Lithostratigraphy of Permian marine sequences, Khao Pun Area ...

The Island Arc (2000) 9, 173–187 

Research Article 

Lithostratigraphy of Permian marine sequences, Khao Pun Area, 

central Thailand: Paleoenvironments and tectonic history 

VICHAI CHUTAKOSITKANON, 1 PUNYA CHARUSIRI 1 AND KATSUO SASHIDA 2 * 

1 Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand and 2 Institute 

of Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8571, Japan (email: sashida@arsia.geo.tsukuba.ac.jp) 

Abstract Geologic mapping and subsurface lithostratigraphic investigations were carried 

out in the Khao Pun area (4 km 2 ), central Thailand. More than 250 hand specimens, 70 rock 

slabs, and 70 thin sections were studied in conjunction with geochemical data in order to 

elucidate paleoenvironments and tectonic setting of the Permian marine sedimentary 

sequences. This sedimentary succession (2485 m thick) was re-accessed and re-grouped 

into three lithostratigraphic units, namely, in ascending order, the Phu Phe, Khao Sung 

and Khao Pun Formations. The Lower to lower Upper Permian sedimentary facies indicated 

the transgressive/regressive succession of shelf sea/platform environment to pelagic 

or abyssal environment below the carbonate compensation depth. The sedimentological 

and paleontological aspects, together with petrochemical and lithological points of view, 

reveal that the oldest unit might indicate an Early Permian sheltered shallow or lagoonal 

environment. Then the depositional basin became deeper, as suggested by the prolonged 

occurrence of bedded chert-limestone intercalation with the local exposure of shallower 

carbonate build-up. Following this, the depositional environment changed to pelagic deposition, 

as indicated by laminated radiolarian (e.g. Follicucullus sp.) cherts. This cryptic 

evidence might indicate the abyssal environment during middle Middle to early Late 

Permian; whereas, previous studies advocated shelf-facies environments. Following this, 

the depositional condition might be a major regression on the microcontinent close to 

Indochina, from the minor transgressive/regressive cycles that developed within a skeletal 

barrier, and through the lagoon with limited circulational and anaerobic conditions, on 

to the tidal flat to the sheltered lagoon without effective land-derived sediments. 

Key words: central Thailand, marine sequences, paleoenvironment, pelagic, Permian, 

Radiolaria, shelf, tectonics. 

INTRODUCTION 

The Khao Pun area, 4 km 2 in size, is located in the 

Kaeng Khoi District, Saraburi Province, central 

Thailand (Fig. 1). Physiographically, it consists 

of limestone mountains trending northwestsoutheast, 

covered by a dense forest. 

The Upper Paleozoic carbonate/clastic unit in 

this region has been visited by several groups of 

geoscientists. One of the first studies was performed 

by Brown et al. (1951) who named this lime- 

*Correspondence. 

Accepted for publication 20 December 1999. 

© 2000 Blackwell Science Asia Pty Ltd. 

stone and the other Permian limestones throughout 

the country as the Ratburi Limestone. Borax 

& Stewart (1966) worked on the Paleozoic stratigraphic 

correlation of northeastern Thailand. 

Tittirananda’s (1976) PhD dissertation was on the 

stratigraphy and paleontology of the limestones 

along Highway no. 21. Hinthong et al. (1985) 

systematically compiled the geology of the entire 

1:250 000-scale topographic map sheet of ND 

47–8 (Changwat Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya). 

Wielchowsky & Young (1985) studied lithofacies in 

the Permian rocks of the Phetchabun Fold Belt. 

More detailed studies on the structures in this 

region were carried out by Pothong (1986). The 

name ‘Saraburi Group’ in place of the name Ratburi

174 V. Chutakositkanon et al. 

Fig. 1 Index map. (a) Regional tectonic map of mainland SE Asia showing major tectonic blocks (Bunopas 1981, 1992). (b) Regional geologic map of 

the Saraburi-Kaeng Khoi area, central Thailand (after Hinthong et al. 1985) showing major units of the Saraburi Group and the locality of the study area 

(inserted block). , Phu Phe Formation; , Nong Pong Formation; , Pang Asok Formation; , Khao Khad Formation; , 

Sap Bon Formation; , terrace gravel; , Recent flood plain; , Khao Yai Volcanics; , Phra Ngam Diorite; , river and 

stream; , fault; , thrust fault; S, Saraburi city; K, Kaneg Khoi town. (c) Simplified geologic map of the Khao Pun Area, central Thailand. 

Group was first proposed by Bunopas (1981) and 

Bunopas et al. (1988) for the Permian succession 

which distributes in the west of the Khorat Plateau 

margin and the eastern part of the Central Plain 

(restricted to the Peninsula of Thailand). Recently, 

Dawson & Racey (1993) proposed the Permian 

strata of central Thailand as a sequence of supratidal 

to outer platform facies comprising a Lowerupper 

Middle Permian transgressive/regressive 

carbonate platform succession. Recently, a detailed 

systematic study has been made on the Permian 

lithostratigraphy around the Khao Pun study area 

at which the Kaeng Khoi Factory of the Siam 

Cement Public Company Ltd (SCC) is situated 

(V. Chutakositkanon, pers. data, 1996). 

The purposes of this study are, therefore, 

to present a detailed lithostratigraphy of the 

Permian rocks and to discuss the environment of 

deposition related to tectonic setting of the area. 

Depending on their use, several classifications of 

carbonate rocks are applied, following those of 

Folk (1959, 1962), Dunham (1962), and Embry & 

Klovan (1971), slightly modified by the classification 

systems of Tucker (1981) and Adam et al. 

(1984). Approximately 30 spot locations were 

visited and revisited, and seven main drilled 

holes were logged and lithologically described. 

Then, 70 rock slabs and 70 thin sections were 

selectively prepared from more than 250 hand 

specimens collected from both field and drilled

Permian marine sequences in the Kao Pun 175 

cores. A chemical staining technique, described by 

Friedman (1959, 1977) and Friedman & Sternbach 

(1982), was used to aid identifying carbonate minerals. 

Major- and minor-oxide analyses were 

mainly performed by Krongkaew et al. (1991) and 

some by Chutakositkanon (1996). 

However, all samples analyzed by Krongkaew et 

al. (1991) were composite samples; therefore, in 

some cases the results do not represent the geologic 

units and are not similar to those performed 

by Chutakositkanon (1996), which indicate actual 

lithologic units. In this regard, we decided to use 

only the results from Chutakositkanon (1996), 

especially those for limestones in the Phu Phe 

Formation and for the mudrocks in the Khao Pun 

Klang Member. However, in general, the results of 

Krongkaew et al. (1991) are in agreement with our 

results. 

REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING 

The Saraburi Group (Fig. 1b) in the current study 

area is in the southernmost part of the approximately 

north-trending continuous outcrops of the 

Upper Paleozoic carbonate/clastic unit, extending 

southwards at least 400 km from Lao PDR. The 

Saraburi Group, exposed as a chain of limestone 

hills, ridges, knobs and mounds, is observably 

bounded by the youngers, the Khao Yai Volcanics 

to the south, continental red-bed clastic rocks of 

the Mesozoic Khorat Group to the east and northwest, 

and Quaternary alluvial deposits of the Chao 

Praya, the Lop Buri and the Pa Sak Rivers to the 

west. This grouping takes place along the westernmost 

part of the Indochina (Indosinian in 

places) microcontinent (Bunopas 1992). 

Several stratigraphers have tried to identify the 

complex stratigraphy here. Hinthong et al. (1985) 

subdivided the rocks, based upon stratification, 

fossils and structures, into six formations, from 

older to younger, as the Phu Phe, Khao Khwang, 

Nong Pong, Pang Asok, Khao Khad and Sap Bon 

Formations, covering the entire southern limit of 

the Phetchabun–Saraburi trend. 

Structurally, Abele & Beeser (1963) believed that 

the regional rock sequence belonged to the southern 

flank of ‘a large gently westward plunging anticline’ 

whose core lay somewhere further north. This 

gigantic structure is, however, mentioned as an 

anticlinorium by Hinthong (1981), N. Comviravong 

(unpubl. data, 1985) and Pothong (1986). 

The rocks in this region were intruded by 

plutonics of Permo-Triassic Phra Ngam Diorite 

(Hinthong 1981; Hinthong et al. 1985). Volcanics, 

dikes and sills of similar composition and age were 

also found in the Permian country rocks of the 

Saraburi Group. Hinthong (1981) and Hinthong et 

al. (1985) assigned the volcanics the name, Permo- 

Triassic Khao Yai Volcanics. 

Bryozoans, algae and fusulinids collected in 

carbonate rocks, as had been noted earlier by 

Pitakpivan (1965), Borax & Stewart (oral presentation 

at Economic Commission for Asia and the 

Far East Meeting in Bangkok, Thailand, ECAFE, 

1966), Tittirananda (1976), Dawson (1978a,b), 

Hinthong (1981), Ingavat-Helmcke (1993) and 

Dawson & Racey (1993), indicate the ages from 

Early to Late-Permian. These rocks were also 

noted to have deposited in a shallow shelf sea or 

platform environment. 

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY 

The Upper Paleozoic sedimentary sequence in the 

Khao Pun area is composed mainly of limestones, 

subordinate mudstones and bedded cherts with 

minor andesitic hypabyssal rocks, such as dikes 

and sills. According to the works of Hinthong 

(1981) and Hinthong et al. (1985), the rock units in 

the present study area were grouped as the 

Khao Khad and Phu Phe Formations. However, 

the current field and subsurface stratigraphic 

investigations allowed us to re-group the Permian 

sedimentary succession in the Khao Pun area 

from oldest to youngest, based essentially on the 

lithologic and physical appearances, stratifications 

and sedimentary structures, into three lithostratigraphic 

units, the Phu Phe, Khao Sung 

and Khao Pun Formations which are further 

subdivided into seven members as demonstrated 

(Fig. 2). In addition, 1796 composite samples 

(Krongkaew et al. 1991) and 14 systematically 

selected samples (Chutakositkanon 1996) from 

individual members were geochemically analyzed 

for major-oxide contents; the general results 

are shown (in the lithostratigraphic column of 

Fig. 2). 

PHU PHE FORMATION 

The Phu Phe Formation (Hinthong 1981) in the 

study area consists of gray, thickly to very 

thickly bedded biomicrite and biomicrosparite or 

fossiliferous boundstone, packstone; some wackestone 

are distributed only in the southwesternmost 

portion. Regarding the chemical analysis


Fig. 2 Lithostratigraphic column of the Khao Pun Area and average major-oxide results of individual units. Lithostratigraphic column uses the classical 

rock-section key shown in Selly (1985, Fig. 0.1). The grain size is drawn increasing to the left, following Wentworth grades. Numbers in parentheses 

are the total number of rock samples analyzed. *Analysis was performed by Krongkaew et al. (1991) and Chutakositkanon (1996); **Chutakositkanon 

(1996) only; ***no analysis performed. 

(Chutakositkanon 1996), the low SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , K 2 O 

and MgO contents (0.095, 0.02, < 0.01 and 1.34%, 

respectively) and high CaO content (53.6%) are 

considered to be limestones. Fusulinacean fossils 

can also be identified and the following species 

were reported by Hinthong (1981): Pseudoschwagerina 

cf. toriyamai Igo, Pseudoschwagerina 

(Zellia) turbida Kahler, Paraschwagerina sp. and 

others which indicate Early Permian Sakmarian. 

Notably, the bedding planes of the 85-meter-thick 

unit are steeply inclined to the northeast direction, 

directly opposite to the other units. This leads us 

to the interpretation that the Phu Phe Formation 

was possibly northward-upthrust on the youngest 

Khao Pun Formation. This Phu Phe Formation is 

also called the Rong Ngan Kaeng Khoi Member 

after the Kaeng Khoi Factory of the SCC, to be 

consistent with the members of the other units 

(Chutakositkanon 1996). 

KHAO SUNG FORMATION 

The Khao Sung Formation is entirely exposed in 

the northern part and its features are clearly dis-


played as a straight ridge in aerial photographs. 

The bedding planes, striking parallel to the NWtrending 

ridge, dip steeply in the southwesterly 

direction. Lithologically and structurally, this 

formation is distinguished from the others by the 

presence of cherts and the absence of hypabyssal 

rocks. However, the Khao Sung Formation is composed 

principally of three conformable members, 

namely, from older to younger, the Khao Sung 

Nua, Khao Sung Klang and Khao Sung Tai 

Members, respectively. The overall thickness of 

this formation is ~ 830 m. 

Khao Sung Nua Member 

The Khao Sung Nua Member, the lowest unit 

of the Khao Sung Formation, is composed of a 

420-meter-thick uniform, southwestward-dipping 

succession of interbedding between thin- to 

medium-bedded black argillaceous limestones, 

black-bedded chert (Fig. 3a) and black shale. 

However, the argillaceous limestones are likely to 

contain a high percentage of organic materials and 

a very finely grained texture and are re-classified, 

herein, as micrite and biomicrite, or as mudstone 

and wackestone. Surprisingly, the limestones 

contain irregular-shaped microcrystalline quartz 

or chert with an average size of 5–7 mm. Individual 

chert layers, invariably interbedded with black 

argillaceous limestones, range in thickness from a 

few centimeters to tens of centimeters or more, 

and both upper and lower surfaces are wavy. When 

viewed under the polarizing microscope, these 

bedded cherts are, in fact, porcellanite. The presence 

of shale in the member is still problematic 

because the member is not exposed clearly as an 

outcrop. The shale presence is interpreted from 

black, strongly weathered regoliths. Spherical 

radiolarians, the most observable fossils, are preserved 

very rarely in these siliceous sedimentary 

rocks. 

Khao Sung Klang Member 

The Khao Sung Klang Member, the middle unit 

of the Khao Sung Formation, is obviously distinguished 

because it is the only member in the formation 

that contains no cherts in succession. The 

member consists mainly of pinkish-gray, thickly 

to very thickly bedded fossiliferous or crinoidal 

floatstone, rudstone, packstone and grainstone 

or biointrasparite and intrabiosparite, with some 

packed (over 50% allochems) biointramicrite 

and packed intrabiomicrite. The southwestward 

dipping Khao Sung Klang Member, considered to 

be a large lens-shaped sedimentary body with a 

maximum thickness of 200 m, conformably overlies 

the Khao Sung Nua Member and underlies the 

Khao Sung Tai Member. The variable-sized fossils 

of crinoid stem fragments, calcareous algae and 

bryozoans can be observed easily. Due to its lens 

appearance, the geochemical data are not required 

for this study. 

Khao Sung Tai Member 

The youngest Khao Sung Tai Member of the Khao 

Sung Formation, exposed entirely as cobble-sized 

loose blocks covering the southern foot of Khao 

Sung, is outstandingly characterized by gray to 

dark gray laminated cherts (Fig. 3b) with some 

porcellanites and deep-red ironstones. According 

to its chemical data (Chutakositkanon 1996), the 

high SiO 2 content (approximately 89.9%) and small 

CaO concentration (approximately 3.90%) of this 

laminated siliceous sedimentary rock is regarded 

as a composition of chert to porcellanite following 

the classification of Krumbein & Sloss (1963). The 

section, carefully measured as ~ 210 m thick, overlies 

the Khao Sung Nua and Khao Sung Klang 

Members with abrupt contacts and underlies the 

Khao Pun Formation with a fault contact as a huge 

vertical cliff. Observed fossils are spherical radiolarians, 

sponge spicules and unidentified siliceous 

shell fragments, mostly aligned parallel to the lamination 

or banding (Fig. 3c). We discovered poorly 

preserved radiolarians, probably Follicucullus 

sp. (Fig. 4), suggesting an interval from middle 

Middle Permian to early Late Permian. The occurrence 

of the radiolarians places the age of the Khao 

Sung Formation or the equivalent Khao Khad 

Formation of Hinthong et al. (1985) younger than 

that proposed by Hinthong et al. (1985). 

KHAO PUN FORMATION 

The youngest and thickest (1570 m thick) formation 

in the present study area is called the Khao 

Pun Formation. The conformable sedimentary 

sequence, moderate-dipping in the southwesterly 

direction of the Khao Pun Formation, is set apart 

from the others by the presence of well-developed 

calcite veins and veinlets, andesitic dikes and sills 

of hypabyssal rocks, and the absence of chert 

layers. The Khao Pun Formation overlies the Khao 

Sung Formation in the north and abnormally 

underlies the older Phu Phe Formation in the 

south with normal and thrust-fault contacts,


Fig. 3 Samples from the Khao Pun area. (a) Natural exposure of intercalated argillaceous limestone (L, thicker beds) and chert (C, thinner beds) with 

both their upper and lower wavy surfaces in the Khao Sung Nua Member. (b) Rock slabs of laminated cherts from the Khao Sung Tai Member; bar = 

5 cm. (c) Photomicrograph of the laminated chert under crossed polars showing alignment and spherical outlines of radiolarians (R), bar = 0.5 mm. (d) 

Characteristics of well-bedded limestone strata of the Khao Pun Nua Member with extension cracks or gashes in the central part. (e) Fusulinid fragment 

(Verbeekina sp.) in a carbonate rock of the Khao Pun Nua Member, bar = 0.5 mm. (f) Road-cut exposure of the Khao Pun Klang Member showing the 

argillaceous limestone (L) intercalation in the slaty shale in the upper part of the member. (g) Normal graded-bedding and scoring in a core sample from 

the Khao Pun Klang Member proving the right-side-up sequence in the Khao Pun Area. Number indicates the depth (86.25 m) from surface of the drilled 

hole, bar = 5 cm. (h) Photomicrograph of andesite hypabyssal rock showing large biotite (B) and plagioclase (PL) phenocrysts with sericite alteration, 

bar = 0.5 mm.


Fig. 4 SEM photographs of radiolarians (Follicucullus sp.) from the 

Khao Sung Tai Member, bar = 100 mm. 

with either abrupt or intercalation contacts. The 

Khao Pun Nua Member consists predominantly 

of several fossiliferous beds. Essential fossils 

include crinoid stems, bryozoans and algae, with 

a minority of fusulinids (Fig. 3e) and small 

foraminifers. The following late Middle Permian 

fusulinacean fossils have been identified from this 

member, namely Verbeekina verbeeki (Geinitz), 

Verbeekina sp., Neoschwagerina megaspherica 

Deprat, Afghanella cf. sumatrinaeformis Gubler 

and others (Hinthong 1981). Crinoid stems are 

the most abundant fossils and can be observed 

throughout the unit. 

respectively. Information obtained from both 

surface and subsurface investigation leads to the 

subdivision of the Khao Pun Formation into three 

major conformable members, from lower to upper, 

including the Khao Pun Nua, Khao Pun Klang and 

Khao Pun Tai Members. 

Khao Pun Nua Member 

The 560-meter-thick Khao Pun Nua Member is 

largely exposed in the northern portions of Khao 

Pun and Khao Nong Kop as an E-trending strip 

passing the central part of the area. It consists 

generally of yellowish-gray or pinkish-gray to 

dark-gray, thickly to very thickly bedded (Fig. 3d) 

biointrasparite and intrabiosparite, with some 

packed biointramicrite and packed intrabiomicrite 

or fossiliferous or crinoidal floatstone, rudstone, 

packstone and grainstone. Dolomitic limestone, 

locally abundant, is exposed with a predominant 

weathering surface, the so-called ‘elephant skin’. 

Results from X-ray fluorescence analysis reveal 

that CaO averages 51.62% and MgO 1.18%. A 

value of MgO greater than 1% suggests that the 

mineral dolomite is likely to be present. However, 

most carbonate rocks in this member are classified 

as limestone, following the classification of calcitedolomite 

mixture (Pettijohn 1975) because the 

mineral dolomite is less than 5% of the total calcite– 

dolomite mixture. From subsurface investigation, 

an intercalation zone between the yellowish-gray 

limestone with reddish-brown calcareous shale, 

and the black argillaceous limestone with black 

shale can also be observed in this unit. The southwesterly 

dipping Khao Pun Nua Member overlies 

the Khao Sung Tai Member with a fault contact 

that formed as a large scarp and underlies the correspondingly 

dipping Khao Pun Klang Member 

Khao Pun Klang Member 

The thinnest, 180-meter-thick Khao Pun Klang 

Member mainly consists of high organic materials 

and a very finely grained sedimentary arrangement 

of mudstones as slaty shale to shale, with the 

argillaceous limestone intercalations near upper 

and lower contacts (Fig. 3f). Microscopically, the 

black color of mudstones in this unit is the result 

of finely disseminated organic matter and pyrite. 

The black argillaceous limestone is re-classified as 

micrite, quartz intramicrite and some as biomicrite 

or mudstone, wackestone and terrigenous quartz 

silt-sized wackestone. Geochemically, our mudstones 

contain averaged values of SiO 2 65.0%, 

Al 2 O 3 16.0%, Fe 2 O 3 5.02%, K 2 O 2.89%, MgO 1.86%, 

and Na 2 O 0.77%. Like the general shales, major 

minerals are clays and quartz; thus, the most 

abundant oxides are SiO 2 and Al 2 O 3 . The high percentage 

of Fe 2 O 3 might be due to the occurrence of 

pyrite disseminated grains and framboids. The 

TiO 2 content (average 0.72%) in this mudstone is 

much higher than those of other sedimentary units 

(Chutakositkanon 1996, Table 5.2) and clearly 

distinguishes these rocks. However, averaged 

CaO content of SCC results (Krongkaew et al. 

1991) which is doubtfully higher than 16%, may 

be caused by the presence of calcite veins and 

veinlets in their samples. The southward to 

southwestward dipping, organic-rich, very finely 

grained clastic/carbonate rock unit overlies the 

fossiliferous carbonate rock of the Khao Pun Nua 

Member and underlies the youngest Khao Pun Tai 

Member with the abrupt or intercalated contacts. 

Subsurface study reveals that several sedimentary 

structures noticed in core-samples, such as normal 

graded-bedding (Fig. 3 g), cross-lamination, and 

scouring and flame structures, prove the normal or 

right-side-up sequence. Although we do not have 

enough chronological data for this member, it may


be placed as late Middle Permian, based on the 

stratigraphical relationships between overlying 

and underlying members. 

Khao Pun Tai Member 

The 830-meter-thick Khao Pun Tai Member, the 

thickest and youngest unit, is clearly distinguished 

from the other members by its light gray color and 

aphanitic texture. The term ‘lithographic limestone’ 

is used in field investigations for this dense, 

homogeneous and very fine-textured limestone. 

Although the limestone appears to be micrite in 

hand specimens, under the polarizing microscope 

these micrite crystals are observed to be microsparry 

calcite with average grain size of ~6 mm, 

following Ehlers & Blatt (1982), contrasting with 

typical micrite (1–4 mm) and typical microsparry 

calcite (5–15 mm). From this viewpoint, it is possible 

to classify the limestone in this unit as microsparite 

and dismicrosparite or mudstone, with rare wackestone. 

No dolomite has been recognized in the 

stained slab surfaces. This is consistent with the 

results from XRF analysis with average MgO contents 

at 0.53%. A very steep, southwesterly inclining 

unit overlies the conformable Khao Pun Klang 

Member with abrupt contact and abnormally 

underlying the older Rong Ngan Kaeng Khoi 

Member with thrust-fault contact. 

A highly weathered shale unit was observed to 

the north, near the study area. The observed 510- 

meter-thick mudstone unit predominantly consists 

of greenish-gray to yellowish-gray slaty shale or 

shale, rarely interbedded with argillaceous limestone. 

Its bedding planes were mostly inclined to 

the south and conformed with the other units 

in the present study area. Hinthong et al. (1985) 

mapped the rock unit in the north of the present 

study area as the Khao Khad Formation; however, 

we believe this unit could be re-mapped as the 

Pang Asok Formation of Hinthong et al. (1985) 

because of its similar lithology and overall thickness. 

We do not have sufficient paleontological data 

from this member. However, lithological features 

of this member may be correlated with those of the 

Facies 6 by Dawson & Racey (1993). Therefore, the 

age of this member is inferred as late Middle to 

early Late Permian. 

IGNEOUS ROCKS 

Igneous rocks in the present study area consist 

entirely of dark-green to greenish-gray hypabyssal 

rocks forming minor intrusions, such as dikes 

and sills. Geochemical results (Chutakositkanon 

1996) reveal that the rocks are of basaltic-andesitic 

to andesitic composition. The 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating 

(Charusiri et al. 1999a) for hypabyssal dikes in this 

study area and nearby volcanics indicates the age 

is Jurassic, probably indicating the younger phase 

of more widely exposed Permo-Triassic plutonics 

(Phra Ngam Diorite) and volcanics (Khao Yai Volcanics). 

Petrographic investigation (Fig. 3 h) of the 

hypabyssal rocks reveals that the rocks consist 

mainly of relatively large-sized alkali feldspar, 

amphibole and brown biotite phenocrysts (up to 

2 cm) and a groundmass of plagioclase prism 

and quartz. Lath-shaped groundmass plagioclases 

exhibit a well-defined trachytic texture, possibly 

suggesting that the rocks formed at a shallow 

depth. 

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES 

Generally, the bedding planes are very steep to 

moderate (40°–70°) and inclined towards SW to 

SSW directions with E to ESE trends. Subsurface 

studies indicate that several sedimentary structures 

noticed in core samples from the Khao Pun 

Klang Member, such as normal-graded beddings, 

cross-laminations, scourings and flame structures, 

prove the normal or right-side-up sequence in the 

Khao Pun area (Chutakositkanon 1996), not the 

up-side-down sequence. These intermittently conformable 

sedimentary sequences may belong to 

the southern flank of ‘a large gently westward 

plunging antiformal anticline’ whose core lies 

somewhere further north of this study area, following 

the idea of Abele & Beeser (1963). However, 

we cannot prove the anticlinorium proposed by 

Hinthong (1981) and Pothong (1986). 

The NNW-trending thrust fault is observed in 

the southwestern part of the study area; whereas, 

the NE- to ENE-trending strike-slip faults are 

determined in the center, with the opposite sense 

of movement (Fig. 1c). 

DISCUSSION ON TECTONIC EVOLUTION 

AND PALEOENVIRONMENTS 

In tectonic terms, the Khao Pun area (Saraburi 

Province) is situated in the westernmost part of 

the Indochina microcontinent (Bunopas 1981, 

1992; Pothong 1986; Bunopas & Vella 1992; 

Charusiri et al. 1999b).


After the Hercynian Orogeny (Middle Carboniferous), 

intermittent marine deposition took 

place in this region. According to Abele & Beeser 

(1963), Tittirananda (1976) and Wielchowsky & 

Young (1985), the sedimentation occurred in a 

shallow marine or shelf sea/platform environment 

in the Permian period. Recently, Dawson & Racey 

(1993) have proposed that the Permian limestone 

of Central Thailand is a supratidal sequence to 

outer platform biofacies and consists of a Lower 

and an upper Middle Permain transgressive/ 

regressive carbonate platform sequence. Paleoenvironmentally, 

their interpretation is appropriate 

for the more regional area than the limited 

Khao Pun area. Essentially, the depositional 

environment in this area must be analyzed by 

applying the marine carbonate depositional 

models of Irwin (1965), Tucker (1981) and Selley 

(1985). 

In this discussion, we explain the evolution of 

the study area and areas nearby by dividing it into 

six stages. A depositional model for the development 

of the Khao Pun area during the Early to 

Late Permian time is shown (Fig. 5). 

THE FIRST STAGE 

In the first stage, we grouped rocks occurring in 

the Khao Pun area and areas nearby that were 

deposited in a relatively stable condition of a presumably 

and temporarily inactive margin during 

Early Middle Permian. 

The limestones of the Phu Phe and, presumably, 

the Khao Khwang Formations are dominantly 

gray-fossiliferous wackestone or biomicrite to 

biomicrosparite with fusulinids and bivalve shells 

indicating Early Permian. Although the Phu Phe 

Formation of the study area indicates the sheltered 

shallow or lagoonal environment, the occurrence 

of limestone-bedded chert alternation in 

the upper part of the Khao Khwang Formation, as 

defined by Hinthong (1981), probably indicates the 

deeper environment. Geochemical data (high 

values of CaO and LOI, and very low values of 

SiO 2 , Na 2 O and K 2 O) as well as the occurrence of 

micrite or microsparite matrix and recrystallized 

carbonate allochems of the Phu Phe Formation in 

the study area, indicate that no detrital or landderived 

minerals, such as quartz, feldspar or clay 

Fig. 5 Model of depositional environment of the Khao Pun Area during Permian Period. Stage 1, Phu Phe Formation; Early Stage 2, Khao Sung Nua 

Member; Late Stage 2, Khao Sung Klang Member; Stage 3, Khao Sung Tai Member; Stage 4, Khao Pun Nua Member; Stage 5, Khao Pun Klang Member; 

Stage 6, Khao Pun Tai Member. CCD, Carbonate compensation depth.


minerals, are involved in this carbonate diagenesis, 

possibly due to the very low relief landmass or, 

in other words, the landmass providing terrigeneous 

sediments was located far apart at this 

stage. 

Towards the late stage, the deposition recognized 

by the interbedded limestone-shale of the 

Nong Pong Formation (Hinthong 1981) and the 

shale-dominated sequence of the Pang Asok Formation 

(Hinthong 1981) still occurs in restricted 

marine areas or a lagoon, but it was supported by 

very finely grained clastic sediments and organic 

matter during Middle Permian. 

THE SECOND STAGE 

This stage, characterized by the development of 

the interbedded chert-argillaceous limestone lithofacies 

of the Khao Sung Nua Member, had the 

depositional condition during Middle Permian of 

an open-sea or outer-shelf environment with sedimentation 

below wavebase and away from bottom 

currents. The fine-grained size indicates deposition 

in quite a low-energy marine environment, 

while the rarity of fauna and the absence of 

benthonic algae imply that the floor was below the 

limits of the photic zone. The lithological and paleontological 

backgrounds indicate that the depositional 

basin may have been deeper than that of 

the first stage, as evidenced by the occurrence of 

bedded chert and the preservation of spherical 

radiolarians. Chert associated with micrite limestone 

indicates that deposition occurred at depths 

of perhaps 200–1000 m (Boggs 1995). 

At the end of this stage, the sedimentary basin 

was shallower and locally evinced by the carbonate 

build up of the Khao Sung Klang Member, 

which is indicative of the shallow high-energy 

marine environment of migrating shoals and 

banks. The observed fossils, such as both sessile 

benthos and encrusting colonial organisms (including 

crinoids, calcareous algae, bryozoans and rare 

corals), of this carbonate are ecologically zoned 

with respect to the barrier or reef mounds. 

THE THIRD STAGE 

Lithologically and paleontologically, the third 

stage is distinguished by deep marine deposits of 

laminated radiolarian chert with some porcellanite 

and ironstone. Radiolarians, siliceous pelagic 

organisms, have been thought traditionally to 

accumulate in sediments on the deep ocean floor 

and to be originally amorphous opaline silica 

(Tucker 1981). The radiolarians in the Khao Sung 

Tai Member were converted to opal-CT as indicated 

by X-ray diffraction method (XRD) analysis 

(Chutakositkanon 1996), also called disordered 

cristobalite, alpha-cristobalite or lussatite (Jones 

& Segnit 1971), showing low first-order interference 

colors in crossed polars. Opaline silica is 

metastable and then decreases in abundance back 

through time and is absent from Paleozoic cherts 

(Tucker 1981). Although the data are limited, we 

suggest that this stage occurred during middle 

Middle to early Late Permian, based on the radiolarian 

species, Follicucullus sp. 

By analogy with modern siliceous oozes (Tucker 

1981; Selley 1985), radiolarian-rich cherts of the 

third stage are interpreted as deep water in an 

abyssal area where depths exceed the carbonate 

compensation depth (CCD), ~ 4.5 km (Garrison & 

Fischer 1969; Tucker 1981). With regard to the 

presence of radiolarian chert in the third stage, the 

present study may be the first that evince the open 

ocean and pelagic or abyssal environment below 

the CCD, far from continental influence in middle 

Middle to early Late Permian in the southern 

end of the Phetchabun–Saraburi trend, because 

several authors believe that the Permian limestone 

in this region is merely a sequence of supratidal 

to outer platform of shelf deposits. According to 

Helmcke & Kraikhong (1982), Helmcke & Lindenberg 

(1983), Winkel et al. (1983), Helmcke et al. 

(1985) and Wielchowsky & Young (1985), the existence 

of deep-marine depositional environments 

was also reported in Phethcabun, further to the 

north of the study area during Early Permian to 

late Middle Permian. Their studies give us a paleo- 

Phetchabun-Saraburi Tethys trend during the 

Permian, with slight facies changes from north to 

south, ranging from Early Permian to late Middle 

Permian in the northern part, to middle Middle to 

early Late Permian in its southern end. 

In addition to the paleomagnetic result of 

Bunopas & Vella (1983, 1992) for the Permian 

rocks of Shan-Thai Terrane, the mean paleolatitude 

for the Permian is between 0° S and 10° S. 

Unfortunately, there are no paleomagnetic data 

from the Paleozoic rocks of Indochina in their 

studies. Paleontologically radiolarian oozes at 

present occur in the equatorial region of the Pacific 

and Indian Oceans where the depth surpasses 

the CCD (Tucker 1981; Selley 1985). This might 

be the evidence which indicates that the paleoposition 

of the Indochina microcontinent during the 

third stage in the Permian moved to low latitudes, 

presumably in the paleoequatorial zone at that


time, which overlapped the present equatorial 

zone. 

THE FOURTH STAGE 

In the fourth stage, the depositional environment 

was thought to be a barrier during late Middle 

Permian, following the complex carbonate shelf 

model of Selley (1985). Generally, this stage is recognized 

in the Khao Pun Nua Member. The presence 

of skeletal floatstone, rudstone, grainstone 

and wackestone, is paleoecologically interpreted 

to represent non-reef bioherm or mound-like 

accumulation. The recognized fossils (both sessile 

benthos and encrusting colonial organisms, including 

crinoids, calcareous algae, bryozoans, and rare 

fusulinids and small foraminifers) are skeletal or 

fragmental debris. Although true corals in this 

member are relatively rare, similarly to the 

Permian reefs of West Texas (Selley 1985), these 

fossils still indicate that the depositional environment 

of the fourth stage must be barrier reef or 

skeletal mound (migrating shoals and banks). 

With regard to the subsurface lithostratigraphy 

of the Khao Pun Nua Member, the latest of the 

fourth stage is characterized by the transition or 

intercalation of reddish-brown calcareous shale 

and argillaceous limestone/black shale at the upper 

part of the Khao Pun Nua Member. Its character 

presumably indicates transgression/regression. 

During transgression, the carbonate and finegrained 

clastic sedimentation on the barrier was 

accompanied by anaerobic-starved conditions. This 

transgression alternated with a regressive drop 

in sea level, and the barrier was temporarily and 

intermittently subaerially exposed and cemented 

by the oxidizing condition. 

THE FIFTH STAGE 

The fifth stage is marked by the sequence of the 

late Middle Permian mudstone of the Khao Pun 

Klang Member. This black shale is devoid of fossils 

and, with the disseminated pyrite grains and 

framboids, may indicate an oxygen deficiency. The 

organic matter may be preserved at depth, but 

the surface sediments could still support benthic 

epifauna; where there are anoxic conditions on the 

seafloor, there is invariably plentiful H 2 S in the 

water and benthic organisms are absent. Both 

lithological and paleontological lines of evidence 

for the Khao Pun Klang sequence strongly point 

to the depositional environment of limited circulation 

and anaerobic conditions in the restricted 

marine or lagoon with sedimentation below effective 

wave base, cut off from the open sea by the 

bars of skeletal limestones of the Khao Pun Nua 

Member. 

THE SIXTH STAGE 

Towards the sixth stage during late Middle to 

early Late Permian time, the depositional environment 

was rather quiet and conditions were 

stable. The last stage is distinguished by the homogeneous 

and light-colored limestone of the Khao 

Pun Tai Member and the shale-dominated succession 

of the Sap Bon Formation (Hinthong 1981). 

The Khao Pun Tai Member is composed entirely 

of fine-grained microsparry calcite (average 6 mm) 

with a minority of sparry calcite cement in fenestral 

pores that parallel the bedding plane. From 

this viewpoint, the Khao Pun Tai Member is likely 

to deposit from the tidal flat to the sheltered 

lagoon where there are no land-derived sediments 

with oxidizing conditions on the passive margin. 

When comparing the paleoenvironments of the 

fourth to sixth stages with the carbonate shelf 

model of Selley (1985), the major regression from 

the barrier of the fourth stage to the fifth stage is 

characterized by movement from a lagoon with 

limited circulation and anaerobic conditions on the 

tidal flat to the sheltered lagoon of the sixth stage. 

Although, with little evidence and less clarity 

in the northern extension in southern Yunan 

(Charusiri et al. 1999b), it must be emphasized that 

the Permian sequences of central Thailand are 

similar to those of Loei (Charusiri et al. 1998) and 

Pichit-Phetchabun (T. Nuchanong, pers. comm., 

1998). Charusiri et al. (1998) considered that the 

Loei Permian sequences are atoll-like carbonate 

buildups associated with bedded cherts and a 

scarcity of marine clastics deposited onto the 

Carboniferous Paleotethyan basaltic ocean-floor 

(Intasopa 1993) in Loei, and with tuffs in Pichit 

(T. Nuchanong, pers. comm., 1990) intervening in 

Shan-Thai and Indochina. This stable (or passive) 

ocean floor subsequently collided with the 

westernmost part of Indochina where its Upper 

Paleozoic strata are characterized by the silicic 

shelf-dominated sequences of continental margin 

(Wielchowsky & Young 1985). All the Khao Pun 

carbonates are, therefore, tectonically regarded 

as unlikely to represent the carbonate-shelf sediments 

deposited immediately at the continental 

margin, as previously thought. In addition, based 

on the airborne geophysical interpretation by 

Tulyatid & Charusiri (1999), carbonates of the


Saraburi Group are surrounded by a high magnetic 

anomaly. Tulyatid & Charusiri (1999) interpreted 

this to indicate the occurrence of the 

paleo-ocean floor prior to the Permian times. 

Therefore, we consider that the Permian carbonates 

may have been deposited on the ocean 

floor. 

After the Permian, or during the Permo-Triassic 

periods of marine sedimentation, the place grew 

the venue of the folding/faulting. Because the 

Indosinian Orogeny was generally sited in this 

region, it was thought to be the one dominant, 

significant structural feature. The Indosinian 

Orogeny that took place between Triassic to Early 

Jurassic (Workman 1975; Charusiri 1989) brought 

about the plate interaction and collision between 

Indochina to the east and the Shan-Thai to the 

west and, hence, finished the marine deposition in 

now-mainland Thailand (Bunopas & Vella 1983, 

1992). The thrusting nature in the area may indicate 

the compressional tectonics. In accordance 

with the paleomagnetic (Bunopas 1981) and dating 

(Charusiri 1989) data, the Indosinian Orogeny and 

the collision of both microcontinents developed in 

the Early Mesozoic era. The Permian carbonate 

rocks in the study area were crosscut by the 

andesitic dyke; the hornblende from this dyke 

yielded the 

40 Ar/ 39 Ar date at Early Jurassic 

(Charusiri et al. 1999a). In addition to the north of 

the study area, the andesite volcanics in the Lam 

Narai area, Lopburi, were dated by Charusiri 

et al. (1999a), using the same method, to be Early 

Jurassic. Petrochemical investigation (Charusiri 

et al. 1999a) reveals that these volcanics have 

magmatic arc-affinity. Therefore, with regard to 

the dating results and petrogenetic investigation, 

we infer that the occurrence of these volcanics are 

indicative of the recurrence of E-dipping oceanic 

subduction beneath the Indochina block (Fig. 6). 

Additional evidence of such tectonic setting is supported 

by K–Ar dating results of volcanic rocks in 

Lao PDR, further to the north, as noted by Stokes 

et al. (1996). If such a scenario is correct, there 

must be a paleo-ocean floor in-between the Shan- 

Thai block to the west and the Indochina block to 

the east, the so-called ‘Nakhon Thai block’, as mentioned 

by Charusiri et al. (1999b). Consequently, 

the oceanic slab may have existed along the suture 

zone of the Indochina and the Nakhon Thai block, 

and may have rejuvenated during Early Jurassic 

period. 

From Jurassic to Cretaceous (Charusiri 1989) or 

Early Tertiary period, a shear tectonism took 

place with the occurrence of sinistral and dextral 

Fig. 6 Simplified tectonic model for the development of the Khao Pun 

Area, (a) Carboniferous-Permian; (b) Triassic-Early Jurassic. 1, Permian 

atoll-like carbonate–buildup in association with bedded cherts deposited 

onto the Carboniferous Paleotethyan basaltic ocean-floor in Loei 

(Charusiri et al. 1998); 2, Age of volcanics and plutonics of the Khao Yai 

Volcanics and Phra Ngam Diorite (Hinthong 1981; Hinthong et al. 1985); 

3, The 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating (Charusiri et al. 1999a) for hypabyssal dikes in the 

Khao Pun Area and nearby volcanics. 

offset faults. Charusiri (1989) noted that the sinistral 

offset along the Mae Ping Fault occurred as a 

result of the collision (compression tectonics) 

between the Shan-Thai and Western Burma microcontinents 

at the end of the Cretaceous period. 

The NE–SW structural trend in this area could 

have resulted from the Mae Ping Fault drag. The 

alternative definitions for the NW structural 

trending here are not plausible, because there are 

insufficient data collected in this small area. 

After the Mesozoic era, the last orogenic episode 

took place, that is, the 45–50 Ma Himalayan 

Orogeny (India–Asia collision). The significant 

deformation associated with the development of 

the tensional tectonic regime resulted in the 

normal faulting in the study area. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The results obtained from new data of lithostratigraphy, 

lithology, sedimentology, paleontology 

and geochemistry, are used to interpret the paleoenvironments 

and associated tectonic settings of


the Khao Pun area. During the Permian period, 

the evolution of the marine sedimentation which 

took place in the western margin of the Indochina 

microcontinent can be divided into six stages. 

Regarding the character of the oldest formation, 

the Khao Pun area was under the relatively and 

temporarily stable conditions of an inactive margin 

with sheltered shallow or lagoonal environment in 

the first stage. The second stage, distinguished 

by chert and argillaceous limestone interbeds, 

indicates the deposition in a low-energy marine 

environment such as an open sea or outer shelf 

with sedimentation below wavebase and away 

from bottom currents on the Indochina microcontinental 

margin. Towards the end of this stage, the 

depositional basin was locally shown by the carbonate 

build up and signified the shallow highenergy 

marine environment of the barrier. By 

analogy with modern siliceous oozes, radiolarian 

chert in the member of the third stage is interpreted 

to represent an abyssal area where depths 

exceed the CCD. This might have guided the paleoposition 

of the microcontinent during the third 

stage and was moved to low latitudes, possibly in 

the paleoequatorial zone. 

In the fourth stage, the depositional environment 

was generally thought to be a barrier or 

skeletal mound with transgressive/regressive 

changes by lithological and paleontological characters. 

The fifth stage is recorded by the black mudstone 

with sporadically disseminated pyrite grains 

and framboids in texture. Both lithological and 

paleontological lines of evidence for the sequence 

in this stage disclose the depositional environment 

of limited circulation and anoxic conditions in the 

restricted marine environment of the microcontinental 

margin. During the last stage, the paleoenvironment 

of the Indochina microcontinent was 

in the quiet and stable condition of a temporarily 

inactive margin, and was distinguished by very 

light-colored, homogeneous and very fine-grained 

limestone. Its depositional environment might be 

interpreted as tidal flat to sheltered lagoon uninfluenced 

by land-derived sediments. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Grateful and sincere acknowledgements are 

extended to the Thailand Research Fund and Siam 

Cement Public Company Ltd for the kind financial 

support and geochemical analysis, with special 

thanks to the Kaeng Khoi Factory, Saraburi 

Province, for support in labor and convenience 

during the field investigations. Assistance in the 

field by Mr Suvapak Imsamut (Geologic Survey 

Division, Department of Mineral Resources) is 

greatly acknowledged. The authors express their 

gratitude to Mr Sone Bhongaraya (graduate 

student in Geology, Chulalongkorn University), 

who made time available to help us. Furthermore, 

thanks are extended to the Department of 

Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University 

for some instrumental support in the 

course of the study. 

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