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EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material then in use. The capacitor storage technology used by ESMA was type III, which they referred to as an asymmetric capacitor. Since this first report, they have presented many technical papers that further describe and explain this mating of a battery-like Faradaic charge storage electrode with a capacitor-like double layer charge storage electrode. Products sold by ESMA range from 20-kJ, 14-V modules up to multi-MJ, 600 V systems. Cell construction is similar to that of aircraft NiCd batteries, but with activated carbon substituted for the cadmium in the negative electrode. ESMA capacitors have a flooded cell design, which provides the ability to voltage-balance cells when connected in a series string. ESMA has optimized their capacitors for either pulse or traction applications. The pulse capacitor is intended for discharges of a few seconds like needed for starting an internal combustion engine. The traction capacitor is designed to power electric vehicles like fork lifts, utility vehicles, trucks, buses, etc. These devices can be charged much quicker than a battery, in 12 to 15 minutes with a high-power supply, and then be discharged over a period of an hour or longer. ESMA capacitors and systems are available from their factory in Troitsk, Russia. Private-labeled capacitors for the starting of commercial trucks are available from their distributor, Kold-Ban International in Lake in the Hills, Illinois. Figure 7 ESMA 10 cell module 1000F @ 14.5V (six inch ruler also shown) Maxwell Maxwell Technologies had a broad line of high-voltage electrostatic capacitor products when they were awarded a contract by the US Department of Energy for electrochemical capacitor development in 1991. The goal was to develop a powerful energy storage technology that would be suitable for electric vehicle load leveling. The desired capacitor would store 500 Wh (1.8 MJ) of energy, deliver 50 kW of power, be rated at 300 V or higher, weigh less than 100 kg, and have material costs below $1000. Maxwell initially worked with Auburn University on this project. Their approach was a type I capacitor product that used a metal/carbon fiber composite electrode with potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Later efforts were directed to a type II design to increase device energy density. In the mid 1990’s Maxwell moved this project from Auburn to its manufacturing plant in San Diego, where it is located today. Electrochemical Capacitors 28
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material Maxwell is the leading US producer of large electrochemical capacitors. They manufacture capacitor cells up to 2700 F. Their packaging is well engineered with welded metal construction, and in some products, glass-to-metal seals for electrical feed through. Their large devices have been used in numerous demonstration programs including in hybrid vehicles, power quality applications, and engine starting. Maxwell licensed their technology to the German company EPCOS in the late 1990s. They recently acquired the Swiss company Montena that has extensive winding technology capabilities. In the middle of 2002, they announced, but have not introduced, a new product line having a pasted electrode in a spiral-wound design. This technology should allow substantially lower material and production costs. Major markets for the large Maxwell capacitors are in vehicle and telecommunication power applications. Maxwell has undertaken a vigorous cost reduction program for their large capacitors. This effort involves replacing the carbon cloth electrode material with a particulate carbon, and using these electrodes in a spiral-wound assembly. Maxwell capacitor products are available from their main offices in San Diego, California. Figure 8 Maxwell Capacitor 2700F, 2.5 V Montena Montena is a Swiss company that produced spiral wound, type II electrochemical capacitors in addition to capacitor manufacturing equipment. Maxwell Technologies acquired Montena in 2002, and their product lines have been merged. NEC Tokin The Japanese company NEC was one of the first to commercialize double layer products. They still sell the small capacitors under the name ”Supercap.” NEC Tokin is now developing larger “Hypercap” capacitors, primarily for the automotive market. These are type I design, using sulfuric acid electrolyte, prismatic in form, and available either optimized for high energy or for high power. Special large capacitor products from NEC Tokin are available through their Japanese factory. Figure 22 shows two samples. Electrochemical Capacitors 29
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