> DRC. 132<br />
Mr Bredenkamp c<strong>on</strong>trols Tremalt Ltd, which<br />
owns 80% of <strong>the</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t venture company<br />
Kababancola M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Company (KMC) with<br />
Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. KMC operates <strong>the</strong> Kababankola coppercobalt<br />
m<strong>in</strong>e – <strong>on</strong>e of Gécam<strong>in</strong>es richest hold<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of Experts, KMC profits<br />
are split between <strong>the</strong> DRC Government (34%),<br />
Zimbabwe (34%) and Tremalt (32%). 133 The Panel<br />
also claimed that Tremalt Ltd procured equipment<br />
for ZDF and <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese Armed Forces (FAC), <strong>the</strong><br />
cost of which it deducts from <strong>the</strong>ir share of KMC<br />
profits. 134 In resp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong> Panel reports, Tremalt<br />
Ltd., Mr John Bredenkamp and KMC have stated<br />
that “<strong>the</strong> role of <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean and DRC<br />
Governments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> KMC jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
venture was c<strong>on</strong>sistent with <strong>the</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> 1998<br />
Inter Governmental Accord between those two<br />
parties.” 135<br />
Copper/cobalt m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g outlook<br />
The country’s vast copper and cobalt deposits could<br />
be significant sources of future revenue for <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
government. Gécam<strong>in</strong>es c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ues to be a major<br />
source of <strong>in</strong>come for <strong>the</strong> government, but this does<br />
not stem from <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> of copper, cobalt and<br />
associated m<strong>in</strong>erals as it had d<strong>on</strong>e dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1960s.
27 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Ra<strong>the</strong>r, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> late 1990s, revenue has ma<strong>in</strong>ly been<br />
derived from <strong>the</strong> payments given by foreign m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
companies for prospective jo<strong>in</strong>t venture c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong><br />
agreements with Gécam<strong>in</strong>es. In 2001 <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of<br />
Experts reported:<br />
Ö<strong>the</strong> amount of <strong>the</strong> payment is <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong><br />
primary c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s for <strong>the</strong> cash-strapped<br />
Government <strong>in</strong> grant<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s. As a result,<br />
unsusta<strong>in</strong>able and envir<strong>on</strong>mentally hazardous m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s currently characterize Gécam<strong>in</strong>es’ copper<br />
and cobalt m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities. The future of what was<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> giant of <strong>the</strong> country’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy appears<br />
bleak. 136<br />
Foreign <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC, and <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement of reputable foreign companies, is<br />
essential for <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> DRC ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
Foreign m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g companies becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s copperbelt face several major challenges. First,<br />
low global cobalt and copper prices do not bode well<br />
for <strong>the</strong> development of extractive <strong>in</strong>dustries based<br />
around <strong>the</strong>se m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. Cobalt <strong>in</strong><br />
particular has experienced a steady <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> world<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce 1993. Between 1993 and 2000, world<br />
demand for cobalt <strong>in</strong>creased, particularly as a result<br />
for high demand for rechargeable batteries and<br />
growth <strong>in</strong> cobalt c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Asia. Despite this<br />
growth, however, <strong>the</strong> overall trend <strong>in</strong> prices has been<br />
downward s<strong>in</strong>ce 1995 because supply is grow<strong>in</strong>g at a<br />
faster rate than demand. It is expected that if supply<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ues to <strong>in</strong>crease at a faster rate than demand,<br />
downward pressure <strong>on</strong> prices will c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue. 137<br />
Wary of its reputati<strong>on</strong> for <strong>in</strong>stability and<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>, foreign m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g companies have been<br />
reluctant to <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. Those who do look to<br />
<strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> country often experience difficulties <strong>in</strong><br />
rais<strong>in</strong>g sufficient capital to proceed with operati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs are wary of <strong>the</strong> “shift<strong>in</strong>g of goalposts”<br />
experienced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late 1990s when several m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s were cancelled by Laurent Kabila’s<br />
government. 138 The war also forced <strong>the</strong> suspensi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
many m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and m<strong>in</strong>eral explorati<strong>on</strong> projects.<br />
Global Witness recommends that fur<strong>the</strong>r research<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t-venture m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g deals that<br />
have been struck s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998, with particular focus <strong>on</strong><br />
how agreements have been reached under <strong>the</strong> new<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g code and its regulati<strong>on</strong>s. Future research<br />
should also exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>ship between <strong>the</strong> new<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al government m<strong>in</strong>istries and <strong>the</strong> allocati<strong>on</strong><br />
of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s; governmental capacity to<br />
enforce code and regulati<strong>on</strong>s at regi<strong>on</strong>al and local<br />
levels; understand<strong>in</strong>g of degrees of “leakage” and<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector and an<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigati<strong>on</strong> of Zimbabwe’s current <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong><br />
copper/cobalt sector.<br />
Cadmium<br />
Cadmium is produced ma<strong>in</strong>ly as a by-product from<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, smelt<strong>in</strong>g, and ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ores of z<strong>in</strong>c, and to a<br />
lesser degree, lead and copper. About three-fourths of<br />
cadmium is used <strong>in</strong> NiCd batteries; <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-fourth is used for pigments, coat<strong>in</strong>gs and plat<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and as stabilisers for plastics. The DRC has never<br />
been a major exporter of cadmium, and no DRCspecific<br />
<strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> about this m<strong>in</strong>eral was found<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g research.<br />
Silver<br />
Silver has been used for thousands of years as<br />
ornaments and utensils, for trade, and as <strong>the</strong> basis for<br />
many m<strong>on</strong>etary systems. Silver has many <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>s, such as <strong>in</strong> mirrors, electrical and<br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ic products, and photography, which is <strong>the</strong><br />
largest s<strong>in</strong>gle end use of silver. Silver is m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
approximately 56 countries, with <strong>the</strong> largest silver<br />
reserves be<strong>in</strong>g found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> US, Canada, Mexico,<br />
Peru, and Ch<strong>in</strong>a. Silver is usually associated with<br />
lead, copper, z<strong>in</strong>c or gold.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> DRC, silver is found al<strong>on</strong>gside copper <strong>in</strong><br />
Dikulushi m<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>in</strong> Katanga near <strong>the</strong> DRC/Zambian<br />
border. Dikulushi has been described as <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong><br />
world’s highest grade unexploited copper silver ore<br />
bodies and is owned by <strong>the</strong> Australian m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
company, Anvil M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g NL. 139 The deteriorat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
security situati<strong>on</strong> led Anvil to halt work <strong>in</strong> 1998, but<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g talks with Joseph Kabila’s government <strong>in</strong><br />
2001, Anvil carried out a feasibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> and secured<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g from RMB Resources Ltd, part of South<br />
Africa’s Rand Merchant Bank Group, for <strong>the</strong><br />
development of this m<strong>in</strong>e. Drilled <strong>resources</strong> at<br />
Dikulushi are estimated to c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> 266 g/t silver and<br />
1.9 m/t grad<strong>in</strong>g 8.6% copper. Output steadily<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> 2002 and latest figures show that from<br />
January to March 2003, Dikulushi copper-silver m<strong>in</strong>e<br />
produced 185 g/t silver and 8.33% copper. 140<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c<br />
Approximately 75% of z<strong>in</strong>c is used as metal, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
as a coat<strong>in</strong>g to protect ir<strong>on</strong> and steel from corrosi<strong>on</strong><br />
and as an alloy<strong>in</strong>g metal to make br<strong>on</strong>ze and brass.<br />
The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 25% is used as z<strong>in</strong>c compounds,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly by <strong>the</strong> rubber, chemical, pa<strong>in</strong>t and<br />
agricultural <strong>in</strong>dustries. 141<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c is produced <strong>in</strong> 40 countries, <strong>the</strong> lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
producers be<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong>a, Australia, Peru, Canada and<br />
<strong>the</strong> US. The m<strong>in</strong>eral usually occurs <strong>in</strong> associati<strong>on</strong><br />
with copper or lead or both.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> DRC, z<strong>in</strong>c is found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> copperbelt,<br />
stretch<strong>in</strong>g from Kolwezi to Lubumbashi, <strong>in</strong> Katanga<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce. There are two z<strong>in</strong>c m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area – <strong>the</strong><br />
Kipushi underground z<strong>in</strong>c-copper m<strong>in</strong>e, located 30<br />
km southwest of Lubumbashi, adjacent to <strong>the</strong><br />
Zambian border and <strong>the</strong> Kolwezi z<strong>in</strong>c m<strong>in</strong>e, also<br />
located <strong>in</strong> south Katanga.<br />
The Kipushi m<strong>in</strong>e operated profitably from 1925<br />
until 1993, when it was placed <strong>on</strong> “care and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance” because of <strong>in</strong>sufficient foreign<br />
exchange to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> operati<strong>on</strong>s. 142 Both m<strong>in</strong>es are<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>tly owned by Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and American M<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
Fields, who are currently work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
redevelopment of <strong>the</strong> Kipushi m<strong>in</strong>e. Although z<strong>in</strong>c is<br />
produced as a by-product of copper, z<strong>in</strong>c reserves <strong>in</strong><br />
Kipushi are substantial and <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e is expected to<br />
produce primarily z<strong>in</strong>c <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> near future.<br />
Uranium<br />
Uranium deposits are found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe<br />
copper m<strong>in</strong>e (also known as <strong>the</strong> Kasolo m<strong>in</strong>e) near<br />
Lakasi <strong>in</strong> Katanga. This m<strong>in</strong>e was operated by<br />
UMHK from 1915 until 1960. In 1939, <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
supplied uranium from <strong>the</strong> Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe m<strong>in</strong>e to <strong>the</strong><br />
United States. It is reported that this uranium was<br />
used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. 142a The<br />
uranium was also supplied to a “research” nuclear<br />
reactor built by <strong>the</strong> Belgians <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa <strong>in</strong> 1958 as<br />
part of US President Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace<br />
Programme.<br />
The m<strong>in</strong>e was officially closed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1960s<br />
after <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e flooded. There have been, however,
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 28<br />
reports that uranium from <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e has been<br />
extracted and sold s<strong>in</strong>ce 1965. In 2002 <strong>the</strong> Guardian<br />
newspaper reported that Libya was supplied uranium<br />
from <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e by Mobutu. 143 In 1998 <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
reports that <strong>the</strong> Laurent Kabila Government granted<br />
a m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> near Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe to <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea <strong>in</strong> exchange<br />
for <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of DRC troops. The DRC<br />
government later denied any such deal was made. 144<br />
Like o<strong>the</strong>r copperbelt m<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>the</strong> Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe<br />
m<strong>in</strong>e is located <strong>in</strong> an area that has rema<strong>in</strong>ed under<br />
government c<strong>on</strong>trol s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998. In 2002 <strong>the</strong> Panel<br />
reported that tight security around <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
currently owned by Gécam<strong>in</strong>es and Billy<br />
Rautenbach’s company Ridgepo<strong>in</strong>te Internati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
was c<strong>on</strong>trolled by Zimbabwean troops. 145 In his<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong> UN Panel, Mr Rautenbach stated<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Government of Zimbabwe has never had<br />
any <strong>in</strong>terest or benefit from <strong>the</strong> activities of<br />
Ridgepo<strong>in</strong>te <strong>in</strong> DRC. 146<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 2002, <strong>the</strong> DRC government has been<br />
negotiat<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> United States for experts to<br />
remove uranium from <strong>the</strong> reactor <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe m<strong>in</strong>e. However, <strong>in</strong> March 2004,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued artisanal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe was<br />
reported. 146a Compounds m<strong>in</strong>ed from Sh<strong>in</strong>kolobwe<br />
are passed to Indian, Pakistani, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, and South<br />
Korean smelter operators for smelt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Likasi or for<br />
direct export. 147<br />
9.3 Diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
The existence of a l<strong>on</strong>g-stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
and well-established diam<strong>on</strong>d smuggl<strong>in</strong>g networks<br />
mean that official government statistics do not give an<br />
accurate picture of <strong>the</strong> revenue raised by diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC as a whole. The problem was compacted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol various rebel and armed groups held over<br />
large diam<strong>on</strong>d produc<strong>in</strong>g areas s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998. All<br />
through central Africa, diam<strong>on</strong>ds are <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> most<br />
easily obta<strong>in</strong>able sources of revenue for armed<br />
belligerents and crim<strong>in</strong>al networks. Their small size<br />
makes <strong>the</strong>m easy to smuggle; <strong>the</strong>y have a relatively<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant and an <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally recognised price; and<br />
have a higher value-to-weight ratio than almost any<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>natural</strong> resource <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
The DRC is a member of <strong>the</strong> Kimberley Process<br />
(KP), hav<strong>in</strong>g been <strong>in</strong>volved s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> negotiati<strong>on</strong><br />
stage. However, it rema<strong>in</strong>s to be seen whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong><br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> KP will be implemented, m<strong>on</strong>itored<br />
and enforced. Aside from <strong>the</strong> difficulties <strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> trade <strong>in</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds from rebel-held areas <strong>in</strong><br />
eastern DRC, <strong>the</strong> government itself faces enormous<br />
challenges <strong>in</strong> end<strong>in</strong>g endemic corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Historical development of DRC’s diam<strong>on</strong>d <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
The first C<strong>on</strong>golese diam<strong>on</strong>d was discovered <strong>in</strong> 1907<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kasai prov<strong>in</strong>ce. 148 In <strong>the</strong> same year, Société<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>ale Forestière et M<strong>in</strong>ière du C<strong>on</strong>go (Form<strong>in</strong>ière)<br />
started m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. 149 So<strong>on</strong> after,<br />
geological surveys revealed that o<strong>the</strong>r deposits of<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds were also located fur<strong>the</strong>r east <strong>in</strong> Mbuji-<br />
Mayi and with<strong>in</strong> ten years, Mbuji-Mayi had become<br />
<strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d capital of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. By 1929, <strong>the</strong><br />
Belgian C<strong>on</strong>go was <strong>the</strong> world’s sec<strong>on</strong>d largest<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds producer after South Africa. 150<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 1960s Mobutu set up MIBA, a state<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g company <strong>in</strong>tended to run <strong>the</strong> major<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Mbuji-Mayi. MIBA provided<br />
<strong>the</strong> bulk of diam<strong>on</strong>ds for export from <strong>the</strong> DRC until<br />
1982, when <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d trade was liberalised.<br />
Prior to 1982 artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ors could <strong>on</strong>ly sell<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds with<strong>in</strong> official m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g z<strong>on</strong>es where De<br />
Beers had held a diam<strong>on</strong>d purchas<strong>in</strong>g and export<strong>in</strong>g<br />
m<strong>on</strong>opoly. This lead to smuggl<strong>in</strong>g of diam<strong>on</strong>ds out of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se z<strong>on</strong>es for sale <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
Liberalisati<strong>on</strong> allowed <strong>in</strong>dividual C<strong>on</strong>golese m<strong>in</strong>ers to<br />
apply for diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and export licenses. Thus<br />
from 1982, all C<strong>on</strong>golese were permitted to possess<br />
and transport diam<strong>on</strong>ds, but <strong>the</strong> law required that<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds to be sold to licensed export<strong>in</strong>g companies<br />
located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC’s ma<strong>in</strong> cities. 151 Mobutu’s aim was<br />
to restrict smuggl<strong>in</strong>g and redirect trade through<br />
official government-c<strong>on</strong>trolled channels.<br />
The impact of liberalisati<strong>on</strong> was two-fold. First,<br />
<strong>the</strong> policy encouraged an <strong>in</strong>flux of artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
and middlemen to <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d fields. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <strong>the</strong><br />
new regulati<strong>on</strong>s created a hierarchy of entrepreneurs<br />
who profited from prospect<strong>in</strong>g and from <strong>the</strong><br />
movement of diam<strong>on</strong>ds from m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g z<strong>on</strong>es to<br />
markets. To avoid this new tier of bureaucracy,<br />
people c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to smuggle diam<strong>on</strong>ds out of <strong>the</strong><br />
country through pre-established <strong>in</strong>formal networks.<br />
Ra<strong>the</strong>r than prevent<strong>in</strong>g smuggl<strong>in</strong>g, with<strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
year artisanal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g outstripped MIBA’s output and<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal diam<strong>on</strong>d ec<strong>on</strong>omy was streng<strong>the</strong>ned to<br />
<strong>the</strong> detriment of <strong>the</strong> formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Mobutu’s<br />
mismanagement of <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy, <strong>the</strong><br />
predati<strong>on</strong> by his elite network of corrupt officials <strong>on</strong><br />
MIBA, and his failure to re-<strong>in</strong>vest profits <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
formal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sector meant that by 1985 diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
accounted for <strong>on</strong>ly 11% of export earn<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Zaire.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> early 1990s, diam<strong>on</strong>d producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
had dropped to 6.5 milli<strong>on</strong> carats per annum from an<br />
output of 8 milli<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1980 and 12 milli<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
1970s. 152<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ADFL advance <strong>on</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa <strong>in</strong> 1996,<br />
Laurent Kabila allocated diam<strong>on</strong>d c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
export c<strong>on</strong>tracts as a way of rais<strong>in</strong>g revenues and<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g political support. In February 1998, <strong>in</strong> an<br />
attempt to raise diam<strong>on</strong>d revenues, Kabila changed<br />
<strong>the</strong> law so that all comptoirs would have to pay a b<strong>on</strong>d<br />
of US$25,000 and all taxes <strong>in</strong> advance. 153 Then <strong>in</strong><br />
January 1999, <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry of M<strong>in</strong>es cancelled all<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d purchas<strong>in</strong>g permits, banned all foreigners<br />
from m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas, and attempted to move <strong>the</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d trade to K<strong>in</strong>shasa for tighter c<strong>on</strong>trol. Only<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese were allowed to re-apply for permits. 153 At<br />
<strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong>re was a ban <strong>on</strong> foreign currency<br />
and diam<strong>on</strong>d sales were no l<strong>on</strong>ger allowed to be<br />
made <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> preferred currency of US dollars.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong>se measures, <strong>the</strong> government was<br />
unable to halt <strong>the</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> revenues from diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
sales and exports. The revocati<strong>on</strong> of comptoir licences<br />
may have led to <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d trade be<strong>in</strong>g driven even<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
purchases more than halved: from June 1997-<br />
December 1998 <strong>the</strong>y stood at US$599 milli<strong>on</strong> and
29 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
between January 1999-July 2000 <strong>the</strong>y were <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
US$291.1 milli<strong>on</strong>. Trade <strong>in</strong> artisanal diam<strong>on</strong>ds also<br />
decreased by 20%, and <strong>the</strong> average value per carat<br />
decreased by 32%, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same period. 154<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>d deposits<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>ds are ei<strong>the</strong>r found <strong>in</strong> volcanic rock known as<br />
kimberlite, which requires m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and is an<br />
expensive, capital-<strong>in</strong>tensive operati<strong>on</strong>, or <strong>in</strong> alluvial<br />
deposits when kimberlite dis<strong>in</strong>tegrates and <strong>the</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds are carried by river systems and deposited<br />
over wide areas <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g sea-beds. About 74 percent<br />
of diam<strong>on</strong>ds are m<strong>in</strong>ed from kimberlite formati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 26 percent of global producti<strong>on</strong><br />
comes from alluvial deposits. 155 C<strong>on</strong>sequently, alluvial<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds can be extracted from riverbeds and<br />
alluvial pla<strong>in</strong>s, typically at m<strong>in</strong>imal cost. They can<br />
also be easily m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> war z<strong>on</strong>es, requir<strong>in</strong>g little or<br />
no equipment, but are scarcer; mak<strong>in</strong>g it difficult to<br />
calculate reserves.<br />
The DRC has l<strong>on</strong>g been recognised as <strong>the</strong> lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
source of <strong>in</strong>dustrial diam<strong>on</strong>ds of alluvial orig<strong>in</strong>,<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipally from <strong>the</strong> Western Kasai Prov<strong>in</strong>ce. Areas of<br />
kimberlite diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC follow a broad, but<br />
disjo<strong>in</strong>ted band from southwestern, to nor<strong>the</strong>rn and<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>astern parts of <strong>the</strong> country. Certa<strong>in</strong> areas of<br />
<strong>the</strong> country are particularly diam<strong>on</strong>d-rich, and house<br />
<strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>cipal m<strong>in</strong>es. These areas are: Mbuji-Mayi<br />
(Kasai Oriental ), Tshikapa (Kasai Occidental), and<br />
Kisangani (Orientale prov<strong>in</strong>ce, s<strong>in</strong>ce 1987). 156<br />
The map below illustrates <strong>the</strong> locati<strong>on</strong> of major<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d deposits. Large deposits are also found <strong>in</strong><br />
Orientale prov<strong>in</strong>ce (Bafwasende and Watsa),<br />
Equateur prov<strong>in</strong>ce (<strong>in</strong> Gbadolite), Kasai Oriental<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ce (Lodja), Bandundu (Tembo), Maniema (<strong>in</strong><br />
Punia and Lubutu) and Tshela and Luozi <strong>in</strong> Lower<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go Bas. Diam<strong>on</strong>ds have also recently been found<br />
<strong>in</strong> Orientale prov<strong>in</strong>ce, which shares a border with<br />
Uganda. 157<br />
Artisanal diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Artisanal diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g typically <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong><br />
extracti<strong>on</strong> of gems by small operators <strong>in</strong> thousands of<br />
small m<strong>in</strong>es across <strong>the</strong> DRC. Diam<strong>on</strong>ds m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this<br />
sector generally accumulate <strong>in</strong> local catchments.<br />
Negociants (middlemen) buy <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds from<br />
artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers, amass <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong>to larger parcels and<br />
<strong>the</strong>n resell <strong>the</strong>m. Small negociants sell to larger<br />
negociants, who <strong>the</strong>n possibly sell aga<strong>in</strong> to yet larger<br />
negociants. Foreign comptoirs generally wait for <strong>the</strong><br />
negociants to accumulate <strong>the</strong>se larger parcels of<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds before purchas<strong>in</strong>g. As a result, <strong>the</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds move with negociants from <strong>the</strong> local m<strong>in</strong>es<br />
to larger trad<strong>in</strong>g centres such as Tshikapa, where<br />
foreign comptoirs operate. However, if <strong>the</strong>se<br />
comptoirs offer low prices, <strong>the</strong> negociants may take<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir diam<strong>on</strong>ds to K<strong>in</strong>shasa, or choose to sell to<br />
foreigners <strong>in</strong> Angola or C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville.<br />
Negociants usually operate <strong>in</strong> a dollar ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
Once <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds are sold to a comptoir <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are exported to Antwerp or elsewhere. 158 Once <strong>the</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds are <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al diam<strong>on</strong>d market,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are <strong>the</strong>n sold <strong>on</strong> to different dealers to be cut<br />
and polished around <strong>the</strong> globe.<br />
Commercial diam<strong>on</strong>d producti<strong>on</strong> and trade<br />
The col<strong>on</strong>ial m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g company Form<strong>in</strong>ière m<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> Tschikapa from 1913, and around <strong>the</strong><br />
same time BCK discovered richer diam<strong>on</strong>d fields at<br />
Bécéke. 159 From <strong>the</strong> 1930s <strong>on</strong>wards <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
provided more than half of <strong>the</strong> world’s <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds. 160<br />
Today, DRC diam<strong>on</strong>ds are m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>on</strong> a<br />
commercial level by <strong>the</strong> state-owned m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
companies MIBA (La Société M<strong>in</strong>ière de Bakwanga) and<br />
Sengam<strong>in</strong>es. The <strong>on</strong>ly official centre of producti<strong>on</strong><br />
for commercial diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g is at Mbuji-Mayi <strong>in</strong><br />
Kasai Oriental. In additi<strong>on</strong> to commercial level<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, tens of thousands of artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers operate<br />
throughout diam<strong>on</strong>d-rich areas <strong>in</strong> DRC.<br />
The DRC’s rough diam<strong>on</strong>ds are officially<br />
authorised for export by <strong>the</strong> new CEEC (Centre for<br />
Evaluati<strong>on</strong>, Expert Analysis and Certificati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Precious M<strong>in</strong>erals), set up to stem systemic smuggl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and corrupti<strong>on</strong>. 161 Diam<strong>on</strong>ds are valued by <strong>the</strong> Société<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>ale de Diamants C<strong>on</strong>golais (SIDC), which was<br />
awarded <strong>the</strong> Government Diam<strong>on</strong>d Valuer c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
<strong>in</strong> June 2003. 162<br />
Source: Hard Currency, Dietrich, C.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 30<br />
Major commercial players <strong>in</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
DRC today <strong>in</strong>clude MIBA, Sengam<strong>in</strong>es and De<br />
Beers.<br />
MIBA is <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> world largest producers of<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial diam<strong>on</strong>ds, with an output of 9 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
carats per year. 163 97% of <strong>the</strong>ir producti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial diam<strong>on</strong>ds, while <strong>on</strong>ly 3% is gems. 164 S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1999 however, official producti<strong>on</strong> of gem (or neargem)<br />
quality st<strong>on</strong>es has been progressively decreas<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
by 2001, <strong>the</strong>y represented <strong>on</strong>ly 1.8% of total<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>. 165<br />
MIBA has o<strong>the</strong>r problems to grapple with,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g illegal artisanal digg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> its c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong><br />
areas. The UN Expert Panel <strong>in</strong> 2001 reported that<br />
much of MIBA’s producti<strong>on</strong> was be<strong>in</strong>g embezzled by<br />
its own officials, perhaps even state officials. 166 The<br />
Panel also reported that MIBA had made several<br />
payments <strong>in</strong> favour of companies sell<strong>in</strong>g ammuniti<strong>on</strong><br />
and weap<strong>on</strong>s to provide arms for <strong>the</strong> ADFL. 167 More<br />
recently, a report prepared by private company<br />
Overseas Security Services (OSS) alleges “systematic<br />
undervaluati<strong>on</strong> and <strong>the</strong>ft of diam<strong>on</strong>ds” cost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
MIBA tens of milli<strong>on</strong>s annually. 168 In August 2003<br />
<strong>the</strong>re were also reports of over US$10 milli<strong>on</strong> go<strong>in</strong>g<br />
“miss<strong>in</strong>g” from MIBA. In resp<strong>on</strong>se, MIBA officials<br />
stated that <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds had not disappeared, but<br />
had been exported to Antwerp. 169<br />
De Beers has been engaged <strong>in</strong> DRC. Under<br />
Mobutu, except for a brief period <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1980s<br />
De Beers held an exclusive three to five year<br />
market<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>tract with MIBA to purchase all of <strong>the</strong><br />
state owned company’s official output. This<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued until Mobutu was ousted and Laurent<br />
Kabila put an end to <strong>the</strong> De Beers m<strong>on</strong>opoly <strong>in</strong> 1997.<br />
Currently, De Beers reta<strong>in</strong>s a 20% stake <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d trad<strong>in</strong>g company Sibeka, with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
80% of <strong>the</strong> shares held by Belgian giant Umicore.<br />
Sibeka, <strong>in</strong> turn, owns 20% of MIBA.<br />
Sengam<strong>in</strong>es was granted <strong>the</strong> commercial rights to<br />
operate a diam<strong>on</strong>d c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> at Mbuji-Mayi <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kasai Oriental that were previously operated by<br />
MIBA. 170 The c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s granted to Sengam<strong>in</strong>es are<br />
two of <strong>the</strong> richest diam<strong>on</strong>d deposits <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. The<br />
company recently <strong>in</strong>vested US$110 milli<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> its<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> 25 miles southwest of Mbuji-Mayi, which<br />
is estimated to have <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> world’s largest<br />
kimberlite deposits, worth around US$2 billi<strong>on</strong>. 171<br />
DRC illicit and c<strong>on</strong>flict diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
Battles between rebel groups have been a comm<strong>on</strong><br />
occurrence <strong>in</strong> areas rich <strong>in</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d deposits and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequently c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong>se areas has been very<br />
fluid.<br />
Uganda and Rwanda, and <strong>the</strong> rebel groups <strong>the</strong>y<br />
support, were active <strong>in</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d rich areas s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1998. Uganda had particularly had a noticeable<br />
presence around Kisangani and o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas <strong>in</strong><br />
Orientale, whereas <strong>the</strong> RPA and associated rebel<br />
groups have had c<strong>on</strong>trol over Maniema and a<br />
significant part of Kasai. 172 Shift<strong>in</strong>g alliances and <strong>on</strong>go<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict makes accurately mapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> current<br />
state of c<strong>on</strong>trol over diam<strong>on</strong>d produc<strong>in</strong>g areas is<br />
difficult <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> absence of field research.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 1998 diam<strong>on</strong>ds have been rout<strong>in</strong>ely<br />
smuggled through <strong>the</strong> North Ubangi area (Equateur<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce), which forms <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> Ugandanbacked<br />
MLC rebel group, and through <strong>the</strong> town of<br />
Kisangani (Orientale Prov<strong>in</strong>ce), effectively under<br />
RPA c<strong>on</strong>trol. To avoid RCD-Goma and RPA taxes,<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds from MLC/Uganda-held areas were flown<br />
directly to Entebbe and Kampala. Data from<br />
Ugandan diam<strong>on</strong>d exports c<strong>on</strong>firm this trend: no<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d exports were reported between 1987 and<br />
1996, however between 1997 and 2000, diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
exports were valued at up to US$1.7 milli<strong>on</strong> per<br />
annum. 173 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to official figures, both Rwanda<br />
and Uganda, countries with no diam<strong>on</strong>ds of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own, exported US$3.7 milli<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Belgian diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
imports <strong>in</strong> 2001. 174<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to some sources, <strong>in</strong> 2000 al<strong>on</strong>e nearly<br />
85% of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s diam<strong>on</strong>d producti<strong>on</strong> (US$854<br />
milli<strong>on</strong>, out of a total US$1.02 billi<strong>on</strong>) was illegally<br />
smuggled out of <strong>the</strong> country. 175<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al trade routes<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d trad<strong>in</strong>g centres are Antwerp,<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, New York, Lucerne, Johannesburg, Dubai,<br />
Tel Aviv and Bombay. By far <strong>the</strong> largest is Antwerp<br />
with 80% of <strong>the</strong> world’s diam<strong>on</strong>ds pass<strong>in</strong>g through<br />
<strong>the</strong> city. Over 88% of CEEC certified DRC<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds are sent to Antwerp. The rema<strong>in</strong>der went<br />
to Tel-Aviv and Dubai. 176 The US is <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
retailer <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world of cut and polished diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
(followed by Asia-Pacific), and India, Thailand and<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a are <strong>the</strong> world’s largest diam<strong>on</strong>d cutt<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
polish<strong>in</strong>g centres. 177<br />
Neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries have had a <strong>natural</strong>, l<strong>on</strong>gstand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship with <strong>the</strong> flows of trade <strong>in</strong> illicit<br />
and legitimate diam<strong>on</strong>ds. In particular, C<strong>on</strong>go-<br />
Brazzaville has been revealed to be an important<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duit for DRC diam<strong>on</strong>ds.<br />
Brazzaville and K<strong>in</strong>shasa have had a historically<br />
close relati<strong>on</strong>ship <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>the</strong> flow of diam<strong>on</strong>ds.<br />
Their close proximity across <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go River makes<br />
<strong>the</strong>m <strong>natural</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g centres. Diam<strong>on</strong>d counters were<br />
established <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1930s <strong>in</strong> Brazzaville and later <strong>the</strong>se<br />
counters exported C<strong>on</strong>go-K<strong>in</strong>shasa diam<strong>on</strong>ds to<br />
European gem-cutters and jewellers. Despite hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imal diam<strong>on</strong>d deposits, C<strong>on</strong>go Brazzaville <strong>the</strong>n<br />
became a major world-scale exporter. Follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
liberalisati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d sector <strong>in</strong> 1982, diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
taxes were gradually reduced <strong>in</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go-K<strong>in</strong>shasa.<br />
However, taxes were even lower across <strong>the</strong> river <strong>in</strong><br />
Brazzaville – which <strong>in</strong>creased diam<strong>on</strong>d smuggl<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Brazzaville.<br />
Today, diam<strong>on</strong>ds c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to move easily between<br />
K<strong>in</strong>shasa and Brazzaville. 178 Brazzaville is now <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
many transit countries that C<strong>on</strong>golese c<strong>on</strong>flict and<br />
illicit diam<strong>on</strong>ds use en route to Antwerp and<br />
elsewhere; Statistics compiled dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1990s show<br />
<strong>the</strong> Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go export<strong>in</strong>g diam<strong>on</strong>ds far<br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d its producti<strong>on</strong> capacity, ma<strong>in</strong>ly to Antwerp.<br />
The discrepancy between <strong>the</strong> figures shows that <strong>the</strong><br />
low export duties and loose regulati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Republic of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go has siph<strong>on</strong>ed off gems from its diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
produc<strong>in</strong>g neighbours who attempt to exert stricter<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trols over <strong>the</strong>ir trade. 179<br />
The MLC rout<strong>in</strong>ely used Bangui <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> CAR as<br />
<strong>the</strong> arrière-base for <strong>the</strong>ir diam<strong>on</strong>d, coffee and arms<br />
deals until <strong>the</strong> overthrow of President Patasse <strong>in</strong><br />
2003. 180<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>ds are also transported to South Africa by<br />
air, from where <strong>the</strong>y are sent to Belgium, <strong>the</strong><br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, Israel and <strong>the</strong> UK. 181 Bujumbura,<br />
Lusaka, Harare, Kampala, Kigali and Dar es Salaam<br />
also provide licences and <strong>on</strong>ward permits for DRC<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds, 182 and small diam<strong>on</strong>d centres <strong>in</strong> Mauritius<br />
and India receive DRC diam<strong>on</strong>ds. 183
31 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Trade statistics<br />
The UN Expert Panel reported that an estimated <strong>on</strong>e<br />
third of <strong>the</strong> total rough diam<strong>on</strong>d producti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC (around US$300 milli<strong>on</strong>) is smuggled to <strong>the</strong><br />
Central African Republic, and to C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville,<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> lower export duties <strong>the</strong>re. 184 Table 9<br />
illustrates Partnership Africa Canada’s estimates of<br />
<strong>the</strong> value of exports of illicit diam<strong>on</strong>ds s<strong>in</strong>ce 1995. In<br />
2000 al<strong>on</strong>e an estimated US$288 milli<strong>on</strong> of illicit<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds were exported from <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
The Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go does not produce any of its<br />
own diam<strong>on</strong>ds and is a major hub for <strong>the</strong> traffick<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of diam<strong>on</strong>ds from o<strong>the</strong>r African countries. As such, it<br />
is difficult to determ<strong>in</strong>e with precisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> value and<br />
weight of illicit DRC diam<strong>on</strong>ds that have been<br />
exported from Brazzaville and passed off as Republic<br />
of C<strong>on</strong>go diam<strong>on</strong>ds.<br />
Table 9: Diam<strong>on</strong>d Exports <strong>in</strong> relati<strong>on</strong> to Total DRC Exports<br />
(milli<strong>on</strong>s of US$)<br />
Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000<br />
Total Official Exports 1562 1546 1448 1442 807 792<br />
(all commodities)<br />
Official Diam<strong>on</strong>d Exports 331 347 385 451 290 240<br />
Estimated Illicit Diam<strong>on</strong>d 400 417 462 541 348 288<br />
Exports<br />
Official Diam<strong>on</strong>d Exports 21% 22% 27% 31% 36% 30%<br />
(% of Exports)<br />
Official Imports 870 1089 769 1102 568 596<br />
Balance 692 457 679 320 239 196<br />
(exports m<strong>in</strong>us imports)<br />
Source: Partnership Africa Canada 185<br />
Table 10: Belgian Rough Diam<strong>on</strong>d Imports from <strong>the</strong> DRC and Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go Diam<strong>on</strong>d Exports 1995-2001 by Carats and US$<br />
DRC<br />
Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Year Carats US$ Carats US$<br />
1995 18,644,000 646,190,000 4,469,000 407,890,000<br />
1996 15,184,000 667,090,000 7,572,000 612,560,000<br />
1997 15,845,000 553,230,000 Unknown Unknown<br />
1998 20,887,000 614,529,000 526,000 41,212,000<br />
1999 23,403,000 758,751,000 71,000 14,639,000<br />
2000 17,044,000 629,857,000 2,845,000 116,585,000<br />
2001 19,636,953 495,308,805 5,409,820 223,848,014<br />
Source: Partnership Africa Canada 186<br />
Table 11: DRC – diam<strong>on</strong>d exports (value and weight, by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Belgium 408 300 384 625 658 653 540 606 758 722 751 981<br />
USA 80 90 50 40 9 93 94 76 77 11 11 25<br />
South Africa 0 1 72 86 79 102 96 0 0 0 0 0<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 2 2 1 1 1 8 2 1 0 0 0 0<br />
Weight (milli<strong>on</strong> carats)<br />
Belgium 14 10 10 13 19 15 16 21 23 20 25 31<br />
USA 2.8 1.4 1.3 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1<br />
South Africa 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity code – 7102<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: statistics are given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number (value and weights above three milli<strong>on</strong> carats) o<strong>the</strong>rwise <strong>on</strong>e decimal place<br />
Note 4: 5 carats = 1 gram
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 32<br />
9.4 Gold<br />
Gold was first discovered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> Namoya <strong>in</strong><br />
1931. From 1931 until 1947, alluvial gold m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g took<br />
place here. In 1951 <strong>the</strong> method of extracti<strong>on</strong> changed<br />
to open pit m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, but n<strong>in</strong>e years later <strong>the</strong> Namoya<br />
m<strong>in</strong>e was closed when Belgian expatriates left <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go after Independence. S<strong>in</strong>ce Independence, <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
a few o<strong>the</strong>r gold explorati<strong>on</strong> and m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g projects<br />
have begun, and <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong>se have been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>f<strong>in</strong>ed to <strong>the</strong> east and nor<strong>the</strong>ast of <strong>the</strong> country. 187<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, gold has been identified as <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong><br />
more promis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> that could provide<br />
<strong>the</strong> country with revenues.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> official gold m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
● The Kamituga-Mobale m<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> South Kivu. This<br />
underground gold m<strong>in</strong>e was flooded <strong>in</strong> 1997 and<br />
has been <strong>in</strong>operative ever s<strong>in</strong>ce.<br />
● The Kilo and Moto m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s near<br />
Bunia <strong>in</strong> Ituri (Orientale) are c<strong>on</strong>sidered highly<br />
prospective, but hostilities have prevented any<br />
official explorati<strong>on</strong> or m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. There are 10 old<br />
gold m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> area, <strong>the</strong> largest of<br />
which are <strong>the</strong> Agbarabo and Gorumbwa<br />
underground m<strong>in</strong>es. The Agbarabo m<strong>in</strong>e was<br />
closed <strong>in</strong> 1982 due to flood<strong>in</strong>g. Gorumbwa has<br />
been open s<strong>in</strong>ce 1955 and is still <strong>in</strong> operati<strong>on</strong><br />
today. Barrick has acquired explorati<strong>on</strong> titles from<br />
<strong>the</strong> state-owned Office des M<strong>in</strong>es d’or de Kilomoto<br />
(OKIMO).<br />
● The Kipushi copper/z<strong>in</strong>c m<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Katanga also<br />
has gold deposits. This is operated by American<br />
M<strong>in</strong>eral Fields and Gécam<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Exploratory work is be<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>ducted by <strong>the</strong> South<br />
African m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g junior Gold Fields <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>senge <strong>in</strong><br />
Katanga. 188 O<strong>the</strong>r gold explorati<strong>on</strong> is be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted by Banro Resource Corporati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> South<br />
Kivu and Maniema at Lugushwa, Kamituga,<br />
Twangiza and Namoya. 189 The m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g company<br />
Som<strong>in</strong>ki extracted small amounts of gold from<br />
Kamituga, Lugusha and Namoya until 1998. 190<br />
AngloGold and Barrick Gold have embarked <strong>on</strong> a<br />
large exploratory survey and feasibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g> of <strong>the</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>ast of <strong>the</strong> DRC al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Sudanese and<br />
Ugandan borders. Progress has been severely<br />
hampered by armed c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> this part of <strong>the</strong><br />
country. 191<br />
In 1997 Banro Resource Corporati<strong>on</strong> acquired<br />
93% of Société Aurifère du Kivu et du Maniema (Sakima),<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC government hold<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 7%.<br />
Sakima is <strong>the</strong> new name for Som<strong>in</strong>ki, a company<br />
created <strong>in</strong> 1976 br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g toge<strong>the</strong>r n<strong>in</strong>e o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
companies. Sakima has 47 m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
South Kivu and Maniema ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 180-km l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Namoya-Twangiza gold belt. Banro’s c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were expropriated <strong>on</strong> 31 July 1998 by <strong>the</strong> Kabila<br />
government. Banro subsequently commenced<br />
proceed<strong>in</strong>gs and sought compensati<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
Government at <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Centre for <strong>the</strong><br />
Settlement of Investment Disputes. The government<br />
of Joseph Kabila handed back <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
Banro <strong>in</strong> 2003. 192<br />
The majority of gold producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
comes from <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast of <strong>the</strong> country – an area<br />
currently partly c<strong>on</strong>trolled by rebel groups not party<br />
to <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al government. In <strong>the</strong> last days of<br />
Mobutu <strong>the</strong>re were attempts at privatis<strong>in</strong>g gold m<strong>in</strong>es<br />
through jo<strong>in</strong>t venture agreements similar to those<br />
negotiated for cobalt and copper. However, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
wake of <strong>the</strong> 1996 war, <strong>in</strong>dustrial m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g came to a<br />
virtual standstill. 193 Artisanal gold m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g has always<br />
been more widespread than <strong>in</strong>dustrial exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC. 194 In nor<strong>the</strong>ast C<strong>on</strong>go most gold is<br />
extracted by artisanal and small-scale m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s, often under <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol of armed<br />
belligerents or <strong>the</strong>ir bus<strong>in</strong>ess associates. C<strong>on</strong>sequently,<br />
official gold producti<strong>on</strong> and export statistics do not<br />
present an accurate picture of <strong>the</strong> levels of extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
and value of gold orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Kivus, <strong>the</strong> gold (and diam<strong>on</strong>d) m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas<br />
of Kandole, Bengamisa and Lakutu have all been <strong>the</strong><br />
centre of prol<strong>on</strong>ged c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tati<strong>on</strong> between <strong>the</strong><br />
Rwandan-backed RCD-Goma and its support<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Mai-Mai groups aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML, allied <strong>in</strong> turn<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Ugandan-backed MLC. 195 There are also<br />
gold deposits <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast Katanga and Maniema,<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g fur<strong>the</strong>r impetus for <strong>the</strong> establishment of<br />
military c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong>se regi<strong>on</strong>s. In <strong>the</strong>se areas<br />
both RCD-Goma and RPA have a l<strong>on</strong>g-established<br />
presence and appear to be expand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir c<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
territory, assets, tax revenues and m<strong>in</strong>eral wealth.<br />
Frequently battles have occurred between <strong>the</strong> RCD-<br />
Goma and RPA aga<strong>in</strong>st government-supported Mai-<br />
Mai groups near gold and coltan m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas <strong>in</strong><br />
Shabunda and Kitutu near Kamituga. The UN Panel<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> May 2002 that “various Mayi-Mayi<br />
groups have adopted a strategy of attack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
locati<strong>on</strong>s of m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities c<strong>on</strong>trolled by RCD-<br />
Goma or RPA, <strong>in</strong> an effort to ei<strong>the</strong>r wrest c<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
<strong>the</strong>m or disrupt <strong>the</strong>m and make <strong>the</strong>m less<br />
profitable.” 196<br />
While artisanal gold m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g has taken place<br />
throughout gold-rich areas of <strong>the</strong> Kivus, Maniema<br />
and Ituri for decades, <strong>the</strong> 1996 and 1998 wars<br />
brought new levels of military authority and<br />
disrupti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> lives of many local small-scale<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ers. The Panel of Experts documented that some<br />
communities have been forcibly displaced <strong>in</strong> order for<br />
militia and military forces to take c<strong>on</strong>trol over<br />
resource-rich areas. Local artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers have been<br />
evicted from small-scale m<strong>in</strong>e sites by armed<br />
belligerents <strong>in</strong> order to establish m<strong>on</strong>opolies over gold<br />
(and coltan) producti<strong>on</strong>. 197 In Equateur prov<strong>in</strong>ce, local<br />
artisanal m<strong>in</strong>ers have been recruited by MLC and<br />
used as “c<strong>on</strong>v<strong>in</strong>cible labour” to m<strong>in</strong>e gold and<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds. 198 Young men have also been recruited for<br />
Uganda-backed MLC’s “army of development” to<br />
m<strong>in</strong>e gold <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> B<strong>on</strong>do regi<strong>on</strong> of Equateur. 199<br />
Ugandan soldiers have also been directly <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g C<strong>on</strong>golese gold. The first Panel of Experts<br />
documented examples of Ugandan soldiers m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
for gold near Watsa <strong>in</strong> Orientale. 200 In 2001 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kilo-Moto district, Ugandan commanders and some<br />
of <strong>the</strong> soldiers who guarded <strong>the</strong> different entry po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
of <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas allowed and encouraged <strong>the</strong> local<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> to m<strong>in</strong>e. The Expert Panel reported that<br />
an average 2,000 people m<strong>in</strong>ed for gold <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> six days a week, deliver<strong>in</strong>g an average of 2<br />
kg of gold daily to <strong>the</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> head<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> network <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> district. 201 The Expert Panel also reported that<br />
Ugandan generals and col<strong>on</strong>els manipulated c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
between Hema and Lendu militia <strong>in</strong> Orientale <strong>in</strong><br />
order to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>the</strong> gold-rich area of
33 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Nyaleki. 202 In October 2002, <strong>the</strong> Panel fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
reported that before <strong>the</strong> UPDF officially withdrew<br />
from <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go <strong>in</strong> February 2002, Ugandan forces<br />
attacked villagers at Geti with <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial back<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
Hema bus<strong>in</strong>essmen <strong>in</strong> Bunia. The motivati<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong><br />
attack was to establish c<strong>on</strong>trol over nearby gold<br />
deposits. 203<br />
The Panel supported allegati<strong>on</strong>s of Uganda’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s gold by<br />
document<strong>in</strong>g dramatic <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> amount of<br />
gold exported from Uganda s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998 (see Table 12<br />
below). The Government of Uganda argued that<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases were due to <strong>the</strong> liberalisati<strong>on</strong> of gold sales<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1993. However, it is likely that <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
exports (<strong>in</strong> excess of statistics of nati<strong>on</strong>al gold<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>) are evidence that gold m<strong>in</strong>ed by artisanal<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast DRC is smuggled <strong>in</strong>to Kampala<br />
by UPDF elements or <strong>the</strong>ir associates, and <strong>the</strong>n sold<br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al markets. 204<br />
Official trade statistics<br />
It is difficult to estimate accurately <strong>the</strong> weight and<br />
value of gold that is be<strong>in</strong>g traded by rebel groups <strong>in</strong><br />
eastern DRC. In April 2001 UN Expert Panel<br />
analysed <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma’s m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g statistics and came<br />
to <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that <strong>in</strong> 1999 <strong>on</strong> average 60 kg of<br />
gold per m<strong>on</strong>th was extracted from <strong>the</strong> area<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by RCD. In 2000, levels of extracti<strong>on</strong> were<br />
up to 100 kilograms per m<strong>on</strong>th. 205<br />
This table shows that <strong>the</strong> DRC’s gold exports<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased dramatically <strong>in</strong> both weight and value <strong>in</strong><br />
2000 and c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> 2001, though<br />
dropped <strong>in</strong> 2002. The statistics also support <strong>the</strong> Panel<br />
report’s view that Uganda has been <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>golese gold <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past several<br />
years as <strong>the</strong> value of <strong>the</strong>ir exports <strong>in</strong>creased from zero<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2001 to US$4 <strong>in</strong> 2002, at <strong>the</strong> same time as <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s exports were fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Table 12: Uganda’s m<strong>in</strong>eral exports and producti<strong>on</strong>, 1994–2000<br />
Year Gold exports Gold Producti<strong>on</strong><br />
(t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
(t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
1994 0.22 0.0016<br />
1995 3.09 0.0015<br />
1996 5.07 0.003<br />
1997 6.82 0.0064<br />
1998 5.03 0.0084<br />
1999 11.45 0.0047<br />
2000 (January to October) 10.83 0.0044<br />
Source: S/2001/357, page 20 (taken from Ugandan M<strong>in</strong>istry of Energy and M<strong>in</strong>eral Development<br />
statistics)<br />
Table 13: DRC – share <strong>in</strong> exports of gold from Central Africa<br />
Export<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
DRC 7 2 7 8 5<br />
Burundi 0 10 1 1 1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go 1 4 2 0 1<br />
Tanzania 0 0 0 0 96<br />
Uganda 0 4 1 0 4<br />
Zimbabwe 64 51 35 16 2<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0 0 2 0 0<br />
Weight (t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
DRC 1.0 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.6<br />
Burundi 0.0 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.1<br />
Tanzania 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.0<br />
Uganda 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.6<br />
Zimbabwe 6.5 5.4 3.8 1.9 0.2<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas<br />
Note 1: HS commodity codes – 7108<br />
Note 2: <strong>the</strong> charts below exclude Tanzania’s exports (to <strong>the</strong> UK) of a large quantity of gold <strong>in</strong> 2002<br />
Note 3: statistics given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number (value) and <strong>on</strong>e decimal place (weight)<br />
Table 14: DRC – gold exports (value and weight, by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Belgium 1.4 3 1.2 2 5 0.4 9 7 1.9 0.6 0.1 0.7<br />
UK 0 0.7 13 9 0.6 0 0 0 0.3 0 0 1.2<br />
USA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 8 3<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0 0 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />
Weight (t<strong>on</strong>nes)<br />
Belgium 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1<br />
UK 0.0 0.1 1.3 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1<br />
USA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.9 0.4<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong><br />
Note 1: HS commodity codes – 7108<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: statistics given to <strong>on</strong>e decimal place (weight, and value less than US$1.5 milli<strong>on</strong> but greater than zero, o<strong>the</strong>rwise to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number)
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 34<br />
Trade routes<br />
Gold from RCD-Goma-held territory is sold <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al markets through Dar es Salaam via<br />
RCD-Goma’s f<strong>in</strong>ancial and logistical network. The<br />
Expert Panel reported that <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma covered<br />
shipments of gold and diam<strong>on</strong>ds with official-look<strong>in</strong>g<br />
DRC government documents <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g approval had<br />
been issued <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa and Lubumbashi. Gold sold<br />
by <strong>the</strong> RCD-Goma <strong>in</strong> exchange for cash or armaments<br />
was reported to be shipped through Dar es Salaam<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al airport to buyers <strong>in</strong> Sri Lanka. It<br />
appeared that this resource-trad<strong>in</strong>g network operated<br />
without <strong>the</strong> direct <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> of Rwandan officials. 206<br />
Gold is also taken from <strong>the</strong> Kivus to Bujumbura <strong>in</strong><br />
Burundi through Bukavu, Fizi and Uvira ei<strong>the</strong>r via<br />
airplane or by boat across Lake Tanganyika. 207 As was<br />
discussed earlier, <strong>the</strong>se trade routes were historically<br />
used by Arab slave traders dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 19 th Century, as<br />
well as by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy networks that<br />
developed dur<strong>in</strong>g Mobutu’s rule. The Panel has<br />
reported that <strong>in</strong> Bujumbura, “gold dealers from<br />
countries such a Senegal, Pakistan and Greece buy this<br />
smuggled gold, which <strong>the</strong>y subsequently transport<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ally to Europe and o<strong>the</strong>r dest<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s.” 208<br />
However, it has been observed that while Burundi was<br />
by far <strong>the</strong> most important po<strong>in</strong>t of transit for gold<br />
exports from <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1990s, this role has<br />
recently been taken over by Uganda, <strong>the</strong> turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> impositi<strong>on</strong> of a regi<strong>on</strong>al trade embargo<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st Burundi <strong>in</strong> 1997. 209<br />
9.5 Oil and gas<br />
Explorati<strong>on</strong> for oil and gas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC began shortly<br />
after <strong>in</strong>dependence al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 22 kilometres of<br />
coastl<strong>in</strong>e at <strong>the</strong> estuary of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go River. The DRC<br />
first produced oil <strong>in</strong> 1976 when its offshore fields (near<br />
<strong>the</strong> port of Matadi and Angola’s oil enclave of<br />
Cab<strong>in</strong>da) came <strong>on</strong> stream. The oil <strong>in</strong>dustry has<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistently been an important c<strong>on</strong>tributor to <strong>the</strong><br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> disrupti<strong>on</strong> caused by <strong>the</strong> current<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict, state collapse under Mobutu as well as years<br />
of corrupti<strong>on</strong> and political <strong>in</strong>stability have resulted <strong>in</strong><br />
a difficult operat<strong>in</strong>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment for foreign<br />
companies work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
early 1990s Chevr<strong>on</strong> Texaco was forced to aband<strong>on</strong> its<br />
<strong>on</strong>-shore facilities due to social unrest and military<br />
<strong>in</strong>stability.<br />
The DRC has <strong>on</strong>e oil ref<strong>in</strong>ery <strong>in</strong> Muanda that<br />
currently operates at 50% of its capacity. The ref<strong>in</strong>ery<br />
is operated by Société C<strong>on</strong>go-Italienne de Raff<strong>in</strong>age<br />
(SOCIR) (formerly <strong>the</strong> Société Zairo-Italienne de Raff<strong>in</strong>age<br />
(SOZIR)). Oil is transported to <strong>the</strong> ref<strong>in</strong>ery via barge<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Ango-Ango depot at Matadi. Petroleum<br />
products dest<strong>in</strong>ed for use with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC are pumped<br />
via a pipel<strong>in</strong>e from Matadi to K<strong>in</strong>shasa, and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
transported by river barges to Mbandaka, Bumba and<br />
Kisangani and fur<strong>the</strong>r distributed from <strong>the</strong>se po<strong>in</strong>ts by<br />
road or rail. In <strong>the</strong> eastern part of C<strong>on</strong>go <strong>the</strong>re is a<br />
scarcity of tanker trucks s<strong>in</strong>ce many have been<br />
trapped or aband<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Rwanda and Burundi as a<br />
result of <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g political turmoil. 210<br />
Chevr<strong>on</strong> Texaco produces 70% of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
crude oil. 211 Given that Chevr<strong>on</strong> Texaco’s average<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2001 was 8,900 barrels per day, <strong>the</strong><br />
quantity of crude oil that <strong>the</strong> DRC exports is <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same order as <strong>the</strong> country’s crude oil producti<strong>on</strong>. 212<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ship between c<strong>on</strong>flict and oil<br />
As <strong>the</strong> DRC’s crude oil is produced ma<strong>in</strong>ly from<br />
offshore rigs <strong>in</strong> government-held Bas C<strong>on</strong>go, <strong>the</strong> 1996<br />
and 1998 c<strong>on</strong>flicts have not had a direct impact <strong>on</strong> oil<br />
<strong>in</strong>stallati<strong>on</strong>s. However, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial stages of <strong>the</strong> 1998<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict, Angola established a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture for<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong> and retail sales of DRC fuel and<br />
petroleum products. S<strong>on</strong>angol-C<strong>on</strong>go is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
prom<strong>in</strong>ent feature of Angola’s commercial activities <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC follow<strong>in</strong>g its military <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> aid of<br />
President Laurent-Désiré Kabila. 213 The first UN<br />
Panel Report stated that <strong>the</strong> DRC and Angolan<br />
governments have also signed a letter of <strong>in</strong>tent to<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>tly exploit <strong>the</strong> oil of <strong>the</strong>ir coasts “when peace<br />
returns to <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>”. 214<br />
The discovery of oil <strong>in</strong> Lake Albert and <strong>the</strong><br />
commencement of exploratory activities by Heritage<br />
Oil of Canada have potentially exacerbated tensi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ituri. While it is not clear whe<strong>the</strong>r oil will be able to<br />
be extracted from <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, it has been reported that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tracts have been signed between Ugandan officers<br />
and C<strong>on</strong>golese politicians <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>. Fight<strong>in</strong>g has<br />
also spread to areas where <strong>the</strong> discovery of oil is<br />
expected. 215 The Pole Institute has described <strong>the</strong><br />
situati<strong>on</strong> thus:<br />
The possibility that <strong>the</strong> world’s most capital-<strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
extractive <strong>in</strong>dustries may enter <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> world’s most<br />
complex c<strong>on</strong>flict areas radically changes prospects of<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>. Bus<strong>in</strong>ess and <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
opportunities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> may be transformed – however,<br />
by enhanc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic value of disputed territories and<br />
by stra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g already tense political situati<strong>on</strong>s, political and<br />
military rivalries may be exacerbated. The <strong>in</strong>tensificati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
war <strong>in</strong> Ituri… <strong>in</strong> which at least <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> parties c<strong>on</strong>cerned<br />
has l<strong>in</strong>ked directly to oil <strong>in</strong>terests, appears as a warn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
signal. 216<br />
Trade statistics<br />
Table 15 (see over) illustrates that <strong>the</strong> United States is<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC’s ma<strong>in</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g partner <strong>in</strong> oil. The table also<br />
shows that <strong>the</strong>re was a c<strong>on</strong>siderable drop <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> value<br />
of oil exported <strong>in</strong> 1998 – perhaps a c<strong>on</strong>sequence of<br />
<strong>the</strong> re-commencement of hostilities between Laurent<br />
Kabila and Ugandan and Rwandan-backed rebels <strong>in</strong><br />
1998.<br />
Gas<br />
There are reserves of <strong>natural</strong> gas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kivu regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC that have yet to be exploited. Prior to <strong>the</strong><br />
commencement of hostilities <strong>in</strong> 1998, <strong>the</strong>re had been<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al energy co-operati<strong>on</strong> agreements signed<br />
between C<strong>on</strong>go and Rwanda. The DRC signed a jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
venture agreement with Rwanda for <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
and market<strong>in</strong>g of methane gas found <strong>in</strong> Lake Kivu<br />
form<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Société Internati<strong>on</strong>ale d’Exploitati<strong>on</strong>, de<br />
Transport et de Commercialisati<strong>on</strong> du Gaz Méthane du Lac<br />
Kivu (SOCIGAZ). However, current political<br />
<strong>in</strong>stability <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> has placed <strong>the</strong>se co-operati<strong>on</strong><br />
agreements <strong>in</strong> abeyance. 217 The impact of <strong>the</strong><br />
existence of gas reserves <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> current c<strong>on</strong>flict is<br />
unknown.
35 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Table 15: DRC – crude oil exports (value and weight by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
USA 167 111 128 107 127 124 159 70 102 168 114 110<br />
France 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 32<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 0 6 0 6 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 23<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 15 13 6 4 5 33 6 0 0 0 0 27<br />
Weight (milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>ne)<br />
USA 1.2 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.6<br />
France 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity code – 2709<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: statistics are given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number (value) or <strong>on</strong>e decimal place (weight)<br />
Note 4: 7.2 barrels = 1 t<strong>on</strong>ne; 1 barrel = 157 litres<br />
9.6 Timber<br />
Forests covers 135,110,000 ha of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s land<br />
area 218 mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se not <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>the</strong> largest forest<br />
reserves <strong>in</strong> Africa, but sec<strong>on</strong>d <strong>on</strong>ly to <strong>the</strong> Amaz<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Forest types <strong>in</strong>clude evergreen, swamp and m<strong>on</strong>tane,<br />
all of which c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> valuable timber species.<br />
Approximately 40% of DRC’s forests are under<br />
government c<strong>on</strong>trol, with <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 60% <strong>in</strong><br />
rebel-held territory. 219 As with o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>resources</strong>, timber<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> war largely followed geopolitical<br />
divisi<strong>on</strong>s: rebel-held territory <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast<br />
and northwest, and government held territory south<br />
of a l<strong>in</strong>e runn<strong>in</strong>g roughly from Pweto to Mbandaka.<br />
Although commercial logg<strong>in</strong>g has been known <strong>in</strong><br />
some areas for <strong>the</strong> past century, export-oriented<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial logg<strong>in</strong>g began around 1970. 220<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> System<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s maps supplied by <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry of<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment’s forest <strong>in</strong>ventory and mapp<strong>in</strong>g service<br />
SPIAF (Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Amenagament<br />
Forestiers), whilst a valuable source of <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
have been hand drawn (<strong>the</strong>re is no computerised<br />
system) and it is likely that <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>in</strong>accurate and<br />
<strong>in</strong>complete. Predom<strong>in</strong>ant companies <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
SIFORCO, SOFORMA, SCIBOIS, SICOBOIS,<br />
AGRIPRO and BBC, which toge<strong>the</strong>r comprise over<br />
5.2 milli<strong>on</strong> ha, around half <strong>the</strong> total active<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s. 220<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> recent period of c<strong>on</strong>flict and <strong>in</strong>stability<br />
44 milli<strong>on</strong> ha of c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s were allocated, <strong>on</strong>ly 6<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> ha of which were <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hands of companies<br />
deemed as reputable (by <strong>the</strong> World Bank), leav<strong>in</strong>g 38<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> ha <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hands of speculators (presumably<br />
companies <strong>the</strong> World Bank deemed unlikely to<br />
engage <strong>in</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able forest management). 221<br />
In late 2002 Global Witness was <strong>in</strong>formed that <strong>the</strong><br />
government, under World Bank pressure, embarked<br />
<strong>on</strong> a strategy to reduce <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> area held by<br />
speculators. The government imposed a moratorium<br />
<strong>on</strong> those c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> between fil<strong>in</strong>g for a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>, and be<strong>in</strong>g granted a temporary license,<br />
which brought 22 milli<strong>on</strong> ha back under government<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol, but still left 16 milli<strong>on</strong> ha that had already<br />
been allocated as 25-year c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s to speculators. 221<br />
In order to encourage speculators to rel<strong>in</strong>quish<br />
<strong>in</strong>active c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> areas, <strong>the</strong> government proposed<br />
an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface tax from US$0.14 per 100<br />
ha to US$0.50 per 100 ha which would, for example,<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> annual cost of a 200,000 ha c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong><br />
from US$280 to US$100,000. This resulted <strong>in</strong> an<br />
immediate <strong>in</strong>undati<strong>on</strong> of compla<strong>in</strong>ts from <strong>the</strong> private<br />
sector, prompt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> World Bank to suggest a graded<br />
<strong>in</strong>troducti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> new tax: US$0.25 <strong>in</strong> 2003, ris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to US$0.50 <strong>in</strong> 2004. The World Bank hopes this will<br />
result <strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g back <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 16 milli<strong>on</strong> ha,<br />
releas<strong>in</strong>g a total area of 54 milli<strong>on</strong> ha for reallocati<strong>on</strong><br />
under <strong>the</strong> new Forest Code. 221<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r than domestic c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> bulk of<br />
harvested timber is exported as logs as <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
process<strong>in</strong>g capacity is far outstripped by potential<br />
supply; <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e plywood mill.<br />
The effect of war <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> timber <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
The civil war virtually closed down commercial<br />
logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry as various rebel groups not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled <strong>the</strong> best forests, but looted or destroyed <strong>the</strong><br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frastructure of <strong>the</strong> timber <strong>in</strong>dustry. The<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> transport artery, <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go river, was also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by rebel groups (although <strong>the</strong> port of<br />
Matadi rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> government hands). Elsewhere<br />
<strong>the</strong> country’s dilapidated road system h<strong>in</strong>dered or<br />
prevented any large-scale movements. Those<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s that rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> government areas<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued to operate, but at a reduced level, not least<br />
due to significantly reduced demand <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> domestic<br />
timber market. In eastern DRC large amounts of<br />
timber were exported from areas under Rwandan<br />
and Ugandan c<strong>on</strong>trol, and this c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ues at a reduced<br />
level. Much of this timber is dest<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong><br />
Ugandan and Kenyan markets, with some mak<strong>in</strong>g it<br />
<strong>on</strong>to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al market, reach<strong>in</strong>g Germany<br />
and Italy <strong>in</strong> particular.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 36<br />
Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict risks<br />
A recent report by ARD, commissi<strong>on</strong>ed by US AID,<br />
stated that peace may signal <strong>the</strong> start of an assault <strong>on</strong><br />
Africa’s last great timber reserves. 222<br />
The recommencement of Siforco’s operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
Equateur <strong>in</strong> 2002, a rebel-held area, with<br />
endorsement from <strong>the</strong> World Bank am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>rs, is<br />
an example of prematurely kick-start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
<strong>in</strong> an area that has no regulatory or fiscal c<strong>on</strong>trols.<br />
Industrial scale logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such an area under current<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s would almost certa<strong>in</strong>ly be <strong>the</strong> precursor to<br />
unsusta<strong>in</strong>able and unc<strong>on</strong>trolled logg<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Similar logg<strong>in</strong>g activity is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g momentum<br />
elsewhere, although <strong>the</strong> government still has a very<br />
limited capacity to regulate forestry practices. The<br />
scale of <strong>the</strong> regulatory challenge faced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC is<br />
tremendous, especially c<strong>on</strong>sider<strong>in</strong>g that o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
countries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, like Camero<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to<br />
have significant forest management and enforcement<br />
problems despite many years of peace and milli<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
dollars of <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al development assistance for<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir forest sectors.<br />
The Nor<strong>the</strong>ast<br />
There is a str<strong>on</strong>g percepti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>the</strong> diplomatic<br />
community <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa, that logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast<br />
is small-scale artisanal producti<strong>on</strong> and of little<br />
significance. 223 This is far from <strong>the</strong> truth; timber<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> has taken three ma<strong>in</strong> forms.<br />
1. There are two companies which have seem<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
sufficient <strong>in</strong>frastructure and capitalisati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
harvest, process and transport significant amounts<br />
of timber: ENRA, which has operated legitimately<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce 1969, and Dara Forest, who<br />
operate without permissi<strong>on</strong> from K<strong>in</strong>shasa but<br />
cooperate closely with <strong>the</strong> RCD-ML rebel group<br />
<strong>in</strong> Beni. 224<br />
2. The permis de coupes system, whereby <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>g permits, from <strong>the</strong> local<br />
authorities. 225 Permit holders sell timber directly to<br />
buyers, often <strong>the</strong> UPDF, to transport directly <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Uganda, and also to middlemen who sell it <strong>on</strong> to<br />
<strong>the</strong> UPDF and to local process<strong>in</strong>g facilities.<br />
3. Anarchic exploitati<strong>on</strong>, whereby a range of actors<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g rebel and UPDF soldiers, and civilians,<br />
cut timber wherever <strong>the</strong>y can, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
ENRA’s designated c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> and from nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
parks <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Virunga.<br />
In all of <strong>the</strong>se cases exploitati<strong>on</strong> has been c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
by <strong>the</strong> rebel groups, notably RCD-ML and RCD-N,<br />
who raise taxes <strong>on</strong> it. The General Manager of<br />
ENRA noted that <strong>the</strong> company has paid its taxes<br />
regularly, virtually without <strong>in</strong>terrupti<strong>on</strong>, start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Mobutu era and to every subsequent facti<strong>on</strong> that<br />
has c<strong>on</strong>trolled <strong>the</strong> area. This system survives<br />
primarily because <strong>the</strong> tax collectors rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same;<br />
it is just <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong> that changes. 224<br />
The first report of <strong>the</strong> UN Panel of Experts,<br />
issued <strong>in</strong> 2001, stated that <strong>on</strong> “<strong>the</strong> basis of eyewitness<br />
accounts, satellite images, key actors’<br />
acknowledgements” it was clear that timber<br />
extracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Orientale Prov<strong>in</strong>ce was directly related<br />
to <strong>the</strong> presence of <strong>the</strong> Ugandan military. 226 Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> period of Ugandan occupati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>the</strong> UPDF<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled all imports and exports, with senior officers<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ally profit<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>resources</strong>, primarily timber, coltan and ivory.<br />
The usual modus operandi was that <strong>the</strong> UPDF<br />
officer <strong>in</strong> charge of a particular area, for example<br />
Beni or Butembo, would c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>the</strong> resource<br />
traffick<strong>in</strong>g and transport from that area. Although <strong>the</strong><br />
occupy<strong>in</strong>g forces have withdrawn, it is likely that <strong>the</strong><br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess networks developed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> occupati<strong>on</strong><br />
rema<strong>in</strong> largely <strong>in</strong>tact. Beni and Butembo are supplied<br />
from Uganda with general goods that arrive by road<br />
<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ers. 224 The majority of <strong>the</strong>se c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ers<br />
leave full of timber (and o<strong>the</strong>r goods and c<strong>on</strong>traband<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g ivory), <strong>on</strong> which <strong>the</strong> UPDF levied a tax of<br />
around US$10 per m 3 . Air transport was used as a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duit for c<strong>on</strong>flict timber <strong>in</strong> Kisangani when <strong>the</strong><br />
Ugandans c<strong>on</strong>trolled that area. Many of <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>com<strong>in</strong>g supply planes, owned by senior Ugandan<br />
political and bus<strong>in</strong>ess figures, returned to Uganda<br />
loaded with afrormosia, iroko and possibly sapele<br />
timber that was dest<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong> prestige floor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
markets <strong>in</strong> Germany and Italy. This seem<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
improbable trade was made possible by both <strong>the</strong> high<br />
prices of high-grade timber, and <strong>the</strong> relatively low<br />
freight costs charged for <strong>the</strong> return flight. One<br />
commentator <strong>in</strong> Kampala noted that Entebbe<br />
military airport was colloquially known as <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
forest <strong>in</strong> Uganda because so much timber came out of<br />
it. 227 In nor<strong>the</strong>astern DRC itself <strong>the</strong>re are no statistics<br />
document<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> scale of <strong>the</strong> trade, but without<br />
excepti<strong>on</strong> people <strong>in</strong>terviewed by Global Witness <strong>in</strong><br />
late 2002 described forest destructi<strong>on</strong> through<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> as widespread and “devastat<strong>in</strong>g”. ENRA<br />
estimate that two-thirds of <strong>the</strong>ir c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> has been<br />
seriously degraded. In additi<strong>on</strong>, movements of IDPs<br />
have also destroyed large forest areas. Reports suggest<br />
that dur<strong>in</strong>g peak exploitati<strong>on</strong> timber prices halved <strong>in</strong><br />
Uganda, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g an extremely significant trade. 224<br />
Equateur Prov<strong>in</strong>ce and <strong>the</strong> Northwest<br />
The war closed down <strong>the</strong> legitimate timber <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> northwest of <strong>the</strong> DRC, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a complete<br />
halt <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial-level exploitati<strong>on</strong>. MLC rebels and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs seized timber stockpiles bel<strong>on</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
companies <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Siforco and Safbois, and<br />
smuggled <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> Central African Republic via<br />
river systems. 228 Logg<strong>in</strong>g was curtailed because rebels<br />
destroyed or looted logg<strong>in</strong>g equipment, fuel shortages<br />
prevented <strong>the</strong> operati<strong>on</strong> of mach<strong>in</strong>ery, and <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go River, <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> route for export<strong>in</strong>g timber,<br />
was closed to all traffic and <strong>in</strong> any event ran through<br />
government-held territory before reach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sea.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> lead-up to <strong>the</strong> establishment of a<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al government <strong>the</strong>re has been pressure to<br />
restart logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> order to revive ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> northwest. Siforco has begun to operate aga<strong>in</strong><br />
near Bumba and is pay<strong>in</strong>g taxes both to <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
government and <strong>the</strong> MLC. 229<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al parks: Virunga case <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Virunga Nati<strong>on</strong>al Park straddles <strong>the</strong> Uganda-DRC<br />
border, and has suffered due to settlement, forest<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong>, poach<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>the</strong> impact of refugees. 230<br />
The UPDF organized and facilitated <strong>the</strong> exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
of timber with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> park. In July 2001, for example,<br />
1250 m 3 of timber exports were recorded at Kas<strong>in</strong>di<br />
border po<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> fr<strong>in</strong>ges of <strong>the</strong> park. Despite <strong>the</strong><br />
fact that <strong>the</strong> official orig<strong>in</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> timber varied, park<br />
officials have stated that much of this timber was cut<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> park. 231 Moreover, accord<strong>in</strong>g to numerous<br />
sources, officially recorded exports at Customs po<strong>in</strong>ts
37 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
are under-declared by as much as 100%. The park<br />
guards are powerless to <strong>in</strong>tervene, as <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
disarmed <strong>in</strong> 1996 <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> outbreak of war.<br />
Two senior UPDF officers ordered a number of<br />
Ugandan nati<strong>on</strong>als from <strong>the</strong>ir own respective ethnic<br />
groups, <strong>the</strong> K<strong>on</strong>zo and <strong>the</strong> Hema, to settle <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese side of Virunga-Nord. The K<strong>on</strong>zo still live<br />
<strong>in</strong> Uganda but have commenced cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
park, commut<strong>in</strong>g across <strong>the</strong> border. The Hema<br />
represent a more serious problem. The estimated 500<br />
families and <strong>the</strong>ir 2,800 cows, pose a very severe risk<br />
to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrity of <strong>the</strong> park. There are between 1,000<br />
and 2,000 Ugandan rebels bel<strong>on</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> ADF<br />
(Allied Democratic Fr<strong>on</strong>t) and NALU (Nati<strong>on</strong>al Army<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Liberati<strong>on</strong> of Uganda) groups. Fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se<br />
problems, management of <strong>the</strong> park is nearly<br />
impossible, and much of <strong>the</strong> park has been severely<br />
impacted. 231<br />
Government-held territory<br />
Limited research suggests that <strong>the</strong> timber <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong><br />
government-held territory has c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued, although its<br />
circumstances have changed. In many areas, smallscale<br />
operators, both legal and illicit (some are<br />
presumably <strong>in</strong> possessi<strong>on</strong> of annual cutt<strong>in</strong>g permits),<br />
have been provided with funds and equipment by<br />
large c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> holders and o<strong>the</strong>r timber <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
operators to c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to provide raw materials for <strong>the</strong><br />
process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> and around K<strong>in</strong>shasa. 232<br />
Legitimate timber companies with c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
government-held territory have been affected by <strong>the</strong><br />
war, but not too seriously. 233 There are two notable<br />
effects. Firstly, some companies have had to alter<br />
sources of supply as rebels overtook exist<strong>in</strong>g sources.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, <strong>the</strong> domestic timber market has sharply<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>ed because potential customers do not have <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey to buy timber from legal sources. This has<br />
rendered much of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry dependent <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
export market. This probably means that domestic<br />
supply largely uses illegal, and <strong>the</strong>refore cheaper,<br />
sources of timber. 232<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict timber <strong>in</strong> government-held areas – <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwe c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong><br />
Global Witness and <strong>the</strong> UN’s Expert Panels have<br />
previously reported that s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998 companies l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean army have entered <strong>in</strong>to<br />
potentially enormous logg<strong>in</strong>g deals with <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
government and with n<strong>on</strong>-state actors. The largest of<br />
<strong>the</strong>se deals saw Socebo (<strong>the</strong> corporate vehicle created<br />
through a ZDF/C<strong>on</strong>golese jo<strong>in</strong>t venture) receive four<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Katanga regi<strong>on</strong> totall<strong>in</strong>g around<br />
<strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> ha, with a potential to <strong>in</strong>crease its<br />
coverage to a stagger<strong>in</strong>g 33 milli<strong>on</strong> ha. 234 Socebo is a<br />
subsidiary of Cosleg, itself a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture between<br />
Sengam<strong>in</strong>es and Operati<strong>on</strong> Sovereign Legitimacy<br />
(OSLEG), which is largely c<strong>on</strong>trolled by <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwean military and Comiex-C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
However, apart from <strong>the</strong> Katanga c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>s, it<br />
doesn’t appear that <strong>the</strong> Socebo deal has resulted <strong>in</strong><br />
many logg<strong>in</strong>g operati<strong>on</strong>s. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to SPIAF, Socebo<br />
is at a virtual standstill, as it seems many of <strong>the</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> areas were devoid of commercially viable<br />
timber stocks. Moreover, SPIAF have no record of an<br />
official Socebo c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that this deal<br />
was d<strong>on</strong>e outside official state structures. 219 In mid-late<br />
2002 it was reported that Socebo was try<strong>in</strong>g to sell off<br />
small stockpiles, just before <strong>the</strong> withdrawal of<br />
Zimbabwean troops. 235 This c<strong>on</strong>trasts with <strong>the</strong> fact<br />
that <strong>in</strong> 2002 Socebo claimed to be produc<strong>in</strong>g 11,000<br />
m 3 of timber per m<strong>on</strong>th from Katanga; Global<br />
Witness has been unable to verify <strong>the</strong>se figures.<br />
Table 16: DRC – timber exports (value and RWE volume, by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Portugal 16 19 18 26 37 30 22 25 10 10 11 11<br />
Italy 22 16 11 14 16 13 7 6 5 3 3 3<br />
UK 5 5 8 12 11 11 5 2 1 0 0<br />
Germany 12 10 7 10 12 7 5 4 2 2 1 2<br />
France 3 5 5 10 8 6 9 8 3 4 2 3<br />
Belgium 2 3 4 6 5 8 7 6 2 2 4 7<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 5 8 5 7 10 10 7 3 2 1 1 1<br />
Roundwood equivalent volume (milli<strong>on</strong> m 3 )<br />
Portugal 52 59 57 78 105 93 90 77 34 44 43 43<br />
Italy 53 36 27 31 32 28 17 11 10 6 5 6<br />
UK 12 11 19 26 22 31 13 4 2 0 0 0<br />
Germany 27 19 17 23 24 17 14 9 5 8 2 5<br />
France 8 13 14 25 20 18 27 24 10 16 7 10<br />
Belgium 5 6 9 15 10 19 19 15 7 5 12 18<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 14 21 23 17 28 24 21 11 4 5 2 2<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: HS commodity code – 44<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: roundwood equivalent volume is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by multiply<strong>in</strong>g wood volume by a standard c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> factor e.g. 1.8 (sawn wood)<br />
Note 4: <strong>the</strong> density of <strong>the</strong> timber exported from <strong>the</strong> DRC is assumed to be 1.5 m3 per t<strong>on</strong>ne<br />
Note 5: estimates based <strong>on</strong> weight or value have been made where volume data appears to be anomalous<br />
Note 6: statistics given to <strong>the</strong> nearest whole number
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 38<br />
Logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Katanga prov<strong>in</strong>ce has previously been<br />
carried out by <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean military <strong>in</strong><br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> with SAB C<strong>on</strong>go (a Socebo jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
venture). In August 2002, <strong>the</strong> Timber Trades Journal<br />
wrote that several c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ers of hardwood were be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
exported per m<strong>on</strong>th to Europe from <strong>the</strong> SAB C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Katanga. 236<br />
Trade statistics<br />
The recorded export volumes c<strong>on</strong>firm that <strong>the</strong> recent<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict suppressed timber exploitati<strong>on</strong> and exports,<br />
primarily because much of <strong>the</strong> forest was <strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tested<br />
and/or rebel-occupied territory, and <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
transport artery, <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go river, was closed to export<br />
traffic. Although some timber exports from eastern<br />
DRC are recorded at some Ugandan border po<strong>in</strong>ts,<br />
all available evidence suggests that significant exports<br />
from this regi<strong>on</strong> go unrecorded.<br />
100<br />
DR C<strong>on</strong>go – timber exports<br />
(value, by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Value<br />
($US mi, cif, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
Belgium<br />
France<br />
Germany<br />
UK<br />
Italy<br />
Portugal<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Year<br />
Note: based 1:1 <strong>on</strong> declared import statistics<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
250<br />
DR C<strong>on</strong>go – timber exports<br />
(roundwood equivalent volume, by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
RWE volume<br />
(milli<strong>on</strong> cubic metres)<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
Belgium<br />
France<br />
Germany<br />
UK<br />
Italy<br />
Portugal<br />
50<br />
0<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Year<br />
Note: based 1:1 <strong>on</strong> declared import statistics and c<strong>on</strong>verted to estimate roundwood equivalent volume<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics
39 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
9.7 “M<strong>in</strong>or” Resources<br />
Coal<br />
Very little <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> coal was found dur<strong>in</strong>g our<br />
desk-based research, despite coal frequently be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> lists of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong>.<br />
Geological surveys show that <strong>the</strong>re are coal<br />
deposits <strong>in</strong> Katanga. In 1995, <strong>the</strong> US Geological<br />
Service reported that <strong>the</strong>re was a coal m<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />
operati<strong>on</strong> at Luena, sou<strong>the</strong>ast of Kam<strong>in</strong>a. However,<br />
coal producti<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> Luena M<strong>in</strong>e was<br />
significantly reduced as a result of ethnic c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>in</strong><br />
Shaba and <strong>the</strong> reduced demand from Gécam<strong>in</strong>es’<br />
plants.<br />
It is likely that coal, like copper and cobalt<br />
extracted <strong>in</strong> Katanga, would be exported via truck<br />
and tra<strong>in</strong> south <strong>in</strong>to Zambia. However, we were<br />
unable to establish whe<strong>the</strong>r coal is still be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
extracted from Luena, or where any coal would be<br />
processed. Similarly, coal is not featured <strong>in</strong> recent<br />
trade statistics ga<strong>the</strong>red from <strong>the</strong> DRC<br />
Lead<br />
Although lead appears <strong>on</strong> several geological maps of<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC, and a number of documents list lead<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> many m<strong>in</strong>erals found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> east of <strong>the</strong><br />
country, we found no fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> available <strong>on</strong><br />
this resource.<br />
The maps suggest that lead may be located<br />
al<strong>on</strong>gside z<strong>in</strong>c <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Katanga, <strong>in</strong><br />
particular <strong>in</strong> Kipushi m<strong>in</strong>e near Lubumbashi.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> owners of <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e, American M<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
Fields, <strong>on</strong>ly refer to z<strong>in</strong>c and copper and AME<br />
Research 237 do not have any lead m<strong>in</strong>es listed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC.<br />
Ir<strong>on</strong> Ore<br />
No <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> extracti<strong>on</strong>, process<strong>in</strong>g or trade<br />
<strong>in</strong> ir<strong>on</strong> ore has been found dur<strong>in</strong>g this <str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Geological surveys show that <strong>the</strong>re are deposits of<br />
ir<strong>on</strong> ore <strong>in</strong> Equateur and <strong>in</strong> Katanga. However,<br />
Global Witness did not f<strong>in</strong>d any <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
suggest that <strong>the</strong> DRC produces or exports ir<strong>on</strong> ore<br />
from <strong>the</strong>se deposits. Similarly, trade statistics did not<br />
reveal any data show<strong>in</strong>g exports <strong>in</strong> ir<strong>on</strong> ore.<br />
Manganese<br />
Manganese (Mn) is essential to ir<strong>on</strong> and steel<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> because of its deoxidis<strong>in</strong>g and alloy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
properties, and steel-mak<strong>in</strong>g accounts for between<br />
85% and 90% of <strong>the</strong> total manganese demand.<br />
Most manganese today is obta<strong>in</strong>ed from ores<br />
found <strong>in</strong> Russia, Australia, Brazil, South Africa,<br />
Gab<strong>on</strong> and India, although it is produced, <strong>in</strong> small<br />
quantities, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
Manganese is found at two locati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Katanga<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ce, sou<strong>the</strong>astern DRC, but so far <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e site,<br />
near Kisenge, has been exploited. Manganese<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> this regi<strong>on</strong> is alleged to stem back to<br />
World War II, when it was transported al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
Kisenge-Man<strong>on</strong>o-Rw<strong>in</strong>kwavu corridor via<br />
Bujumbura and <strong>the</strong>n flown to Belgium for <strong>the</strong><br />
manufactur<strong>in</strong>g of ir<strong>on</strong> sheets for tanks. 238<br />
The Kisenge m<strong>in</strong>e was formerly owned by <strong>the</strong><br />
Belgian company, BCK Manganese, but was<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>alised <strong>in</strong> 1974. The manganese was<br />
transported, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of manganese c<strong>on</strong>centrates,<br />
via <strong>the</strong> railway c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> copper belt to <strong>the</strong><br />
Angolan port of Benguela. However, <strong>the</strong> outbreak of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Angolan civil war meant that <strong>the</strong> railway l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
became <strong>in</strong>operable <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late 1970s, severely<br />
disrupt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> of manganese <strong>in</strong> Kisenge.<br />
Sporadic sales occurred between 1975 and 1994 from<br />
huge stockpiles of <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral, which had been<br />
accrued before <strong>the</strong> Angolan civil war. In <strong>the</strong> early<br />
1990s, some manganese was shipped <strong>in</strong>ternally to<br />
supply a dry cell battery plant and <strong>in</strong> 1995, <strong>the</strong><br />
Kisenge Manganese Company (based <strong>in</strong><br />
Lubumbashi) signed a deal with <strong>the</strong> South African<br />
company, Benatar group, to ship some of this ore via<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tazara Railroad to <strong>the</strong> port at Dar es Salaam 239 .<br />
However, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> mid-1990s, <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e has been<br />
completely dormant 240 . In 2000, Cluff M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g (South<br />
Africa) signed a jo<strong>in</strong>t venture with <strong>the</strong> Kisenge<br />
Manganese Company to revive <strong>the</strong> Kisenge m<strong>in</strong>e at a<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> rate of 40,000 t/yr and this is expected to<br />
come <strong>in</strong>to effect with <strong>the</strong> recent <strong>in</strong>stallment of a<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>al government <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 40<br />
10 Transport<br />
SECTION 6.2 OUTLINES <strong>the</strong><br />
development of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
and trade <strong>in</strong> commodities such as gold<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g Mobutu’s rule. As was discussed,<br />
<strong>the</strong> development of <strong>in</strong>formal trade<br />
networks pre-dates <strong>the</strong> current c<strong>on</strong>flict. The follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>s provide an overview of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> official air,<br />
rail, river, and road transport routes with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
10.1 Roads<br />
L<strong>on</strong>g distance road transport is limited, and <strong>in</strong> some<br />
areas, dangerous. Decades of under-<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong><br />
road ma<strong>in</strong>tenance dur<strong>in</strong>g Mobutu’s rule left <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s ground transport <strong>in</strong>frastructure chr<strong>on</strong>ically<br />
underdeveloped and decrepit. By 1980, <strong>the</strong> extent of<br />
<strong>the</strong> all-seas<strong>on</strong> road network had shrunk to 20% of its<br />
1960 total. 241<br />
Rail and air transport have l<strong>on</strong>g surpassed roads<br />
as <strong>the</strong> most efficient and reliable means of transport.<br />
Air travel <strong>in</strong> particular has become vital <strong>in</strong> areas<br />
where roads are impassable and river or rail transport<br />
is not available.<br />
Moreover, particularly <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>astern and eastern<br />
DRC, road transport has been made lethal as armed<br />
groups have targeted roads as a means of extort<strong>in</strong>g<br />
“taxes” from pass<strong>in</strong>g traffic. C<strong>on</strong>trol over road<br />
networks is also a key comp<strong>on</strong>ent of military and<br />
security strategies of militia and rebel groups. Roads<br />
provide avenues of attack and retreat, and by exert<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>the</strong> flow of road traffic <strong>in</strong> and out of an area,<br />
an armed group can exert power over people liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
that area.<br />
10.2 Rivers and lakes<br />
The C<strong>on</strong>go River was re-opened under UN<br />
supervisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> August 2003 after be<strong>in</strong>g closed to<br />
civilian barges for five years. The re-open<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong><br />
river has restored a vital route for humanitarian aid<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>sumable goods for towns and communities<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> river – as well as provid<strong>in</strong>g ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
potential avenue for <strong>the</strong> export of <strong>resources</strong> such as<br />
gold, timber and diam<strong>on</strong>ds. The resumpti<strong>on</strong> of trade<br />
activity al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go river should lead to lower<br />
commodity prices. Fur<strong>the</strong>r research is needed to<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se <strong>resources</strong> are now be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
shipped down <strong>the</strong> river and its tributaries to K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
and elsewhere.<br />
The C<strong>on</strong>go and Ubangi rivers are <strong>the</strong> most<br />
important river trade routes. Trad<strong>in</strong>g centres al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC’s river system <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
● C<strong>on</strong>go River: K<strong>in</strong>shasa, Mbandaka, Makanza,<br />
Lisala (c<strong>on</strong>nected by road to <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn city of<br />
Gemena), Bumba (c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> Bumba –<br />
Isiro – Mungbere railway), Burumbu, Yangambi,<br />
Kisangani (a major trad<strong>in</strong>g centre), and Ubundu;<br />
● Ubangi River: D<strong>on</strong>go, Libenge and Z<strong>on</strong>go (across<br />
<strong>the</strong> river from Bagui, <strong>the</strong> capital city of <strong>the</strong><br />
Central African Republic); and<br />
● Kasayi River: Bandundu and Ilebo (jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g up<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Ilebo – Lubumbashi tra<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e).<br />
Shipp<strong>in</strong>g trade routes across Lake Tanganyika to<br />
Tanzania and Burundi, Lake Kivu to Rwanda, and<br />
Lake Albert <strong>in</strong>to Uganda are also important.<br />
Historically, cross-border trade from sou<strong>the</strong>ast C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
flowed across Lake Tanganyika to Tanzania us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al slave and ivory trad<strong>in</strong>g routes established<br />
by Swahili-Arab traders from Zanzibar. 242 On Lake<br />
Tanganyika, <strong>the</strong> major ports are Moba, Kalemie<br />
(jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g up with <strong>the</strong> Kabolo – Kalemie tra<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e),<br />
and Uvira (opposite Bujumbera, <strong>the</strong> capital city of<br />
Burundi). Fizi, a strategically important customs<br />
check-po<strong>in</strong>t currently c<strong>on</strong>trolled by RCD-Goma, is<br />
also close to Lake Tanganyika al<strong>on</strong>g a road<br />
c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g Uvira with Kalemie. Bukavu (South Kivu)<br />
and Goma (North Kivu) are situated <strong>on</strong> Lake Kivu,<br />
and are both close to <strong>the</strong> Rwandan border. Fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
north, Bunia is c<strong>on</strong>nected to Lake Albert via a road<br />
to Kasenye <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lake’s western shore. There is<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r shipp<strong>in</strong>g centre at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn end of <strong>the</strong><br />
lake at Mahagi-Port.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean army <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go is predom<strong>in</strong>antly<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked to Zimbabwe by air, Zambia has granted land<br />
access to <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean army to transport heavy<br />
equipment through its railway network and <strong>the</strong><br />
Kasumbalesa-Chirundu Highway, despite official<br />
denials. It is unclear what <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean army is<br />
transport<strong>in</strong>g when it uses this route.<br />
10.3 Air transport<br />
The appall<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s road network<br />
has meant that air transport has become a vital<br />
means of mov<strong>in</strong>g a range of commodities around <strong>the</strong><br />
country. While roads c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> DRC with<br />
Uganda, Rwanda and Zambia are still used for <strong>the</strong><br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> of people and goods, air transport has<br />
become <strong>the</strong> mode of choice for <strong>the</strong> export and<br />
smuggl<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> and arms. Diam<strong>on</strong>ds,<br />
timber, gold, coltan and agricultural products are<br />
flown from eastern DRC <strong>in</strong>to Rwanda (Kigali or<br />
Kanembe) and Uganda (Entebbe and Kampala), and<br />
<strong>the</strong>se same flight paths are used for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ward flow of<br />
troops, equipment, supplies and arms <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
The UN Panel has reported that <strong>the</strong>re are little or no<br />
customs <strong>in</strong>specti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>ducted at Entebbe military<br />
airport. 243<br />
This reliance <strong>on</strong> air transport signifies a shift away<br />
from pre-1998 reliance <strong>on</strong> roads and Lakes Kivu and<br />
Tanganyika for <strong>the</strong> smuggl<strong>in</strong>g of goods to and from<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC. 244 The UN Panel of Experts has also<br />
identified a shift <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> companies <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> crossborder<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong>. In particular, after 1998 new<br />
air transport companies c<strong>on</strong>trolled or owned by<br />
military and political leaders and <strong>the</strong>ir families and<br />
friends were established. 245 For <strong>in</strong>stance, President<br />
Museveni’s sister-<strong>in</strong>-law (wife of General Salim Saleh)<br />
ran Air Alexander, a company that operated flights<br />
between Entebbe and Kisangani. 246<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> publicati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> UN Expert Panel<br />
Reports, however, European airl<strong>in</strong>es have been wary<br />
of operat<strong>in</strong>g cargo planes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. In resp<strong>on</strong>se to<br />
reports of coltan be<strong>in</strong>g transported directly from <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC to Belgium, <strong>the</strong> airl<strong>in</strong>es Sabena and Swiss Air<br />
announced a ban <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir aircraft be<strong>in</strong>g used to
41 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
transport coltan <strong>in</strong> late 2001.<br />
Appendix 1 c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s a list of known airports and<br />
aerodromes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
It is clear that rebel groups c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g resourcerich<br />
areas have vested commercial <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong><br />
ensur<strong>in</strong>g air transport is possible. The Goma airport,<br />
which was damaged after <strong>the</strong> volcanic erupti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
January 2002, is a case <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t. In February 2003 a<br />
12 m<strong>on</strong>th project to rehabilitate <strong>the</strong> airport was<br />
launched, and is be<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>anced by <strong>the</strong> F<strong>on</strong>dati<strong>on</strong><br />
Katebe, headed by Raphael Soriano Katebe Katoto,<br />
a C<strong>on</strong>golese milli<strong>on</strong>aire bus<strong>in</strong>essman, and political<br />
oppositi<strong>on</strong> leader is a member of <strong>the</strong> Rwandanbacked<br />
RCD-Goma.<br />
10.4 Tra<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Previous secti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> history of resource<br />
extracti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC have details about when <strong>the</strong><br />
country’s ma<strong>in</strong> railways were c<strong>on</strong>structed. The DRC<br />
has <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g railways, although it should be<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ted out that years of under <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> rail<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure have meant that few of <strong>the</strong>se work:<br />
● K<strong>in</strong>shasa – Matadi (via Kasangulu, Madimba and<br />
S<strong>on</strong>golobo <strong>in</strong> Bas-C<strong>on</strong>go);<br />
● B<strong>on</strong>do – Bumba (via Likati and Aketi) cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce Orientale <strong>in</strong>to Equateur and jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go River at Bumba;<br />
● Mungbere – Aketi (via Isiro, Benge, Rubi and<br />
Buta) cross<strong>in</strong>g north-eastern Prov<strong>in</strong>ce Orientale<br />
down to jo<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> B<strong>on</strong>do – Bumba l<strong>in</strong>e;<br />
● Titusi – Rubi – Buta <strong>in</strong> Prov<strong>in</strong>ce Orientale;<br />
● Kisangani – Ubundu (via Bairo, Maliabo and<br />
Kabeta) <strong>in</strong> Prov<strong>in</strong>ce Orientale;<br />
● K<strong>in</strong>du – Kabalo (via Kibombo and K<strong>on</strong>golo)<br />
cross<strong>in</strong>g Maniema down <strong>in</strong>to nor<strong>the</strong>rn Katanga;<br />
● Kabalo – Kalemie <strong>in</strong> Katanga, c<strong>on</strong>nect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn Katanga with a port at Lake<br />
Tanganyika;<br />
● Kabalo – Kam<strong>in</strong>a <strong>in</strong> Katanga;<br />
● Ilebo – Kam<strong>in</strong>a – Lubumbashi (via Kananga,<br />
Tshimbulu and Tenke Fungurume) l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
Kasayi River at Ilebo <strong>in</strong> Kasai Occidental, major<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites <strong>in</strong> Kasai Orientale and Katanga; and<br />
● Dilolo – Lubumbashi – Kipushi/Sakania (via<br />
Kolwezi, Tenke Fungurume and Likasi) <strong>in</strong><br />
Katanga, aga<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g major m<strong>in</strong>es and l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> Angolan and Zambian rail networks.<br />
Railways <strong>in</strong> Katanga are particularly vital for <strong>the</strong><br />
export of m<strong>in</strong>erals such as copper and cobalt.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>erals are generally transported by rail through<br />
Zambia to South Africa, or via Lake Tanganyika to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam, or fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
nor<strong>the</strong>ast to <strong>the</strong> Kenyan port of Mombassa.<br />
Commodities are no l<strong>on</strong>ger transported via Angola,<br />
as <strong>the</strong> railway between Dilolo and Angola’s Benguela<br />
port was virtually destroyed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Angolan civil<br />
war. 247
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 42<br />
11 DRC Internati<strong>on</strong>al Trade Summary<br />
11.1 Note <strong>on</strong> statistics methodology<br />
The DRC does not dissem<strong>in</strong>ate statistics of its exports by<br />
commodity and by country. In <strong>the</strong> absence of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
statistics, Global Witness has compiled data published by<br />
import<strong>in</strong>g countries to estimate <strong>the</strong> quantity of DRC<br />
exports <strong>in</strong> each given resource. Rely<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> this data<br />
requires assum<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> quantity that <strong>the</strong> import<strong>in</strong>g<br />
country declares is <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> amount that would<br />
have been declared by <strong>the</strong> supplier country. Global<br />
Witness searched through <strong>the</strong> statistics of all countries<br />
whose statistics <strong>the</strong> World Trade Atlas and <strong>the</strong> United<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>s Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong> publishes, and abstracted <strong>the</strong><br />
value and quantity (weight or volume) of any imports<br />
from <strong>the</strong> DRC that those countries declare. In o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
words, trade data presented here are based directly <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> direct imports recorded by import<strong>in</strong>g countries. The<br />
sources used for this data are World Trade Atlas,<br />
Eurostat, United Nati<strong>on</strong>s Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, and Global<br />
Trade Atlas. The data is based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> trade of most<br />
major import<strong>in</strong>g countries may <strong>the</strong>refore underestimate<br />
<strong>the</strong> total.<br />
In this report, <strong>the</strong> word value means import value<br />
(c.i.f.). Export value (f.o.b.) is unlikely to be greater than<br />
import value (c.i.f.). The relati<strong>on</strong>ship between c.i.f. and<br />
f.o.b. value may vary between countries and<br />
commodities, and so <strong>the</strong> tables set out to provide, as a<br />
first iterati<strong>on</strong>, an <strong>in</strong>dicati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> relative export value<br />
of a number of commodities. For example, Table 17<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates that <strong>the</strong> export value of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
exports is far higher than that of its gold exports – <strong>the</strong><br />
difference <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir import values is so great that this is<br />
unlikely to be accounted for by <strong>the</strong> difference <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
respective c.i.f : f.o.b ratios.<br />
The statistics provided are, generally, no more than<br />
what a given country declares that it has directly<br />
imported. Customs documentati<strong>on</strong> tends to be <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> country from which <strong>the</strong> commodity imported was<br />
exported ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> place of<br />
manufacture/assembly/orig<strong>in</strong> of <strong>the</strong> commodity (or its<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent parts). It may be that customs documents<br />
treat a commodity that has been re-exported (i.e. <strong>the</strong><br />
commodity has been imported by a third country and<br />
<strong>the</strong>n exported from that country without hav<strong>in</strong>g been<br />
transformed or used <strong>the</strong>re <strong>in</strong> any way) as hav<strong>in</strong>g been<br />
exported from that third country. The rules govern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
country of orig<strong>in</strong>/shipment adopted by <strong>the</strong> customs<br />
services of import<strong>in</strong>g countries may differ.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> purposes of this report, it is assumed that <strong>the</strong><br />
supply<strong>in</strong>g country given <strong>in</strong> trade statistics is <strong>the</strong> country<br />
of orig<strong>in</strong> of <strong>the</strong> particular commodity (and probably, but<br />
not necessarily (unless <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>the</strong> same), also its raw<br />
materials) be<strong>in</strong>g imported. Thus, diam<strong>on</strong>ds m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
DRC that are shipped through C<strong>on</strong>go Brazzaville or<br />
CAR will be declared by import<strong>in</strong>g countries (say<br />
Belgium) as from C<strong>on</strong>go Brazzaville or CAR. Likewise,<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds m<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Angola but imported from DRC will<br />
be declared as orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from DRC. If <strong>on</strong>e knew <strong>the</strong><br />
quantity (and quality) of diam<strong>on</strong>ds which are imported<br />
(officially and unofficially) <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> DRC, <strong>the</strong> quantity<br />
(and quality) exported (officially and unofficially) from<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC and <strong>the</strong> quantity (and quality) c<strong>on</strong>sumed<br />
locally, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>on</strong>e could ref<strong>in</strong>e <strong>on</strong>e’s view about <strong>the</strong><br />
country of orig<strong>in</strong> of <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds imported from <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC by, say Belgium.<br />
11.2 DRC Exports<br />
Table 17 (over page) <strong>in</strong>dicates that diam<strong>on</strong>ds accounted<br />
for some three-quarters of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s exports (by value).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequently, proper c<strong>on</strong>trol of <strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d trade<br />
(with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC) should be a primary aim of those<br />
seek<strong>in</strong>g to maximise <strong>the</strong> DRC’s nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>come. The<br />
export of crude oil and cobalt each accounts for a<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r 10% of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s exports. However, it needs to<br />
be noted that <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> petroleum extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
sector <strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omies <strong>in</strong> Central Africa is<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imal despite <strong>the</strong> very substantial quantity (/value) of<br />
petroleum exported – <strong>the</strong> sector’s c<strong>on</strong>duct is directly<br />
related to poor governance <strong>in</strong> those countries.<br />
This table does not c<strong>on</strong>sider trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> quantity<br />
(weight/volume) of each commodity exported by <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC. The table does not take account of changes <strong>in</strong><br />
unit value over <strong>the</strong> period covered.<br />
In terms of diam<strong>on</strong>ds, <strong>the</strong> average ratio between c.i.f.<br />
and f.o.b. unit values of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s diam<strong>on</strong>ds between<br />
1996 and 2000 averaged 2.4. exports for <strong>the</strong> five years<br />
1996 to 2000. The ratio between c.i.f. and fob dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that period averaged 2.4. However, if <strong>the</strong> quality of<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds that Belgium imported from DRC differed<br />
much from <strong>the</strong> quality that <strong>the</strong> DRC exports, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
ratios calculated might be mislead<strong>in</strong>g. However, given<br />
that Angola is said to both produce ra<strong>the</strong>r higher quality<br />
(/ unit value) diam<strong>on</strong>ds than <strong>the</strong> DRC does and to<br />
export <strong>the</strong>se through DRC, <strong>the</strong>n this would tend to make<br />
<strong>the</strong> apparent c.i.f. : f.o.b. ratio greater than <strong>the</strong> actual<br />
<strong>on</strong>e. Thus <strong>the</strong> average of 2.1 may be <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> high side.<br />
If t <strong>the</strong> actual c.i.f. : f.o.b. ratio for <strong>the</strong> DRC’s<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d exports is assumed to be 2, <strong>the</strong>n even if <strong>the</strong><br />
c.i.f. : f.o.b. ratio for all <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r products were 1,<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds would still be much <strong>the</strong> biggest export when<br />
measured by export value.<br />
The actual c.i.f. : fob ratio may be irrelevant. Given<br />
<strong>the</strong> very high unit value of diam<strong>on</strong>ds, <strong>the</strong> c.i.f. : fob ratio<br />
for diam<strong>on</strong>ds is likely to be lower for diam<strong>on</strong>ds than for<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r commodities that <strong>the</strong> DRC exports. Even if <strong>the</strong><br />
cost of <strong>in</strong>surance rises <strong>in</strong> direct proporti<strong>on</strong> to unit value,<br />
it is unlikely that <strong>the</strong> cost of freight will do so too.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>r, diam<strong>on</strong>ds that are exported unofficially are<br />
unlikely to be <strong>in</strong>sured to <strong>the</strong> same extent as <strong>the</strong>ir official<br />
counterparts – but this may be irrelevant if <strong>the</strong><br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> of such unofficial diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> a country’s<br />
imports is low. Thus, it may be that <strong>the</strong> c.i.f. : f.o.b. ratio<br />
for diam<strong>on</strong>ds were lower than for most of <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
commodities which DRC exports. If so, diam<strong>on</strong>ds may<br />
account for an even higher proporti<strong>on</strong> of export value of<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC’s exports than <strong>the</strong> table <strong>in</strong>dicates.<br />
The spreadsheet also <strong>in</strong>dicates that – if <strong>the</strong> value of<br />
illicit diam<strong>on</strong>ds is taken <strong>in</strong>to account as well as<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> from MIBA and official purchases from<br />
artisanal m<strong>in</strong>es – <strong>the</strong> quantity of diam<strong>on</strong>ds exported<br />
from DRC greatly exceeds <strong>the</strong> quantity which import<strong>in</strong>g<br />
countries declare that <strong>the</strong>y import from DRC. Imports<br />
from third countries (notably C<strong>on</strong>go Brazzaville and, to<br />
a lesser extent, Central African Republic) account for a<br />
substantial proporti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> excess. Misreport<strong>in</strong>g (of<br />
exports from DRC) may account for much of <strong>the</strong><br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g difference. This aga<strong>in</strong> tends to c<strong>on</strong>firm that<br />
<strong>the</strong> DRC’s nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>come is much more dependent <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>d sector than any o<strong>the</strong>r sector.
43 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Table 17: DRC – exports 1991 – 2002 (value, by commodity)<br />
Commodity<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>ds 490 393 506 753 747 854 732 683 835 732 762 1,007<br />
Petroleum 183 130 133 117 143 156 165 70 103 180 114 192<br />
Cobalt 146 138 114 109 205 196 157 127 134 167 140 105<br />
Timber 55 53 47 73 86 75 56 48 25 24 25 27<br />
Copper 478 302 103 27 35 17 14 6 5 5 17 12<br />
Coffee 92 62 68 104 200 102 50 52 40 29 12 5<br />
Gold 1 3 15 12 6 1 9 7 2 7 8 5<br />
Coltan 1 4 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 5 1 2<br />
Plant extracts 14 12 12 13 21 15 9 9 6 24 5 6<br />
Rubber 4 3 3 4 4 8 6 3 2 0 0 0<br />
T<strong>in</strong> 3 3 2 4 5 0 0 2 1 2 2 1<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c 3 5 2 0 0 0 1 3 1 0 0 0<br />
Cadmium 8 9 0 3 11 0 2 5 5 0 0 0<br />
Cocoa beans 3 4 3 3 4 3 2 3 2 1 1 1<br />
Tobacco 1 4 3 5 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 132 161 74 33 52 22 27 7 9 7 16 10<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> direct imports recorded by import<strong>in</strong>g countries<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 3: data entered aga<strong>in</strong>st “O<strong>the</strong>rs” is predom<strong>in</strong>antly of unspecified commodities imported by Belgium<br />
Table 18 <strong>in</strong>dicates that Belgium accounts for some three quarters of <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s exports and that <strong>the</strong> USA and F<strong>in</strong>land – importers of most of <strong>the</strong><br />
DRC’s crude oil and cobalt exports respectively – much of <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>der.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s trade <strong>on</strong> such a small number of<br />
countries and products is of course advantageous to those who seek, through<br />
trade, to <strong>in</strong>fluence governance and maximise nati<strong>on</strong>al revenue. Producti<strong>on</strong><br />
of crude oil and, to a lesser extent, cobalt is capital <strong>in</strong>tensive. The sites from<br />
which <strong>the</strong>se <strong>resources</strong> are produced and stored prior to export are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>spicuous. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, diam<strong>on</strong>ds (<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC) are not <strong>on</strong>ly produced<br />
largely <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal sector with little capital <strong>in</strong>vestment (o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>in</strong><br />
protect<strong>in</strong>g supplies aga<strong>in</strong>st competitors), but also are readily susceptible to<br />
smuggl<strong>in</strong>g (hav<strong>in</strong>g a very high unit value per unit of weight/volume).<br />
Table 18: DRC – exports 1991 – 2002 (value, by import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g Country<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Belgium 827 679 467 652 694 659 556 617 796 758 776 1,003<br />
USA 334 272 275 195 200 248 289 171 217 211 153 147<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land 8 7 23 1 15 47 52 54 50 83 91 80<br />
France 53 31 19 33 50 29 16 12 7 19 6 36<br />
Japan 77 80 60 57 81 82 53 38 16 19 10 31<br />
Italy 100 75 60 93 156 78 52 46 38 28 22 12<br />
Germany 139 70 34 30 58 66 20 22 5 3 2 3<br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands 20 9 4 11 20 19 8 7 6 35 7 2<br />
UK 16 15 23 25 20 22 8 7 5 1 1 2<br />
South Africa 0 4 78 93 99 104 98 3 1 1 2 1<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 39 43 44 71 130 98 79 48 28 29 33 56<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> direct imports recorded by import<strong>in</strong>g countries<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 44<br />
Table 19 illustrates <strong>the</strong> flows of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s pr<strong>in</strong>cipal exports. Declared trade<br />
from <strong>the</strong> DRC to its neighbours is not substantial.<br />
Table 19: DRC – pr<strong>in</strong>cipal exports <strong>in</strong> 2002 (value, by commodity and import<strong>in</strong>g country)<br />
Commodity Cobalt Cobalt Cocoa Coffee Coltan Copper Crude Diam<strong>on</strong>ds Gold Plant Rubber* T<strong>in</strong>* Timber Tobacco* Z<strong>in</strong>c*<br />
(matte) (ore) beans* (ref<strong>in</strong>ed) Oil extracts<br />
HS code 8105 2605 1801 90111 261590 7403 2709 7102 7108 various 4001 2609 44 2401 7901<br />
Import<strong>in</strong>g country Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f., 2002) )<br />
Belgium 6 0.3 1 981 5 0.7<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a 2 8 2 1 0.5<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land 18 62<br />
France 0.9 0.1 32<br />
Italy 0.8 4 4<br />
Japan 2 2 27<br />
Malaysia 0.7<br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands 1 0.3<br />
Portugal<br />
South Africa 0.7 0.3<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 0.1 23 0.1<br />
Taiwan 3<br />
UK 1 1<br />
USA 4 110 25 3 0.7 3<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas<br />
Note 1: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
Note 2: <strong>the</strong> entry for commodities marked with an asterix relates to <strong>the</strong> country which most c<strong>on</strong>sistently imports <strong>the</strong> given item (<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> greatest quantity)<br />
Note 3: data given to nearest whole number of over <strong>on</strong>e or to <strong>on</strong>e decimal place<br />
Table 20 shows trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> compositi<strong>on</strong> and value of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s exports<br />
over <strong>the</strong> last dozen years. The sharp reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> copper exports <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early<br />
1990s is particularly prom<strong>in</strong>ent. Overall, <strong>the</strong> value of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s annual<br />
exports appears to have been fairly steady.<br />
Table 20: DRC – exports (value, by commodity)<br />
Commodity<br />
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Value (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>, c.i.f, nom<strong>in</strong>al)<br />
Diam<strong>on</strong>ds 490 393 506 753 747 854 732 683 835 732 762 1,007<br />
Petroleum 183 130 133 117 143 156 165 70 103 180 114 192<br />
Cobalt 146 138 114 109 205 196 157 127 134 167 140 105<br />
Timber 55 53 47 73 86 75 56 48 25 24 25 27<br />
Copper 478 302 103 27 35 17 14 6 5 5 17 12<br />
Coffee 92 62 68 104 200 102 50 52 40 29 12 5<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 170 208 115 77 105 52 58 40 27 48 34 26<br />
Source: World Trade Atlas, Eurostat, UN Statistical Divisi<strong>on</strong>, nati<strong>on</strong>al yearbooks of import statistics<br />
Note 1: based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> direct imports recorded by import<strong>in</strong>g countries<br />
Note 2: import<strong>in</strong>g country declarati<strong>on</strong>s assumed to match 1:1 corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g exports by <strong>the</strong> given supply<strong>in</strong>g country
45 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
12 C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
This report illustrates that <strong>the</strong> recent<br />
plunder of <strong>the</strong> DRC’s <strong>natural</strong><br />
<strong>resources</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict that has<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> deaths of milli<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese s<strong>in</strong>ce 1998 is not a new<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong>. Global Witness has placed <strong>the</strong> issue of<br />
resource governance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC <strong>in</strong> its historical<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text to illustrate that past patterns are <strong>in</strong> operati<strong>on</strong><br />
today. Indeed, it is <strong>on</strong>ly by look<strong>in</strong>g back as far as K<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Leopold’s rule that <strong>the</strong> roots of militarised c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
over <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> can be found. Patterns<br />
established <strong>in</strong> Leopold’s era, and c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued under<br />
Belgian col<strong>on</strong>ialism and Mobutu, have formed <strong>the</strong><br />
basis of activities such as corrupti<strong>on</strong>, plunder and<br />
smuggl<strong>in</strong>g so rife <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC today.<br />
This report marks <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of an extensive<br />
project that will exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>natural</strong> resource governance<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go. This is <strong>the</strong><br />
first of a series of reports Global Witness will release<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al period to highlight specific<br />
challenges and opportunities for change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC.<br />
This report is also a wake-up call to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al diplomatic, d<strong>on</strong>or and bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
community: <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> have never been<br />
extracted for <strong>the</strong> benefit of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>golese people and<br />
unless patterns of governance are changed now, <strong>the</strong>n<br />
<strong>resources</strong> will c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue to be a curse ra<strong>the</strong>r than a<br />
cure for <strong>the</strong> DRC's ills. Issues of <strong>natural</strong> resource<br />
governance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC cannot and must not be<br />
ignored if durable peace and development is to be<br />
achieved.<br />
Global Witness identifies a critical w<strong>in</strong>dow of<br />
opportunity to break patterns of poverty, corrupti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
violence and militarised c<strong>on</strong>trol over resource<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. This is also a unique<br />
opportunity for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community to work<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r to, for <strong>on</strong>ce, get th<strong>in</strong>gs right for <strong>the</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>golese. Natural <strong>resources</strong> are am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>the</strong> prime<br />
motivati<strong>on</strong>s for <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>flict; governance over <strong>the</strong>se<br />
<strong>resources</strong> will thus be key to <strong>the</strong> success of any<br />
measures to br<strong>in</strong>g about peace.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 46<br />
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14 Interviews<br />
GW <strong>in</strong>terview with Onno Ruhl,World Bank Resident Representative (25 November 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa, DRC.<br />
GW <strong>in</strong>terview with senior forestry official (November 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa, DRC.<br />
GW <strong>in</strong>terviews with park officials (November 2002). DRC.<br />
GW <strong>in</strong>terviews with timber companies. (December 2002) K<strong>in</strong>shasa, DRC.<br />
GW <strong>in</strong>terview with SPIAF (Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Amenagament Forestiers) (December 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa, DRC.<br />
Global Witness <strong>in</strong>terview with journalist (December 2002). Kampala, Uganda.<br />
GW <strong>in</strong>terview with Mr Vic K<strong>in</strong>g, Manag<strong>in</strong>g Director of Gold Fields, 27 August 2003.<br />
15 List of organisati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>tacted<br />
African Institute, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Brussels.<br />
CENADEP<br />
Human Rights Watch<br />
IPIS<br />
RAND<br />
University of Ghent<br />
United States Geological Service (George Coakley)<br />
World Bank<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> this report are based <strong>on</strong> results from Global Witness’ use of i2 Limited’s award-w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g software, which is used as standard by<br />
enforcement and <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies worldwide.The software allows organisati<strong>on</strong>s to undertake complex <strong>in</strong>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g huge and varied datasets,<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g visualisati<strong>on</strong> and analysis tools which are used by 1500 organisati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> 90 countries. i2 Limited has very generously supplied this software to Global<br />
Witness, al<strong>on</strong>g with <strong>in</strong>tensive support and c<strong>on</strong>sultancy.<br />
Part of this work was made possible through support provided by <strong>the</strong> Office of Transiti<strong>on</strong> Initiatives, U.S.Agency for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development, under <strong>the</strong><br />
terms of grant no. DOT-G-00-03-00001-00.The op<strong>in</strong>i<strong>on</strong>s expressed here<strong>in</strong> are those of <strong>the</strong> authors and do not necessarily reflect <strong>the</strong> views of <strong>the</strong> U.S.<br />
Agency for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development.
49 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Appendix 1:Airports and Aerodromes<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Airport/aerodrome<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Airport/aerodrome<br />
K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
Bandundu<br />
Bas C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Equateur<br />
Kasai Occidental<br />
*K<strong>in</strong>shasa<br />
Kimpoko<br />
Bagata<br />
Bandunda<br />
Fatundu<br />
†In<strong>on</strong>go<br />
*Kahemba<br />
Kajiji<br />
†Kenge<br />
*Kikwit<br />
†Kiri<br />
Masi-Manimba<br />
†Mushie<br />
Ngi<br />
*Tembo<br />
*Boma<br />
K<strong>in</strong>tata<br />
Luozi<br />
† Matadi<br />
† Muanda<br />
Tshela<br />
†Basankusu<br />
Bikoro<br />
B<strong>in</strong>dja<br />
B<strong>in</strong>ga<br />
†Boende<br />
Bokungu<br />
†Bumba<br />
Bus<strong>in</strong>ga<br />
D<strong>on</strong>do<br />
*Gbadolite<br />
*Gemena<br />
†Ikela<br />
In<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Kiri<br />
Lisala<br />
Lombo<br />
*Mbandaka<br />
Nioki<br />
Tandala<br />
Bas<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Dekese<br />
†Ilebo<br />
Kananga<br />
Luebo<br />
Luiza<br />
*Kananga<br />
Mboi<br />
Mweka<br />
Musese<br />
*Tshikapa<br />
Kasai Oriental<br />
Katanga<br />
Maniema<br />
Orientale<br />
Kivu (North and South)<br />
Ditu<br />
Gandajika<br />
†Kab<strong>in</strong>da<br />
Kole<br />
†Lodja<br />
Lomela<br />
Luputa<br />
†Lusambo<br />
*Mbuji-Mayi<br />
Dilolo<br />
Kabola<br />
†Kalemie<br />
†Kam<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Kaniama<br />
Kapanga<br />
Kasaji<br />
Kasenga<br />
*Kolwezi<br />
Likasi<br />
†Lubudi<br />
*Lubumbashi<br />
†Man<strong>on</strong>o<br />
Mitwaba<br />
Mutshasha<br />
Pweto<br />
Sandoa<br />
Kalima<br />
†Kas<strong>on</strong>go<br />
*K<strong>in</strong>du<br />
†Punia<br />
Aba<br />
*Bunia<br />
*Buta<br />
Doruma<br />
Dungu<br />
Faradje<br />
*Isiro<br />
*Kisangani<br />
Mahagi<br />
Shari<br />
Watsa<br />
Yangambi<br />
Beni<br />
*Bukavu<br />
*Goma<br />
Lubero<br />
Kamituga<br />
Katanda<br />
†Rutshuru<br />
†Shabunda<br />
* Denotes larger “1st class” airport<br />
† Denotes “2nd class” airport/aerodrome
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 50<br />
References<br />
1 The World Bank. ‘Glossary’. http://www.worldbank.org/html/schools/glossary.htm (uploaded: 30 October 2003).<br />
2 See Kewisecki, B. (1978) “Histoire ec<strong>on</strong>omique d’une ville col<strong>on</strong>iale Kisangani: 1877 – 1960.” Les cahiers du CEDAF, Bruxelles, Cahier 5/1978,<br />
Série 2: Histoire, p. 3 – 6.<br />
3 Hochschild, A. (1998). K<strong>in</strong>g Leopold’s Ghost. Pan Books.<br />
4 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. (2002) The C<strong>on</strong>go: From Leopold to Kabila. A people’s history. Zed Books, p. 13, 20-23.<br />
5 Ibid., p. 22.<br />
6 Ewans, M. (2002) European Atrocity, African Catastrophe: Leopold II, <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go Free State and its Aftermath. RoutledgeCurz<strong>on</strong>, p. 159.<br />
7 Hochschild, A. op. cit.<br />
8 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. op. cit., p. 31.<br />
9 Ewans, G. op. cit., p. 237.<br />
10 MacGaffey, J. (1988) Entrepeneurs and Parasites: The struggle for <strong>in</strong>digenous capitalism <strong>in</strong> Zaire. Cambridge University Press, p. 117.<br />
11 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. op. cit., p. 42.<br />
12 Ibid. p. 43.<br />
13 Ibid. p. 33.<br />
14 Hochschild, A. op. cit. p. 170 – 172.<br />
15 Vlassenroot, K and H. Romkema. (2002). “The Emergence of a New Order Resources and War <strong>in</strong> Eastern C<strong>on</strong>go.” Journal of<br />
Humanitarian Assistance, 28 October.[ http://www.jha.ac/articles/a111.htm (uploaded 18 August 2003)].<br />
16 Shamel<strong>on</strong>ga, O. (1992) Le Programme Routier et le Developpement du Zaire. Analse des cas: Bas-Zaire, Bandundu, Shaba, Kivu. Universite Libre de<br />
Bruxelles Faculte des Sciences Sociales Politiques et Ec<strong>on</strong>omiques, p.7, 11 – 13.<br />
17 Ewans, M. op. cit. p. 114.<br />
18 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. op. cit. p. 30.<br />
19 Kewisecki, B. op. cit. p. 9 – 10.<br />
20 Shamel<strong>on</strong>ga, O. op. cit. p. 13 – 14, 16.<br />
21 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. op cit. p. 53.<br />
22 Shamel<strong>on</strong>ga, O. op. cit. p. 23.<br />
23 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. op. cit. p. 141, 147 – 152, 157.<br />
24 Reno,W.(1998) Warlord Politics and African States. Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 147.<br />
25 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. op. cit. p. 147.<br />
26 Ibid. p. 148.<br />
27 Reno, W. op. cit. p. 152.<br />
28 Reno, W. op. cit. p. 148; Adriamirado, S. (1996) “Les nabobs.” Juene Afrique, 7 February, p. 25-17.<br />
29 Emizet, Kisangani N. F. (1998) “C<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g Leaders at <strong>the</strong> Apex of <strong>the</strong> State: The Growth of <strong>the</strong> Unofficial Ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>in</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go.” African<br />
Studies Review, 41(1), April, p. 107.<br />
30 Ibid.<br />
31 Ibid; and Global Witness <strong>in</strong>terview with Jean Omasombo, African Institute, Brussels, September 2003.<br />
32 Emizet, K. (1997) “Zaire After Mobutu: A Potential Case of Humanitarian Emergency. “ World Institute for Development Ec<strong>on</strong>omics Research,<br />
Hels<strong>in</strong>ki, p.21. [http://www.wider.unu.edu/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/ (uploaded 20 August 2003)].<br />
33 For example, see MacGaffey, J. ed. (1991), The Real Ec<strong>on</strong>omy of Zaire: <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of smuggl<strong>in</strong>g and o<strong>the</strong>r unofficial activities to nati<strong>on</strong>al wealth.<br />
James Currey/University of Pennsylvania Press; and Emizet, K. (1997) op. cit.<br />
34 Vlassenroot, K and H. Romkema. Op. cit.<br />
35 MacGaffey, J. Op. cit. p. 53 – 88.<br />
36 Vlassenroot, K and H. Romkema. Op. cit.<br />
37 MacGaffey, J. Op. cit. p. 43 – 69, 72 – 83.<br />
38 Emizet, K. (1998). Op. cit. p. 107.<br />
39 Ibid.<br />
40 Reno, W. Op. cit. p.159.<br />
41 Ec<strong>on</strong>omist Intelligence Unit. (1995) Zaire. 4th quarter, p.24.<br />
42 Vlassenroot, K. and H. Romkema, op. cit.<br />
43 UN Security Council. (2001) Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of Wealth of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. 13 November, S/2001/1072, p.5.<br />
44 UN Security Council. (2003) Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of Wealth of <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go. 23 October, S/2003/1027.<br />
45 UN Security Council. (2001) Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of Wealth of <strong>the</strong> Democratic<br />
Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. 12 April , S/2001/357, p.17 – 18.<br />
46 UN Security Council. (2002). Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of Wealth of <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go. 16 October, S/2002/1146. See Annex II: Bus<strong>in</strong>ess enterprises c<strong>on</strong>sidered by <strong>the</strong> Panel to be <strong>in</strong> violati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> OECD Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for<br />
Mult<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>al Enterprises.<br />
47 UN Security Council (2003). S/2003/1027., op. cit. para. 44.<br />
48 The New Visi<strong>on</strong> (2001). ‘President Museveni urges DR C<strong>on</strong>go rebels to unite,’ 18 August.<br />
49 K<strong>in</strong>shasa La Reference Plus (2001).‘Tibasima publishes <strong>the</strong> new coaliti<strong>on</strong> executive team,, 21 November.<br />
50 Human Rights Watch (2003). Ituri: Covered <strong>in</strong> Blood; Ethnically Targeted Violence <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>astern DR C<strong>on</strong>go. 15(11), July 2003.<br />
51 Human Rights Watch (2001). Uganda <strong>in</strong> Eastern DRC: Fuell<strong>in</strong>g Political and Ethnic Strife. 13(2), March.<br />
52 African Analysis (2003). “Subterranean Rumbles Threaten Peace,” 10 January.<br />
53 Human Rights Watch (2003). Who is Who – Armed Political Groups <strong>in</strong> Ituri. [www.hrw.org/campaigns/c<strong>on</strong>go/ituri/armedgroups.htm<br />
(downloaded 29 October 2003)].<br />
54 Internati<strong>on</strong>al Crisis Group (2003). “C<strong>on</strong>go Crisis: Military Interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Ituri,” ICG Africa Report 64, 13 June.<br />
55 Human Rights Watch (2003). Ituri: Bloodiest Corner of C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
56 US Department of State. (2002). Background note: Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go. [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2823.htm (downloaded 21<br />
August 2003)].<br />
57 “Peace talks near collapse <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go.” The Guardian. 19 April 2002.<br />
58 “Timel<strong>in</strong>e: Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.” BBC News On-L<strong>in</strong>e. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072684.stm<br />
(uploaded 3 September 2003)].<br />
59 “Rebel dissidents pull out of DRC<strong>on</strong>go peace talks.” Agence France Presse. 29 November 2002.<br />
60 “Security Council C<strong>on</strong>demns Renewed Fight<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Ituri Africa News.” Africa News, 26 December 2002.<br />
61 IRIN. (2003). “New army <strong>in</strong>augurated, but without a name.” 5 September.<br />
62 World Bank (2003) Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go – Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Recovery Credit. Memo from James Wolfensohn, 18 June.<br />
63 World Bank Operati<strong>on</strong>s Evaluati<strong>on</strong> Department (21 January 2003) Evaluati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> World Bank Group’s Activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Extractive Industries.<br />
Factor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Governance. para. 5.1.<br />
64 Ibid. para. 4.11.
51 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
65 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p.41.<br />
66 Vlassenroot, K. and H. Romkema. Op. cit.<br />
67 Ibid.<br />
68 Baker , M. et al. (2003) “DR C<strong>on</strong>go Case Study.” C<strong>on</strong>flict Timber: Dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> Problem <strong>in</strong> Asia and Africa, Volume III, F<strong>in</strong>al Report to <strong>the</strong><br />
United States Agency for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development, p. 13 – 14.<br />
69 UN Security Council. (2002) Interim report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of Wealth of <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go, 22 May, S/2002/565, p.7 –8.<br />
70 Coakley, G. (1997) “The M<strong>in</strong>eral Industry of C<strong>on</strong>go (K<strong>in</strong>shasa).” United States Geological Service, M<strong>in</strong>eral Informati<strong>on</strong> 1997, p.J1.<br />
[http://www.m<strong>in</strong>erals.usgs.gov/m<strong>in</strong>erals/pubs/country/africa.html (uploaded 20 August 2003)].<br />
71 IPIS (2002) Support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> War Ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. p. 9.<br />
72 Amnesty Internati<strong>on</strong>al. (2003) Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go:“Our bro<strong>the</strong>rs who help kill us.” p. 29.<br />
[http://web.amnesty.org/aidoc/aidoc_pdf.nsf/Index/AFR620102003ENGLISH/US$File/AFR6201003.pdf (uploaded 22 August 2003)].<br />
73 Moyroud, C and J. Katunga, “Coltan Explorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Eastern Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go” <strong>in</strong> L<strong>in</strong>d, J and K, Sturman (eds.) (2002)<br />
Scarcity and Surfeit – The ecology of Africa’s c<strong>on</strong>flicts, African Centre for Technology Studies and Institute for Security Studies (ISS), p.176.<br />
[http://216.239.39.104/searchq=cache:ijykki7F7cJ:www.iss.co.za/PUBS/BOOKS/Scarcity%2BSurfeit/Chapter4.pdf+coltan+explorati<strong>on</strong>+<strong>in</strong>+eastern+drc&hl=en&start=1&ie=UT<br />
F-8 (uploaded 9th September 2003)].<br />
74 Willum, B. (2001). Foreign Aid to Rwanda: Purely Beneficial or C<strong>on</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g to War Political Science dissertati<strong>on</strong>, University of Copenhagen, p. 40<br />
– 41. [http://www.willum.com/dissertati<strong>on</strong>/3rpa.PDF (uploaded 10 September 2003)].<br />
75 Global IDP Project <strong>on</strong> Internally Displaced Pers<strong>on</strong>s.. (2003). Plunder of <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> by warr<strong>in</strong>g parties c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ues to be major factor caus<strong>in</strong>g<br />
displacement (1998-2003). [http://www.db.idpproject.org/Sites/idpSurvey.nsf/wViewCountries/D25D3FEA689FE329C1256B83005385EC<br />
(uploaded 9th September 2003)].<br />
76 Delawala, I. “What is coltan” ABC News. [http://abcnews.go.com/secti<strong>on</strong>s/nightl<strong>in</strong>e/DailyNews/coltan_expla<strong>in</strong>er.html&e=7629<br />
(uploaded 8 September 2003)].<br />
77 Pole Institute. (2002) The Coltan Phenomen<strong>on</strong>: How a rare m<strong>in</strong>eral has changed <strong>the</strong> life of <strong>the</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> of war-torn North Kivu prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> east of <strong>the</strong><br />
Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go, p.8. [http://www.pole-<strong>in</strong>stitute.org/ (uploaded 8 September 2003)].<br />
78 UN Security Council, Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/1072. Op. cit.. p. 7<br />
79 M<strong>on</strong>tague, D. (2002) “Stolen Goods: Coltan and C<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.” SAIS Review Vol. XXII (1), p. 107. [<br />
http://www.worldpolicy.org/projects/arms/news/22.1m<strong>on</strong>tague.pdf (uploaded 9 September 2003)].<br />
80 Moyroud, C and J. Katunga. op. cit. p. 174.<br />
81 Pole Institute. Op. cit. p. 5 – 6.<br />
82 Pole Institute, Op. cit. p. 6.<br />
83 Pole Institute, Op. cit. p. 6.<br />
84 Pole Institute, Op. cit. p. 6.<br />
85 Pole Institute, Op. cit. p. 6.<br />
86 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit.. p. 8<br />
87 Ibid. p.16.<br />
88 Moyroud, C and J. Katunga. op. cit. p.175 – 176.<br />
89 Willum, B. op. cit. p. 28.<br />
90 M<strong>on</strong>tague, D. op. cit. p. 112.<br />
91 Internati<strong>on</strong>al Peace Informati<strong>on</strong> Service (IPIS). (2002) Support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> War Ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC: European Companies and <strong>the</strong> Coltan Trade, p.11.<br />
92 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 30.<br />
93 Kennes, E. (2002). “Footnotes to <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Story.” Review of African Political Ec<strong>on</strong>omy, December, p. 605.<br />
94 IPIS. Op. cit. p. 11 – 12.<br />
95 Pole Institute. op .cit.<br />
96 T<strong>in</strong> Technology On-L<strong>in</strong>e. T<strong>in</strong> and its uses. [ http://www.itri.co.uk/t<strong>in</strong>uses.htm (uploaded 10 September 2003)].<br />
97 “Current Status of M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.” Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g and M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Journal, 1 May 2000, p.8<br />
98 Amnesty Internati<strong>on</strong>al (2003). Op. cit. p. 29.<br />
99 “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.” Up-Info (from United States Library of C<strong>on</strong>gress), December 1993. [http://www.1up<strong>in</strong>fo.com/countryguide-<str<strong>on</strong>g>study</str<strong>on</strong>g>/zaire/zaire135.html<br />
(uploaded 15 September 2003)].<br />
100 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 46.<br />
101 Pierre Baracyetse, The Geopolitical Stakes of <strong>the</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Companies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
[http://members.lycos.co.uk/Arrtus/m<strong>in</strong>erals.htm (uploaded 15 September 2003)].<br />
102 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 31.<br />
103 Ibid. p.11.<br />
104 “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go – M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g: Nickel and Cobalt M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.” MBendi, 12 June 2002.<br />
[http://www.mbendi.co.za/<strong>in</strong>dy/m<strong>in</strong>g/nkcb/af/zr/p0005.htm (uploaded 2 September 2003].<br />
105 Shedd, K. (2001) “Cobalt – 2001.” United States Geological Service, p. 20.1.<br />
106 Ewans, M. op. cit. p. 236 – 237.<br />
107 Groupe d’<strong>in</strong>tellectuels de Kolwezi (1996). La Gécam<strong>in</strong>es: Quel Avenir Reflexi<strong>on</strong>s sur la privatisati<strong>on</strong>. Publisher unknown, p. 22.<br />
108 “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go – M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g: Nickel and Cobalt M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,” MBendi, 12 June 2002.<br />
[[http://www.mbendi.co.za/<strong>in</strong>dy/m<strong>in</strong>g/nkcb/af/zr/p0005.htm (uploaded 8 September 2003)].<br />
109 Hawk<strong>in</strong>s, M. (2003) “Cobalt Producti<strong>on</strong> Set to Grow as Price Falls.” Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g and M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Journal, 1 March.<br />
110 Ibid.<br />
111 “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go – M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g: Nickel and Cobalt M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.” MBendi, 12 June 2002.<br />
112 “Kumba <strong>in</strong>sists <strong>on</strong> rights to DRC copper project.” M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Weekly, 11 July 2003.<br />
[http://www.m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gweekly.co.za/comp<strong>on</strong>ents/pr<strong>in</strong>t.aspid=37962]<br />
113 Ibid.<br />
114 “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go (DRC).” Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g and M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Journal, 1 April 2002. [http://emj.com/magaz<strong>in</strong>earticle.aspmagaz<strong>in</strong>earticleid=146976<br />
(downloaded 8 September 2003)]; and American M<strong>in</strong>eral Fields [http://www.amm<strong>in</strong>.com/<strong>in</strong>dex3.htm]<br />
(downloaded 10 May 2004).<br />
115 “Kolwezi ownership resolved.” The M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Journal, 11 July 2003.<br />
116 American M<strong>in</strong>eral Fields 2004 [http://www.am-m<strong>in</strong>.com/<strong>in</strong>dex3.htm] (downloaded 1 May 2004).<br />
117 Kim B. Shedd. Op. cit. p. 20.6.<br />
118 Central African M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g & Explorati<strong>on</strong> Company Plc. (2003) CAMEC Enters Cobalt and Copper JV <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. Press release, 30 January.<br />
[http://www.camec-plc.com/exaco30-1-03.html (uploaded 20 August 2003)].<br />
119 Groupe d’<strong>in</strong>tellectuels de Kolwezi. Op. cit. p. 24.<br />
120 MacGaffey, J (ed). Op. cit.<br />
121 Coakley, G. (2001) “The M<strong>in</strong>eral Industry of C<strong>on</strong>go (K<strong>in</strong>shasa).” U.S. Geological Services M<strong>in</strong>erals Yearbook – 2001.<br />
122 Shedd, K (2001) op. cit. p. 20.16, Table 7.<br />
123 “Arthur Ditto,” Africa M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Intelligence, 25 June 2003.
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 52<br />
124 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 34.<br />
125 UN Security Council, Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072, op. cit. p.18.<br />
126 Ibid. p. 8.<br />
127 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 33 – 34.<br />
128 B. Rautenbach, letter <strong>in</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se to Security Council Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1457 (2003). Reacti<strong>on</strong> No. 30 – Reply to F<strong>in</strong>al UN Panel Report,<br />
reproduced <strong>in</strong> UN Panel, Addendum 1, 20 July 2003.<br />
129 UN Security Council. (2002) F<strong>in</strong>al report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of<br />
Wealth of <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. 16 October , S/2002/1146, p.9.<br />
130 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 35. Note that <strong>in</strong> his resp<strong>on</strong>se to <strong>the</strong> UN Panel, Mr. Rautenbach<br />
has denied any <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> or associati<strong>on</strong> with <strong>the</strong> KMC Group (menti<strong>on</strong>ed below). See B. Rautenbach, letter <strong>in</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se to Security Council<br />
Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1457 (2003). Reacti<strong>on</strong> No. 30 – Reply to F<strong>in</strong>al UN Panel Report. op. cit.<br />
131 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 35.<br />
132 B. Rautenbach, letter <strong>in</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se to Security Council Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1457 (2003). Reacti<strong>on</strong> No. 30 – Reply to F<strong>in</strong>al UN Panel Report. op. cit.<br />
133 UN Security Council, Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072, op. cit. p.9; and UN Security Council, F<strong>in</strong>al report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of<br />
Experts, S/2002/1146. op. cit. p. 10.<br />
134 UN Security Council, F<strong>in</strong>al report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2002/1146. op. cit. p. 11.<br />
135 Letter <strong>in</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se to Security Council Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1457 (2003). Reacti<strong>on</strong> No. 25 – Reply to F<strong>in</strong>al UN Panel Report, reproduced <strong>in</strong> UN<br />
Panel, Addendum 1, 20 July 2003.<br />
136 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 8.<br />
137 Shedd, K. (2001) op. cit. p. 20.9.<br />
138 GW <strong>in</strong>terview with Mr Vic K<strong>in</strong>g, Manag<strong>in</strong>g Director of Gold Fields, 27 August 2003.<br />
139 “Dikulushi Copper Project, DRC.” Mbendi, 24 January 2002 [http://www.mbendi.co.za/proj/p0mz.htm (downloaded 21 August 2003)].<br />
140 Anvil M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. (2003) Report for Quarter Ended 30 March 2003.<br />
[http://www.anvil.com.au/qtreports/2003/Quarterly%20Report%2030%20March%202003.PDF (Downloaded 22 August 2003)].<br />
141 “Z<strong>in</strong>c Statistics and Informati<strong>on</strong>.” U.S. Geological Services. [http://m<strong>in</strong>erals.usgs.gov/m<strong>in</strong>erals/pubs/commodity/z<strong>in</strong>c/, (uploaded 31 July<br />
2003)].<br />
142 “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go – M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g: Z<strong>in</strong>c and Lead M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.” Mbendi, 4 October 2001.<br />
[http://www.mbendi.co.za/<strong>in</strong>dy/m<strong>in</strong>g/ldzc/af/zr/p0005.htm (downloaded 15 July 2003)].<br />
142a Pittman, Todd. ( 2004) “M<strong>in</strong>ers Drawn to Illegal C<strong>on</strong>go Uranium.” Associated Press June 1<br />
143 Astill, J and R. Carroll. (2002) “African gangs offer route to uranium.” The Guardian, 25 September.<br />
144 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357, op. cit. p. 35.<br />
145 UN Security Council, F<strong>in</strong>al report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2002/1146. op. cit. p. 9.<br />
146 B. Rautenbach, letter <strong>in</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se to Security Council Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1457 (2003). Reacti<strong>on</strong> No. 30 – Reply to F<strong>in</strong>al UN Panel Report. op. cit.<br />
146a Pittman, Todd. ( 2004) “M<strong>in</strong>ers Drawn to Illegal C<strong>on</strong>go Uranium.” Associated Press 1 June; and Mahtani, D. ( 2004). “Illegal Uranium<br />
M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go, U.N. wants answers.” Rueters March 26.<br />
147 Ibid.<br />
148 Bijard, L. “C<strong>on</strong>go les m<strong>in</strong>es de la violence” (August 2000) [http://www.c-df.org/tribune_m<strong>in</strong>es_violences.html (uploaded 11 August<br />
2003)].<br />
149 Boateng, O. (February 2000) “C<strong>on</strong>go”. New African. [http://www.africasia.com/newafrican/feb00/nacs0202.htm (uploaded 11 August<br />
2003)].<br />
150 Ibid.<br />
151 Dietrich, C. (June 2002) Hard Currency – The Crim<strong>in</strong>alized Diam<strong>on</strong>d Ec<strong>on</strong>omy of <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go and its Neighbours. p.5<br />
[http://acti<strong>on</strong>.web.ca/home/pac/attach/hc_report_e.pdf (uploaded 14 August 2003)].<br />
152 Ibid. p.7<br />
153 Ibid., p. 10.<br />
154 Ibid. p. 11<br />
155 Strabrawa, A. (2003). Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Endowment and C<strong>on</strong>flict: The Case of Diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
[http://www.uvm.edu/~shali/drc.pdf (uploaded 1 October 2003)].<br />
156 Dietrich, C. op cit, p.4.<br />
157 “Diam<strong>on</strong>d Heist”. Wash<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong> Post. (28 November 2001) [http://www.wash<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong>post.com/wpadv/specialsales/spotlight/c<strong>on</strong>go/diam<strong>on</strong>d.html<br />
(downloaded 11 August 2003)].<br />
158 Dietrich, C. op cit. . p. 6.<br />
159 Ewans, M. (2002) European Atrocity, African Catastrophe: Leopold II, <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go Free State and its Aftermath. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: RoutledgeCurz<strong>on</strong>, p. 236 – 237.<br />
160 Ewans, M. Ibid .p. 237.<br />
161 Insight Publicati<strong>on</strong>s. Crystal Clear. [http://www.<strong>in</strong>sight-publicati<strong>on</strong>s.com/c<strong>on</strong>go/web/c<strong>on</strong>go5crystlclr.html (uploaded 14 August 2003)].<br />
162 Diam<strong>on</strong>d Intelligence. (June 2003) DRC diam<strong>on</strong>d valuator c<strong>on</strong>tract awarded.[http://www.diam<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>telligence.com/default.asp (uploaded 11<br />
August 2003)].<br />
163 Mbendi. [http://www.mbendi.co.za/orgs/cah4.htm (uploaded 11 August 2003)].<br />
164 La 44 ème sema<strong>in</strong>e écoulée au cher Grand, Beau et Riche Pays. (November 2002) [http://katgate.free.fr/kg/Archives_Yabili/Archive6.htm<br />
(uploaded 3 November 2003)].<br />
165 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. p.9<br />
166 Ibid. p. 9.<br />
167 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. p.7<br />
168 F<strong>in</strong>ancial Times (29 October 2003). “Africa’s C<strong>on</strong>flict Diam<strong>on</strong>ds.”<br />
169 A. Zajtman. “DR C<strong>on</strong>go’s disappear<strong>in</strong>g diam<strong>on</strong>ds.” BBC News (27 August 2003). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-<br />
/1/hi/world/africa/3186207.stm] (uploaded 28 August 2003).<br />
170 Oryx Natural Resources, Company Informati<strong>on</strong>. http://www.oryx<strong>natural</strong><strong>resources</strong>.com/company/ (site accessed 9 June 2004).<br />
171 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. p.9.<br />
172 CENADEP. (August 2002) F<strong>in</strong>al report <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>natural</strong> <strong>resources</strong> <strong>in</strong> DRC. p.8.<br />
173 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. op. cit. p. 11.<br />
174 Smillie, I. op. cit. p. 7.<br />
175 Marketplace News Headl<strong>in</strong>es. (April 2001) DRC lifts m<strong>on</strong>opoly <strong>on</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds.<br />
[http://www.namibian.com.na/2001/April/marketplace/01E941ED50.html (uploaded 11 August 2003)].<br />
176 Insight Publicati<strong>on</strong>s. Crystal Clear.[http://www.<strong>in</strong>sight-publicati<strong>on</strong>s.com/c<strong>on</strong>go/web/c<strong>on</strong>go5crystlclr.html (uploaded 14 August 2003)].<br />
177 American University. DRC Diam<strong>on</strong>d M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and C<strong>on</strong>flict Report. [http://www.american.edu/TED/ice/c<strong>on</strong>go.htm (uploaded 27 August 2003)].<br />
178 Dietrich. Op Cit. p.5.<br />
179 IPIS (2003). “C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville: Data, Comptoirs and Ma<strong>in</strong> Players.” 10 October; and Smillie, I. (28 October 2002) The Kimberley Process:<br />
The case for proper m<strong>on</strong>itor<strong>in</strong>g. [http://www.reliefweb.<strong>in</strong>t/w/rwb.nsf/0/09922679fb6675f385256c61005c1fa1OpenDocument (uploaded 11<br />
August 2003)].<br />
180 Partnership Africa Canada (2003). Diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Central African Republic: Trad<strong>in</strong>g, Valu<strong>in</strong>g and Launder<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
181 UN Security Council Panel Report <strong>on</strong> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e. (December 2000) C<strong>on</strong>flict Diam<strong>on</strong>ds and Illicit Diam<strong>on</strong>ds.
53 Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
[http://www.niza.nl/uk/campaigns/diam<strong>on</strong>ds/docs/sierra_le<strong>on</strong>e/1-3.htm (uploaded 15 August 2003)].<br />
182 Africa Acti<strong>on</strong> (21 June 2002) Summary of Hard Currency Report. [http://www.africaacti<strong>on</strong>.org/docs02/cent0206.htm (uploaded 7 August<br />
2003)].<br />
183 UN Security Council. (November 2001) Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. p.10.<br />
184 DRC government tightens diam<strong>on</strong>d trade. (May 2002) [http://www.woza.co.za/may02/drc09.htm (uploaded 11 August 2003)].<br />
185 Dietrich, C. op. cit. p. 13.<br />
186 Ibid. p.17.<br />
187 Mbendi. (11 June 2002) Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go – M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g: Gold M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g [http://www.mbendi.co.za/<strong>in</strong>dy/m<strong>in</strong>g/gold/af/zr/p0005.htm<br />
(uploaded 18 August 2003)].<br />
188 Global Witness <strong>in</strong>terview with Vic K<strong>in</strong>g, Manag<strong>in</strong>g Director of Gold Fields (27 August 2003).<br />
189 “Banro f<strong>in</strong>ally ready to roll <strong>in</strong> DRC”. M<strong>in</strong>eweb .(1 July 2003) [http://m1.mny.co.za/ (uploaded 28 August 2003)].<br />
190 “Current Status of M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go”. Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g and M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Journal. (1 May 2000) [http://e-mj.com/<br />
(uploaded 6 August 2003)].<br />
191 Mbendi. op. cit.<br />
192 “Banro’s C<strong>on</strong>go gold saga”. M<strong>in</strong>eweb. (1 June 2003) [http://www.mips1.net/ (uploaded 28 August 2003)].<br />
193 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. op. cit. p. 8.<br />
194 IPIS. (September 2003) The Political Ec<strong>on</strong>omy of Resource Traffick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DRC. p.15.<br />
195 UN Security Council. (May 2002) Interim Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Illegal Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Natural Resources and O<strong>the</strong>r Forms of Wealth of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. S/2002/565. p.8.<br />
196 Ibid. p. 9.<br />
197 Ibid. p. 9.<br />
198 UN Security Council. Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. op. cit. p. 12.<br />
199 Ibid. p. 12.<br />
200 UN Security Council. Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. op.cit. p. 11.<br />
201 Ibid.. p. 12.<br />
202 Ibid.. p. 37.<br />
203 Ibid.. p. 28.<br />
204 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072, op. cit. p. 8.<br />
205 UN Security Council. Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. op. cit. p. 31.<br />
206 UN Security Council. Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts. S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 32.<br />
207 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts S/2001/1072. op. cit. p. 8.<br />
208 Ibid. p. 8.<br />
209 IPIS. op. cit. p. 17-18..<br />
210 Mbendi. (18 July 2000) Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go: Oil And Gas Industry.<br />
211 Chevr<strong>on</strong>. Chevr<strong>on</strong> Texaco <strong>in</strong> Africa. [http://www.chevr<strong>on</strong>texaco.com/operati<strong>on</strong>s/docs/africa.pdf (uploaded 15 September 2003)].<br />
212 Chevr<strong>on</strong>. (26 January 2000). Chevr<strong>on</strong> to boost <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
[http://www.chevr<strong>on</strong>texaco.com/news/archive/chevr<strong>on</strong>_press/2000/2000-01-26-1.asp (uploaded 15 September 2003)].<br />
213 UN Security Council. Addendum to <strong>the</strong> report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts. S/2001/1072. op. cit. p.18.<br />
214 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. op. cit. p. 36.<br />
215 See Johns<strong>on</strong>, D. (March 2003) “Shift<strong>in</strong>g Sands: Oil explorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rift Valley and <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go c<strong>on</strong>flict”. Pole Institute. Goma.<br />
[www.pole-<strong>in</strong>stitute.org (uploaded 29 August 2003)] and “C<strong>on</strong>go-K/Rwanda/Uganda: Proxy wars and Slaughter”. (25 October 2002) Africa<br />
C<strong>on</strong>fidential. Vol. 43. N°21.<br />
216 Ibid. p.5.<br />
217 Mbendi (2000). “Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go: Oil and Gas Industry.” [http://www.mbendi.co.za/<strong>in</strong>dy/oilg/af/zr/p0005.htm<br />
(uploaded 15 August 2003)].<br />
218 World Resources Institute. World Resources 2002-2004 Decisi<strong>on</strong>s for <strong>the</strong> Earth.<br />
219 Interview with SPIAF (Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Amenagament Forestiers) (December 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa. DRC.<br />
220 USAID/ARD. (May 2003) C<strong>on</strong>flict Timber: Dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> Problem <strong>in</strong> Asia and Africa. Vol III.<br />
221 Interview with Onno Ruhl, World Bank Resident Representative (25 November 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa.<br />
222 ARD (2003). C<strong>on</strong>flict Timber: Dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> Problem <strong>in</strong> Africa and Asia. Volume 3: African cases.<br />
[http://www.usaid.gov/hum_resp<strong>on</strong>se/oti/pubs/vol3afr.pdf (uploaded 10 August 2003)].<br />
223 Global Witness <strong>in</strong>terviews. (December 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa.<br />
224 Global Witness <strong>in</strong>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s. (December 2002). Beni. DRC.<br />
225 GW has <strong>in</strong>sufficient <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> to know whe<strong>the</strong>r this is a remnant of <strong>the</strong> old system, or whe<strong>the</strong>r it has been <strong>in</strong>stituted by <strong>the</strong> current<br />
rulers of <strong>the</strong> territory, but we suspect <strong>the</strong> former.<br />
226 UN Security Council, Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts, S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 11.<br />
227 Global Witness <strong>in</strong>terview with journalist (December 2002). Kampala. Uganda.<br />
228 Interview with an<strong>on</strong>ymous source (November 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa. DRC.<br />
229 Interview with senior forestry official (November 2002). K<strong>in</strong>shasa. DRC.<br />
230 Interviews with numerous an<strong>on</strong>ymous sources (November and December 2002). DRC.<br />
231 Interviews with park officials (November 2002). DRC.<br />
232 Interviews with timber companies. (December 2002) K<strong>in</strong>shasa.<br />
233 Interviews <strong>in</strong> K<strong>in</strong>shasa (November 2002). DRC.<br />
234 Global Witness. (2002) Branch<strong>in</strong>g Out.<br />
235 Incidentally, both Zimbabwean and Namibian troops took virtually every sapl<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> botanical gardens at Mbandaka when <strong>the</strong>y<br />
withdrew. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to locals, <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly th<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>y left beh<strong>in</strong>d “…were <strong>the</strong>ir illegitimate children.” Numerous <strong>in</strong>terviews. (November 2002)<br />
K<strong>in</strong>shasa. DRC.<br />
236 Timber Trades Journal. “African Odyssey” (17 August 2002). [http://www.ttj<strong>on</strong>l<strong>in</strong>e.com].<br />
237 AME Research. [www.ame.com.au/m<strong>in</strong>es (uploaded 12 September 2003)].<br />
238 Baracyetse, P. op. cit. p. 17.<br />
239 Coakley, G. (1995) The M<strong>in</strong>eral Industry of <strong>the</strong> C<strong>on</strong>go. p. 2.<br />
240 Ibid. p. 2.<br />
241 Baker, M. et al. (2003) “DRC Case Study,” C<strong>on</strong>flict Timber: Dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> Problem <strong>in</strong> Asia and Africa. Volume III. F<strong>in</strong>al Report to <strong>the</strong> United<br />
States Agency for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development.Burl<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong>. Verm<strong>on</strong>t. (USA): ARD Inc. p. 15.<br />
242 Nz<strong>on</strong>gola-Ntalaja, G. (2002) The C<strong>on</strong>go: From Leopold to Kabila. A people’s history. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> and New York: Zed Books. p. 15.<br />
243 UN Security Council. Report of <strong>the</strong> Panel of Experts. S/2001/357. Op. cit. p. 14.<br />
244 Ibid. p. 14.<br />
245 Ibid. p. 14.<br />
246 Ibid. p. 14.<br />
247 Wash<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong> Post (2003). “The Prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Benguela: In <strong>the</strong> Bloom of Recovery.” [http://www.wash<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong>post.com/wpadv/specialsales/spotlight/angola/article17.html<br />
(uploaded 3 September 2003)].
Same Old Story—Natural Resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go 54<br />
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