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EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1. NAS Cell Voltage Characteristics.................................................................................1-2 Figure 1-2. NAS Cell ...................................................................................................................1-2 Figure 1-3. NAS PS Module .........................................................................................................1-4 Figure 1-4. PS Module Voltage & Temperature During a Peak Shaving Cycle ..................................1-4 Figure 1-5. Reference Peak Shaving Profiles (both modules) ...........................................................1-4 Figure 1-6. PQ Module Pulse Power Capability..............................................................................1-5 Figure 1-7. 6MW, 48MWh NAS System at TEPCO’s Ohito Substation.............................................1-6 Figure 1-8. NGK’s Standard 5 NAS PS Module Unit (Dimensions, mm (in)) ....................................1-7 Figure 2-1 AEP's 500 kW (PQ) / 720 kWh (PS) NAS Unit ..............................................................2-2 Figure 4-1. Summary of Hourly, Year-long Wind Test Data ............................................................4-6 LIST OF TABLES Table 1-1.. NAS Cell and Module Properties..................................................................................1-3 Table 1-2. NAS PQ Module Combined Pulse and PS Operating Regimes .........................................1-6 Table 2-1. In-Progress NAS Battery Systems Rated at 500kW or More.............................................2-1 Table 2-2. The Status of NAS Commercial Product Lines................................................................2-3 Table 3-1. Energy Storage System Requirements for T&D Applications...........................................3-5 Table 3-2. NAS Battery Energy Storage System Compliance With Application Requirements ............3-7 Table 3-3. Summary of NAS Battery Application System Parameters...............................................3-8 Table 4-1. Capital and Operating Costs (2006 prices).....................................................................4-2 Table 4-2. Financial Parameters ....................................................................................................4-2 Table 4-3. Electricity Rate Structure..............................................................................................4-2 Table 4-4. Cost/Benefit of Load-Leveling Applications...................................................................4-3 Table 4-5. Cost/Benefit of Power Quality Applications ...................................................................4-4 Table 4-6. Cost/Benefit of AGC Applications.................................................................................4-5 Table 4-7. Electricity Rates & Business Model for Wind Stabilization..............................................4-5 Table 4-8. Economic Benefit of Energy Storage for Wind Stabilization ............................................4-6 Table 4-9. Cost/Benefit of Wind Stabilization Applications .............................................................4-7 iv
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material 1 DESCRIPTION OF SODIUM SULFUR BATTERIES 1.1 Introduction Ford Motor Company is credited with initial recognition of the potential of the sodium-sulfur battery based on a beta-alumina solid electrolyte in the 1960’s [Ref. 1-1 and 1-2]. By the early 1970’s, Ford’s work (Kummer and Weber) had catalyzed widespread research into sodium-sulfur battery technology, including programs in Europe (Brown Boveri (later ABB)) and in Japan (New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO)), primarily for electric vehicle applications. By the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, a variety of developers had advanced sodium-sulfur technology for applications ranging from satellite communications to large stationary power. Notable contributors included Eagle Picher Industries in the U.S., Chloride Silent Power in the U.K., Asea in Sweden, Powerplex in Canada, and RWE in Germany. As recently as 1993, Ford equipped six electric Ecostar vehicles for use by the US Postal Service with sodium-sulfur batteries as part of a test program. By the early 1980’s, the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) had selected sodium-sulfur technology as the preferred medium for dispersed utility energy storage to displace a growing reliance on central pumped hydro energy storage. TEPCO recognized that the key to development of sodium sulfur batteries suitable for utility-scale stationary power applications was in the production of ceramic components and sought the participation of NGK Insulators, Ltd., (NGK) for that role. By the late 1990’s, NGK and TEPCO had deployed a series of large scale demonstration systems, including two, 6MW, 48MWh installations at TEPCO substations. In April 2002, TEPCO and NGK announced commercialization of their sodium-sulfur battery product lines in Japan, plus their intent to introduce products globally. At present, NGK is the only known vendor of sodium sulfur batteries for utility applications, and the technology presented herein pertains to NGK’s sodium-sulfur (NAS ® , registered in Japan) battery module product lines. 1.2 General Characteristics 1.2.1 Electrochemistry The normal operating temperature of sodium-sulfur cells is about 300C. During discharge, the sodium (negative electrode) is oxidized at the sodium/beta alumina interface, forming Na + ions. These ions migrate through the beta alumina solid electrolyte and combine with sulfur that is being reduced at the positive electrode to form sodium pentasulfide (Na 2 S 5 ). The sodium pentasulfide is immiscible with the remaining sulfur, thus forming a two-phase liquid mixture. 1-1
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