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EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material Unresolved issues Several advances in the CAES technology have yet to be demonstrated or tested in the field environment. The following concepts offer significant theoretical advantages but require practical validation: • Demonstrate air storage in porous rock and in hard rock storage formations • Demonstrate surface piping for air storage CAES application • Demonstrate the storage of thermal energy -- recover the thermal energy from the heat of compression to reheat the air withdrawn from storage many hours later • Demonstrate a “hybrid” CAES plant Summary of Innovative Development Efforts The conventional single-shaft configuration for a CAES plant was used for the McIntosh and Huntorf projects. The compressors, motor/generator, and expanders are all on the same shaft, separated by clutches. This low initial capital cost concept requires only a single motor / generator that supports both the compression and power generation cycles. The expanders can be used to start the compressor train. The advanced recuperator used in the McIntosh plant is a necessary component to reduce the heat rate, and the plant is operating much of the time. Dresser-Rand is a promoter of the conventional configuration as well as other plant configurations. OEMs and developers are also promoting several innovative CAES plant concepts; the innovation lies in the use of present day turbo-expanders, compressors, new thermal cycles, different turbomachinery configurations, and different component selection. The innovative development efforts are summarized in Table 6 and described in the text below. • Innovative Concept 1 -- This multi-shaft concept includes a reheat expander train (with a recuperator) driving the electric generator for peak power generation and a number of parallel independently operating motor-driven intercooled compressors trains for charging the underground storage. This concept has higher capital costs but provides significant operating flexibility. This concept is currently under consideration for a number of projects. Both Dresser Rand and Alstom commercially offer this configuration. • Innovative Concept 2 – In this concept, a high-pressure recuperator is used instead of the high-pressure combustor in the expansion train. The only combustor is a conventional lowpressure combustor installed upstream of the low-pressure turbine. This concept eliminates the high-pressure combustor, which is a relatively new and technically challenging component and is a significant source of NO x emissions. Alstom is promoting this concept for 300-400-MW e CAES plants. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Page 21
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material Table 6 Innovative Development Efforts Characteristic Innovative Concept 1 Innovative Concept 2 Innovative Concept 3 Innovative Concept 4 Feature Multiple independent compressor trains High-pressure recuperator Preheat air upstream of combustion turbine Compress air using wind power Status Commercially available Commercially available Design being marketed Being studied Target market Plants requiring operating flexibility 300-400-MW e plants requiring high reliability Plants requiring high peak power and operating flexibility Wind farms Potential Funding EPRI, DOE, IPPs, venture capitalists EPRI, DOE, IPPs, venture capitalists EPRI, DOE, IPPs, venture capitalists EPRI, DOE, IPPs, venture capitalists Vendors Dresser-Rand, Alstom Alstom Alstom Dresser-Rand, Alstom Demonstrations Funded in the future Funded in the future Funded in the future Funded in the future Lessons learned TBD TBD TBD TBD Development trends Operational flexibility Produces lower emissions Provides higher peak power Integration with wind energy Issues High first cost Reliability of high-pressure recuperator System control and heat balance Power fluctuation from wind, cost of aboveground compressed air storage • Innovative Concept 3 -- Alstom is marketing the concept of adding an air turbine upstream of the combustion turbines [24]. A recuperator recovers the heat in the low-pressure expander exhaust and preheats the compressed air from the cavern to approximately 900 °F. The preheated compressed air is expanded through an air turbine to drive a generator in addition to the power generated by a GT24/GT11 combustion turbine. The combustion turbine and the air turbine can generate more power than the combustion turbine alone. The compressor train consists of a number of motor-driven intercooled compressors operating in parallel to charge the underground storage. This concept has the advantages of high peak power, Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) Page 22
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